The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a conceptual framework that divides network

communications functions into seven layers. Sending data over a network is complex because various
hardware and software technologies must work cohesively across geographical and political boundaries.It is a
7-layer architecture with each layer having specific functionality to perform. All these 7 layers work
collaboratively to transmit the data from one person to another across the globe.
OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes how information from
a software application in one computer moves through a physical medium to the software application in
another computer.
It is divided into seven layers that work together to carry out specialised network functions, allowing for a
more systematic approach to networking.

Physical Layer – Layer 1

The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical
layer. It is responsible for the actual physical connection
between the devices. The physical layer contains information
in the form of bits. It is responsible for transmitting individual
bits from one node to the next. When receiving data, this
layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s
and send them to the Data Link layer, which will put the
frame back together.

Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the

synchronization of the bits by providing a clock. This clock
controls both sender and receiver thus providing
synchronization at the bit level.

Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number of bits sent per second.
Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different, devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e.
bus, star, or mesh topology.
Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows between the two connected devices. The
various transmission modes possible are Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.
Note:
Hub, Repeater, Modem, and Cables are Physical Layer devices.
Network Layer, Data Link Layer, and Physical Layer are also known as Lower Layers or Hardware Layers.
Data Link Layer
The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message. The main function of this layer
is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one node to another, over the physical layer. When a packet
arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of the DLL to transmit it to the Host using its MAC address.
The Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:
Logical Link Control (LLC)2>Media Access Control (MAC)
The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames depending on the frame size of the
NIC(Network Interface Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address in the header.
The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP(Address Resolution Protocol) request onto the wire
asking “Who has that IP address?” and the destination host will reply with its MAC address.
Functions of the Data Link Layer.
Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for
a sender to transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This
can be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns to the beginning
and end of the framePhysical addressing: After creating frames, the Data
link layer adds physical addresses (MAC addresses) of the sender and/or
receiver in the header of each frame.
Error control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error control
in which it detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data
may get corrupted thus, flow control coordinates the amount of data that
can be sent before receiving an acknowledgment.
Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by
multiple devices, the MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to
determine which device has control over the channel at a given time.
Network Layer – Layer 3
The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in different networks.
It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet, from the number
of routes available. The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network layer.
Functions of the Network Layer
Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to destination. This
function of the network layer is known as routing.
Logical Addressing: To identify each device on Internetwork uniquely, the network layer defines an addressing
scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network layer. Such an address
distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.
Note:
Segment in the Network layer is referred to as Packet.
Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers and switches.
Transport Layer – Layer 4
The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services from the network layer. The
data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for the end-to-end delivery of the
complete message. The transport layer also provides the acknowledgment of the successful data transmission
and re-transmits the data if an error is found.
At the sender’s side: The transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper layers,
performs Segmentation, and also implements Flow and error control to ensure proper data transmission. It
also adds Source and Destination port numbers in its header and forwards the segmented data to the Network
Layer.
The sender needs to know the port number associated with the receiver’s application.
Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default or manually. For example, when a web
application requests a web server, it typically uses port number 80, because this is the default port assigned to
web applications. Many applications have default ports assigned.
At the receiver’s side: Transport Layer reads the port number from its header and forwards the Data which it
has received to the respective application. It also performs sequencing and reassembling of the segmented
data.

Session Layer – Layer 5

This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions, and authentication, and
also ensures security.
Functions of the Session Layer
Session establishment, maintenance, and termination: The layer allows the two processes to establish, use,
and terminate a connection.
Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that are considered synchronization points in
the data. These synchronization points help to identify the error so that the data is re-synchronized properly,
and ends of the messages are not cut prematurely and data loss is avoided.
Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start communication with each other in half-duplex
or full-duplex.
Note:
All the below 3 layers(including Session Layer) are integrated as a single layer in the TCP/IP model as
the ????pplication Layer”.
Implementation of these 3 layers is done by the network application itself. These are also known as Upper
Layers or Software Layers.
Device or Protocol Use : NetBIOS, PPTP.
Let us consider a scenario where a user wants to send a message through some Messenger application running
in his browser. The “Messenger” here acts as the application layer which provides the user with an interface to
create the data. This message or so-called Data is compressed, encrypted (if any secure data), and converted
into bits (0’s and 1’s) so that it can be transmitted.

Communication in Session Layer

Presentation Layer – Layer 6
The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the application layer is extracted here
and manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the network.
A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information exchanged between the two
systems.It acts as a data translator for a network.This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from
one presentation format to another format.The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer. Functions of the
Presentation Layer

Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.

Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or code. The encrypted data is
known as the ciphertext and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A key value is used for encrypting as
well as decrypting data.
Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.
Note: Device or Protocol Use: JPEG, MPEG, GIF
Application Layer – Layer 7
At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the Application layer which is implemented
by the network applications. These applications produce the data, which has to be transferred over the
network. This layer also serves as a window for the application services to access the network and for
displaying the received information to the user.
Example: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc.
Note: 1. The application Layer is also called Desktop Layer.
2. Device or Protocol Use : SMTP
Functions of the Application Layer
The main functions of the application layer are given below.
Network Virtual Terminal: It allows a user to log on to a remote host.
The application layer is used by end-user software such as web browsers and email clients. It provides protocols
that allow software to send and receive information and present meaningful data to users. A few examples of
application layer protocols are the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Post Office
Protocol (POP), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), and Domain Name System (DNS).
FTAM- File transfer access and management: This application allows a user to
access files in a remote host, retrieve files in a remote host, and manage or
control files from a remote computer.
Mail Services: Provide email service.
Directory Services: This application provides distributed database sources
and access for global information about various objects and services.
Note: OSI model acts as a reference model and is not implemented on the Internet because of its late
invention. The current model being used is the TCP/IP model.
The application layer is used by end-user software such as web browsers and email clients. It provides
protocols that allow software to send and receive information and present meaningful data to users. A few
examples of application layer protocols are the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), File Transfer Protocol (FTP),
Post Office Protocol (POP), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), and Domain Name System (DNS).

TCP/IP Model

The main work of TCP/IP is to transfer the data of a

computer from one device to another. The main
condition of this process is to make data reliable and
accurate so that the receiver will receive the same
information which is sent by the sender. To ensure
that, each message reaches its final destination
accurately, the TCP/IP model divides its data into
packets and combines them at the other end, which
helps in maintaining the accuracy of the data while
transferring from one end to another
end.TCP and IP are different protocols of Computer
Networks. The basic difference between TCP
(Transmission Control Protocol) and IP (Internet
Protocol) is in the transmission of data. In simple
words, IP finds the destination of the mail and TCP has
the work to send and receive the mail. UDP is another
protocol, which does not require IP to communicate
with another computer. IP is required by only TCP. This
is the basic difference between TCP and IP.
Whenever we want to send something over the internet using the TCP/IP Model, the TCP/IP Model divides the
data into packets at the sender’s end and the same packets have to be recombined at the receiver’s end to
form the same data, and this thing happens to maintain the accuracy of the data. TCP/IP model divides the
data into a 4-layer procedure, where the data first go into this layer in one order and again in reverse order to
get organized in the same way at the receiver’s end.Layers of TCP/IP Model
Application Layer
Transport Layer(TCP/UDP)
Network/Internet Layer(IP)
Data Link Layer (MAC)
Physical Layer
1. Physical Layer
It is a group of applications requiring network communications. This layer is responsible for generating the
data and requesting connections. It acts on behalf of the sender and the Network Access layer on the behalf of
the receiver. During this article, we will be talking on the behalf of the receiver. Its protocols include HTTP,
FTP, Post Office Protocol 3, Simple Mail Transfer Protocol and Simple Network Management Protocol. At the
application layer, the payload is the actual application data.
2. Data Link Layer
The packet’s network protocol type, in this case, TCP/IP, is identified by the data-link layer. Error prevention
and “framing” are also provided by the data-link layer. Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) framing and Ethernet
IEEE 802.2 framing are two examples of data-link layer protocols.
The transport layer is responsible for maintaining end-to-end communications across the network. TCP handles
communications between hosts and provides flow control, multiplexing and reliability. The transport protocols
include TCP and User Datagram Protocol, which is sometimes used instead of TCP for special purposes.

3. Internet Layer
This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer. It defines the protocols which are responsible for the
logical transmission of data over the entire network. The main protocols residing at this layer are as follows:
IP: IP stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering packets from the source host to the
destination host by looking at the IP addresses in the packet headers. IP has 2 versions: IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4
is the one that most websites are using currently. But IPv6 is growing as the number of IPv4 addresses is
limited in number when compared to the number of users.
ICMP: ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is encapsulated within IP datagrams and is
responsible for providing hosts with information about network problems.
ARP: ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the hardware address of a host from a
known IP address. ARP has several types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP, Gratuitous ARP, and Inverse ARP.
The Internet Layer is a layer in the Internet Protocol (IP) suite, which is the set of protocols that define the
Internet. The Internet Layer is responsible for routing packets of data from one device to another across a
network. It does this by assigning each device a unique IP address, which is used to identify the device and
determine the route that packets should take to reach it.
The network layer, also called the internet layer, deals with packets and connects independent networks to
transport the packets across network boundaries. The network layer protocols are IP and Internet Control
Message Protocol, which is used for error reporting
the Internet Layer plays a crucial role in delivering the email from your computer to your friend’s computer. It
uses IP addresses and routing tables to determine the best route for the packets to take, and it ensures that
the packets are delivered to the correct destination. Without the Internet Layer, it would not be possible to
send data across the Internet.

4. Transport Layer
The TCP/IP transport layer protocols exchange data receipt acknowledgments and retransmit missing packets
to ensure that packets arrive in order and without error. End-to-end communication is referred to as such.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol are transport layer protocols at this level
(UDP).
TCP: Applications can interact with one another using TCP as though they were physically connected by a
circuit. TCP transmits data in a way that resembles character-by-character transmission rather than separate
packets. A starting point that establishes the connection, the whole transmission in byte order, and an ending
point that closes the connection make up this transmission.
UDP: The datagram delivery service is provided by UDP, the other transport layer protocol. Connections
between receiving and sending hosts are not verified by UDP. Applications that transport little amounts of data
use UDP rather than TCP because it eliminates the processes of establishing and validating connections.

5. Application Layer
This layer is analogous to the transport layer of the OSI model. It is responsible for end-to-end communication
and error-free delivery of data. It shields the upper-layer applications from the complexities of data. The three
main protocols present in this layer are:
HTTP and HTTPS: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. It is used by the World Wide Web to manage
communications between web browsers and servers. HTTPS stands for HTTP-Secure. It is a combination of
HTTP with SSL(Secure Socket Layer). It is efficient in cases where the browser needs to fill out forms, sign in,
authenticate, and carry out bank transactions.
SSH: SSH stands for Secure Shell. It is a terminal emulations software similar to Telnet. The reason SSH is
preferred is because of its ability to maintain the encrypted connection. It sets up a secure session over a
TCP/IP connection.
NTP: NTP stands for Network Time Protocol. It is used to synchronize the clocks on our computer to one
standard time source. It is very useful in situations like bank transactions. Assume the following situation
without the presence of NTP. Suppose you carry out a transaction, where your computer reads the time at
2:30 PM while the server records it at 2:28 PM. The server can crash very badly if it’s out of sync.

Data Communication
is defined as exchange of data between two devices via some form of transmission media such as a cable, wire
or it can be air or vacuum also. For occurrence of data communication, communicating devices must be a part
of communication system made up of a combination of hardware or software devices and programs. Data
Communication System Components : There are mainly five components of a data communication system:
1. Message2. Sender3. Receiver4. Transmission Medium5. Set of rules (Protocol) below
Figure – Components of Data Communication
System
Message : This is most useful asset of a data
communication system. The message simply refers
to data or piece of information which is to be
communicated. A message could be in any form, it
may be in form of a text file, an audio file, a video
file, etc.

All above mentioned elements are described :

Sender : To transfer message from source to destination, someone must be there who will play role of a
source. Sender plays part of a source in data communication system. It is simple a device that sends data
message. The device could be in form of a computer, mobile, telephone, laptop, video camera, or a
workstation, etc.

Receiver : It is destination where finally message sent by source has arrived. It is a device that receives
message. Same as sender, receiver can also be in form of a computer, telephone mobile, workstation, etc.

Transmission Medium : In entire process of data communication, there must be something which could act as
a bridge between sender and receiver, Transmission medium plays that part. It is physical path by which data
or message travels from sender to receiver. Transmission medium could be guided (with wires) or unguided
(without wires), for example, twisted pair cable, fiber optic cable, radio waves, microwaves, etc.
Set of rules (Protocol) : To govern data communications, various sets of rules had been already designed by
the designers of the communication systems, which represent a kind of agreement between communicating
devices. These are defined as protocol. In simple terms, the protocol is a set of rules that govern data
communication. If two different devices are connected but there is no protocol among them, there would not
be any kind of communication between those two devices. Thus the protocol is necessary for data
communication to take place.
data communication is communication in which we can send or receive data from one device to another. The
data communication is divided into three types:
Simplex Communication: It is one-way communication or we can say that unidirectional communication in
which one device only receives and another device only sends data and devices uses their entire capacity in
transmission. For example, IoT, entering data using a keyboard, listing music using a speaker, etc.
Half Duplex communication: It is a two-way communication, or we can say that it is a bidirectional
communication in which both the devices can send and receive data but not at the same time. When one
device is sending data then another device is only receiving and vice-versa. For example, walkie-talkie.
Full-duplex communication: It is a two-way communication or we can say that it is a bidirectional
communication in which both the devices can send and receive data at the same time. For example, mobile
phones, landlines, etc.
Types of computer networks: LAN, MAN, WAN
Computer Network is the interconnection between multiple devices. Computer Network allows to send and receiv
information between different connected devices. Different devices in a network are connected through links.
Refer to the below image to visualize the computer network

Types of Computer Networks

Based on the size of the network, ownership, and distance
covered by the network, there are three types of computer
networks
Local Area Network (LAN)
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
Wide area network (WAN)
Refer to the below image to show the types of computer
networks

LAN (Local Area Network)

A Local Area Network (LAN) is a group of connected devices
that are in a limited area such as a school, office, building, or
home. It is a network mostly used for sharing hardware
resources such as printers, files, scanners, etc. If we talk
about the simplest LAN network then we will consider a
computer and a printer connected in a home as the simplest
network. The data transmission speed of the LAN is up to 10
Mbps.Data transmits at a very fast rate as the number of
computers linked is limited. By definition, the connections
must be high-speed and relatively inexpensive hardware (Such
as hubs, network adapters, and Ethernet cables). LANs cover a
smaller geographical area (Size is limited to a few kilometres)
and are privately owned. One can use it for an office building,
home, hospital, school, etc.

LAN is easy to design and maintain. A Communication medium used for LAN has twisted-pair cables and coaxia
a short distance, and so the error and noise are minimized.
Refer to the below image to show LAN

There are two types of LAN:

Wired LAN– In this type of LAN, wired cables such as
twisted pair or coaxial cables are used for the connection
and transmission of data.
Wireless LAN– In this type of LAN, devices are connected
by wireless cables such as radio, and light waves.
Refer to the below image to show the types of LAN

LAN is a type of network owned by the private

owner
LAN can be used to connect printers, personal
computers, etc.
LAN Networks can be designed very easily.
Troubleshooting of LAN networks is easy.
Data transfer rate of the LAN network is about
10 Gbits/s.
It is a network which is limited to the local
area.
LAN operates relatively faster than the WAN
network.

Advantages
LAN allows sharing of computer hardware like printers, scanners, etc. which may reduce the cost of buying expe
hardware.
LAN permits to share of a single internet facility among the devices connected to LAN.
LAN provides high security and fault tolerance capability.
It allows the transmission of data between people and devices at a high transmission rate.
Disadvantages
LAN reduces the cost by allowing sharing of computer hardware, but the initial installation cost of LAN is very hig
Technical and skilled manpower is required for the configuration and installation of the LAN network.
Due to the sharing of computer resources among the devices, sometimes the operation speed of the network ma
MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
A Metropolitan Area Network or MAN is a network connecting devices across an entire town, entire city, or any o
This is a network larger than LAN but smaller than the WAN. WAN stands for Wide Area Network which is used to
geographically such as across the country or continent. MAN network works between LAN and WAN. MAN can be
multiple LAN networks. When one LAN uses modems, direct digit devices, and any other media types to connect
then it covers a large area which is considered a Metropolitan Area Network (MAN). MAN has a range of 5-50km
Refer to the below image to show the MAN

Characteristics
MAN is a larger network in comparison to LAN.
MAN network generally covers the towns and cities in
a maximum of 50 km range
MAN is the most used medium in cables and optical
fibers.
Advantages
MAN network connects all the branches of the
company that exist in the same city.
Dual Bus in MAN networks permits bidirectional data
transfer concurrently.
MAN network is considered economical as it allows
the sharing of resources among all the branches of
the company which are in the city.

Disadvantages
It becomes difficult to protect MAN networks from hackers because MAN connects the devices within a city or tow
You are required a large number of cables for establishing a connection using the MAN network.
The installation cost of the MAN network is very high in comparison to LAN.
WAN (Wide Area Network)
WAN stands for Wide Area Network is a type of computer network which can cover a large geographical area suc
or a country. The size of the WAN network is larger than the LAN and MAN network. When the size of the networ
than the MAN then it is considered a WAN. Usually, telecommunication networks are considered a Wide Area Net
Network could be an interconnection between two or more LANs that are connected through telephone lines or ra
Refer to the below image to show the WAN

Characteristics
WAN is used to cover a large geographical area, like a coun
WAN can be used to connect within the world and around t
Any office and organization can use WAN to form its
network.

Advantages
WAN allows covering a large geographical area.
Offices situated at longer distances from each other can easily communicate through WAN.
Allows connecting devices like mobile phones, laptops, tablets, etc.

Disadvantages
There are more chances of error and issues because of the use of more technologies and wide coverage.
Provides less security in comparison to other types of networks.
The initial and configuration cost of WAN is very high.
Skilled technicians and network administrators are required for the setup of this network.