UNIT CHILDREN’S LITRATURE: CONCEPT DEFINITION AND

CHARACTERISTICS

 Introduction (write the introduction for the unit)

 Definition of Literature

To understand the definition of children’s literature very well, we need to first understand the
concept literature. What then is literature? In this section, we will conceive the concept as (Stecker,
1996; Fialho, 2019)
- the total of preserved writings belonging to a given language or people. It is the class or
the total of writings, of a given country or period, is which notable for literary form or
expression, as distinguished, on the one hand, from works merely of technical or erudite
and, on the other, from journalistic or other ephemeral writing.
- consisting of those writings which interpret the meanings of nature and life, in words of
attraction and power, crafted with the personality of the author, in artistic forms of
permanent interests. It is a product of life and about life, which uses language as medium
- We have imaginative literature or literature of power, which includes poems, short stories,
novels, and plays. It interprets human experience by presenting fictitious persons,
incidents, or situations, not by actual truths about particular events (fiction)
- We also have non-fiction or literature of knowledge, which includes biographies and essays
which presents actual facts, events, experiences and ideas.
 Qualities of literature
A good literary work has the following qualities:
- It uses particular language quite different from any writing, e.g. technical writing.
- It is for all times and everlasting.
- It is a source of knowledge.
- It has a creator.
- It directs and reflects human life and society.
- It expresses an identity or thoughts of an individual or nation.
- It is an anxiety of an individual, a group, a society, a community or a nation.
 - It is basically meant for entertainment or for pleasure and also imparts knowledge –
preference changing over the years.
- It has particular reason behind its creation.
- It has no limit to the subject.
- It is most effective means of expressing emotions and feelings.
- It is significant art expressing truth and anxiety.
- It is a kind of revelation.
- It is marked by special kind of tests – universal and personal styles.

 Importance of Literature
Literature is a timeless piece of entertainment. As the innovations of technological advancements
have grown in the 21st Century, the way we read has revolutionized and evolved. However, the
essence of literature and the effect it has on our lives has not changed. Literature reflects human
nature and a way we can learn and relate to others. By reading through a person’s perspective, we
can fully immerse ourselves into a different mindset and figure out how others think and feel. This
is important within today’s society as we are becoming increasingly detached from human
interaction through iPhones and social media. Literature is something that will never change in the
way it makes readers feel, regardless of whether it is on paper or as an eBook. Literature allows
learners look back in time and learn about life and have a better understanding of culture and have
a greater appreciation of them. The following are some basic benefits or importance of literature
in general:
- It provides a language model for learners. Through literature, students learn new words,
syntax and discourse functions and they learn correct sentence patterns, standard story
structures
- It helps develop the writing skills of learners
- It improves learners’ communication skills. (it is the easiest way to improve vocabulary,
writing, reading, and speaking skills of learners).
- It teaches learners about themselves.
- It teaches about the past.
- Literature cultivates wisdom and a worldview, develops cognitive skills of learners.
- It entertains.
 - It has purpose and impact on society.
- It is a better way to understand each other and others; enables readers to see the world
through the eyes of others (It helps readers to set aside their personal perspectives to see
life through the eyes of someone who is of another age, class, or race; helps with
appreciation for other cultures and beliefs).
- It sparks empathy and understanding (reading a book is one of the best ways to fully
immerse your mind into another person’s experiences. Being able to empathize and
understand other people’s feelings is a key aspect of helping the reader to connect to
different regions, races, societies, and periods of time. They help a person take a closer
look at the different facets of living aside from what they know and live which can change
perspectives).

 Definition of Children’s Literature

When we think of a children's story today, we probably think of it as entertainment, rather than as
a tool for moral instruction. The following are some definitions of children’s literature: (Lynch-
Brown & Tomlinson, 2005; Fadiman, Clifton. "Children's literature". Encyclopedia Britannica, 26
Jan. 2021, https://www.britannica.com/art/childrens-literature)
- It is sometimes defined as a collection of books written for children, read by children,
and/or written about children.
- It is defined as material written and produced for the information or entertainment of
children and young adults. It includes all non-fiction, literary and artistic genres and
physical formats.
- It is any literature that is enjoyed by children. children's literature includes books, poems,
and plays meant for children. Even though the genre is defined by its audience, children
and adults alike enjoy stories intended for children.
- It is written work that is created for children and young adults. This can include works that
are fiction or nonfiction. Children’s literature spans all genres of written work.
- It is a genre covering various works, written exclusively for children.
- Literature, including picture books, novels, nonfiction, graphic novels, and poetry written
for children.
 - It is good quality trade books for children from birth to adolescence, covering topics of
relevance and interests to children of those ages, through prose and poetry, fiction and
nonfiction
- It is literary work designed for peoples under 18 that focuses on, mostly, children
protagonists-
In a nutshell, children’s literature can be defined as the body of written works and accompanying
illustrations produced in order to entertain or instruct young people. The genre encompasses a
wide range of works, including acknowledged classics of world literature, picture books and easy-
to-read stories written exclusively for children, and fairy tales, lullabies, fables, folk songs, and
other primarily orally transmitted materials. Examples of children’s literature books with
Ghanaian or African writers include, Diron goes to nursery school by Ifeoma Onyefulu, Afia the
Ashanti Princess by Crystal Boateng and Gabriela Yancheva, Gradma comes to stay by Ifeoma
Onyefulu, The brassman’s secret and The magic goat by Meshack Asare, and South: Halo’s
journey by Sami Gyekye, Others are Adaku at Homowo festival by Amy Owusuwa Aseidu, Ananse
and the food pot by Sedina Tay, Big welcome for Uncle Ransford by Kwasi Otopah, Bobo the Kind
King Lion by Kwesi Annoh and Champion runner by Adwoa Badoe.
It must be noted that the purpose of children’s literature is to persuade, inform, entertain or a
combination of these things. As a reader, understanding the author's purpose helps you evaluate
bias and more thoroughly understand the content.

 Characteristics of Children’s Literature

Children’s literature materials have certain things which makes them unique for adult literature.
The following are some characteristics of children’s literature books:

- Have a simple idea and theme.

Children’s literature books are simple and straightforward. The books do not have
complicated plots and sub-plots (most of them). Also, they do not have unrealistic
characters or situations. Everything that happens in a children’s book (unless it is a fantasy
or fairy tale) happens in real life.
- Have real characters
The characters in children’s books seem real, even in fairy tales. These characters, like the
young readers, make mistakes and learn. The characters experience physical and emotional
growth as the story advances. Children’s literature books have characters that are children,
which includes childhood events, actions, happenings. Sometimes, there can be adults but
the main character is a child.

- Contain moral lessons.

The most important thing about children’s books is that they leave moral lessons for its
readers. Every story has a lesson to teach not only the children but also the adults who read
to them as well. These lessons are simple ones that are easy to understand. Examples are
“do not lie”, “do not cheat”, or do not fight with your siblings”. Although children’s books
have an “a-ha!” element to them, their stories are not predictable. The stories can get the
young readers thinking and analyzing the situation.

- Have big or readable text and attractive illustrations.

Children are visual readers, especially the younger ones. They depend a lot on images even
if they can already read and understand the story. Therefore, a good children’s book has
illustrations that can easily captivate or catch the attention of the children. The illustrations
offer an element of excitement, so the children will keep reading, eager to find out what
will happen next (or what the next illustrations will look like). Besides, it is always more
interesting if the words you read have a visual representation. Also, the text of children’s
books should be big enough, so it will be easy for them to read.

- Have interesting and Relatable Story

The story in a good children’s literature books should be engaging and appealing. Whether
it is a real story about a pet or a strange story about a huge building hanging in the sky,
some aspect of the story or character should usually be relatable to children. When children
can relate to a story, they can connect with it deeply and remember it more clearly.
Children’s literature books stand the test of time because they are about topics that matter.
- Have engaging Language
A good children’s literature book should naturally have interesting language. The rhythm
of the language should be pleasing and the words in the story should flow naturally from
page to page. Rhyming is a popular and powerful way to involve children in developing
active listening skills and phonemic awareness when they are being read to and early
phonics skills when they are learning to read. The vocabulary in the book should be
relatable but somewhat challenging at times to the age group of readers it is intended for.
Learning a few new words from a book makes reading it a more valuable learning
experience. It is suggested that if the student audience is bilingual, as is as in the case in
the of Ghana, it is ideal for the book to be bilingual as well. In the Early Grade, the material
should be in the local language (the language familiar to the child).

- Have Multicultural orientation

Many good children’s books are inclusive and informative about the many cultures of our
world. They may include diverse characters, stories, songs and traditions from around the
globe, or even be written in a bilingual format. Children’s books that honor various cultures
can affirm students’ identities, teach them about their fellow classmates and community
members and should begin to increase understanding between cultures at an early age. A
good children’s book is one that children genuinely enjoy while they are gaining some
understanding of the world. High quality children’s books teach children to think and
wonder about their world and about themselves. Example is found in Adaku at Homowo
festival where a twelve-year-old Adaku living in Kumasi, in the Ashanti Region of Ghana,
travels to the Greater Accra region to spend the holidays and witnessed e arrives just before
the Homowo festival of the Ga people.

- Is optimistic.

Children’s books always end with happiness hence the words "happily ever after". That
optimistic perspective is a big part of what we consider to be children's literature. When
we grow up, we may realize that life does not always end happily. An example is found in
Cinderella goes through a rough time with her evil step-sisters in the Grimms' "Cinderella."
But everything works out for her in the end: she marries the prince, and her step-sisters are
 punished. Another example of such characteristic is found in Champion Runner where
Abizibay was not able to go to school to study but helps his father wash dishes in the
school's kitchen. All this changed when the school decided to hold a cross-country race
and he won.

- Has lot of repetition.

Children’s literature has a lot of repetition to often emphasize what is important. Repetition
is a common element of traditional tales, folk tales, and fairy tales as well as for literary
purposes by repeating words, phrases, situations and patterns.
Additionally, children’s literature
- Tends toward fantasy and accepts fanciful ideas without major concern of reality. Wishful
thinking is common.
- Expresses a child's point of view.

- Illustrations in the book expand on the words in the story.

- The stories in children’s literature are not overly predictable; it has clever twists.

 Elements of Children’s Literature

From the proceedings what are the elements of children's literature? The elements of children’s
literature are as follows:

- It should always be an enjoyable experience for the listener/reader.

- Children's literature is written for children by adults.
- Literature that is read by or to children.
- It stands up to expert critical analysis.
- Reader's appreciate the story and make connections with the book.
- Interest and relevance to reader.

 Types of children's literature?

Children’s literature has vast inventory for children of all ages, categorized into literary genres.
Some of the most common genres of literature for kids include picture books, traditional
literature, poetry and verse, biography, fiction and nonfiction. Out of these basic literary genres
come a multitude of sub-genres such as science fiction, fantasy, legends and others. Fiction and
nonfiction comprise the widest variety of literature for children. Modern fantasy and science
fiction stories have become extremely popular with children. Generally, modern fantasy is
characterized by time, travel, imaginary characters and animals or inanimate objects that talk.
Non-fiction literature for children is informational in nature, either as instruction, explanation or
persuasion. Literature for children in this genre includes the Children's manual, science books or
books geared toward children. They always have elements that are

a. made-up
b. may be based on actual events or people
c. may be totally made-up or fictional.

- Fictional Literature
There are many different types or different genres of fiction: historical fiction, mystery fiction,
horror fiction, humor, fantasy fiction, science fiction, folk tales (Fairy Tales, and Tall Tales and
Fables).

 Historical Fiction
Historical fiction books are children’s literature books, which are about things which took place
during a certain time in the past. Often the setting is real and the characters are made-up or
fictional. Sometimes, the setting is fictional and the characters are real. Examples of such
children’s books from Africa in general are Makeda: The Queen of Sheba by M. McKenney in
2021, The genius of Egypt by M. McKenney), Idia of the Benin Kingdom by Ekiuwa Aire in
2020, and Curiously Cara Meets Pharaoh Hatshepsut (African Queens) by Karen Mae in 2021.
Others from Ghana are Afia the Ashanti Princess by Crystal Boateng and Gabriela Yancheva in
2020) and Harmattan Rain by Ayesha Harruna Attah)

 Mystery Fiction
Such children’s literature is usually realistic and is about a crime or unsolved event; the crime or
event is not solved until the end of the book. Such stories may be scary or suspenseful. Examples
include Wife of the gods by Kwei Quartey, The mystery of the hunted house by Rugby Yayra
Goka, The Ghanaian Goldilocks by Tamara Pizzoli and Gold of our fathers by Kwei Quartey.
  Horror Fiction
These are children’s literature books with elements that may be scary. Examples are The deep
blue between by Ayesha Haruna Attah, Adesu Gana by Taiye Selasi, The witches by Ronald
Dahl, In the dark dark room and other scary stories by Alvin Schwartz and Night of the Living
Dummy by R.L. Stine.

 Humor
Children’s literature books of this kind funny content. The book contains funny stories. Children
and adults who read such stories cannot help but laugh. Examples include Fulfilling Wishes by
Tobi Loba, Living In The Ghetto by Obinna Tony, The Pot of Wisdom: Ananse Stories by Adwoa
Badoe and Baba Wague Daikite, Ananse’s Feast: An Ashanti Tale by Tololwa Mollel, and The
Leopard’s Drum: An Asante Tale from West Africa by Jessica Souhami

 Fantasy fiction
Fantasy stories are completed by and made-up such as talking animals and magical powers. They
contain no realistic elements. Examples are Transcendent Kingdom by Yaa Gyasi, Alice’s
Adventures in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll, The King of Elfland’s Daughter by Lord Dunsany,
The Sword in the Stone by T.H. White, The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe by C.S. Lewis,
Finding Solace by Tobi Loba, Wizard of the crow by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o and Akata Witch by
Nnedi Okorafor.

 Science Fiction
Science fiction children’s literature books are about future technology (futuristic technology),
scientific facts and fictional elements. Examples are Animorphs by K.A. Applegate, Pi in the Sky
by Wendy Mass, The Return of Zita the Spacegirl by Ben Hatke, Aliens on Vacation by Clete
Barrett Smith, Zoo City by Lauren Beukes, Rosewater by Tade Thompson

 Folk Tales
Folk Tales have no known creator and passed down verbally from generation to generation. It is
sometimes based on real people but the story is fictional. Folk tales include: fairy tales and tall
tales and fables. Fairy tales are folk tales about heroic deeds. They are stories created to teach
children how to behave in a way they find amusing. They typically include magic and happy
endings. Tall tales are folk tales but the character is “bigger” than life. Fables are folk tales,
however they are stories that try to teach the reader a lesson. They usually have animal
characters that act like humans.

 Myths
Myths are fictions stories that usually explain how the world started and the phenomena of
nature. They also deal with gods and supernatural beings in the stories. The characters are mainly
gods and goddesses, with occasional mention of humans and the setting is high above earth in
the home of the gods. Examples are The Wooden Horse of Troy, King Midas, Girl Who Married
a Lion: And Other Tales from Africa by Alexander McCall Smith and West African Folk Tales
by Hugh Vernon-Jackson,

- Non-fiction Literature
They are stories of proven facts. They are not made-ups and it can be about any subject. They are
true stories. Examples include biography and autobiography.

 Biography
Biography is a story about a real person written by someone else. It is usually about the person’s
life or something the person has done. For example, someone can write about the good things
about Kwame Nkrumah, Jerry John Rawlings or Professor Charles Owu-Ewie. Children’s books
of this type are I am farmer,” the inspiring biography of an environmentalist from Cameroon by
Baptiste and Paul Miranda, Sundiata: The Lion King of Mali by David Wisniewski, Mae Among
the Stars is about Africana Hero Mae Jamison by Roda Ahraed, Wangari Maathai: The Woman
who Planted Millions of Trees is a biography of an Africana STEM Hero by Franck Prevot,
Barack Obama by Nikki Grimes, and The Art of Ama Ata Aidoo: Polylectics and Reading
against Neocolonialism (First Edition) by Vincent O. Odamtten.

 Autobiography
Autobiography is a story someone writes about himself or herself. Biographies and
autobiographies for children are usually meant to inspire young people or educate them while
providing entertainment. Historical fiction or narratives that depict the lives of notable persons in
history fall into this genre. Some examples of this type of literature for children include Ghana:
The Autobiography of Kwame Nkrumah Paperback (1971) by Kwame Nkrumah, Patrice
Lumumba: The Life and Legacy of the Pan-African Politician Who Became Congo’s First Prime
Minister (2019) by Charles River Editors and Thomas Sankara Speaks: The Burkina Faso
Revolution 1983 87 (2nd Edition) by Thomas Sankara.

- Poetry
Poetry is written in verse in a way that makes the reader feel emotions. It may or may not rhyme.
It may be fictional or based on facts. Poetry and verse literature include the epic poem, narrative
poem, dramatic poem, lyric and sonnet, among others. Rhyming literature is popular with very
young children, as seen in the cherished nursery rhyme and fable favorites Poems and rhymes for
African children by Prince Joe Lartey Jnr., Illustrated Poems for Children: A Special Collection

Illustrated by Krystyna Stasiak, The Children's Treasury of Classic Poetry by Nicola Baxter
(Editor), and Giggly Wiggly: Playtime Rhymes by Michael Rosen. I Am An African: Favori
Africa Poems by Wayne Visser,

- Traditional literature
Traditional literature for children varies widely and is perhaps the most loosely defined genre,
because selections might overlap into the general fiction category. Some educators believe that
traditional children's literature is strictly characterized by unknown authorship, stereotypical
characters, anthropomorphism and a happy ending. Books that fall into this category might
include folktales, fables and fairy tales such as The Pot of Wisdom: Ananse Stories by Adwoa
Badoe, Traditional Folk Tales of Ghana by Emmanuel Asihene, Anansi stories: The trickster
spider from West Africa and the Caribbean and The Golden Forest: A Ghanaian Folk
Tale(1996) by Michael Ofori-Mankata. Others are The Cat in the Hat, Green Eggs and Ham or
other stories by Dr. Seuss; Bread and Jam for Frances by Russell Hoban; Chicka Chicka Boom
Boom by Bill Martin Jr.,the Curious George series by H.A. Rey and What’s That?

- Books meant for very young children (Huck et al., 2001)

These books include thickly constructed board books for very young children. Examples of such
books include alphabet books, counting books, wordless books, concept books, nursery rhyme
books, picture story books, counting books and easy-to-read books

o Alphabet Books present the letters of the alphabet one by one in order to help children
to acquire the sounds and symbols of the twenty-six letters. One example is Eating
the Alphabet: Fruits and Vegetables from A to Z by Lois Ehlert (1989).
 o Counting Books present numbers (generally from 1 to 10) along with the names of the
numbers (one, two, three…). One example is 1,2,3 by Tana Hoban (1985) and My
Numbers in Twi and English, My Alphabets in Twi and English all by Valarie Budayr.
o Wordless Books have no written text but present their messages through pictures only.
An example is The Snowman by Raymond Briggs (1978).
o Concept Books do not tell a story but introduce an idea or concept (e.g., opposites), an
object (e.g., a car), or an activity (e.g., eating). An example is Shapes, Shapes, Shapes
by Tana Hoban (1986).
o Nursery Rhyme Books or other collections of verse (including traditional verse).
Examples are the retelling of nursery rhymes (accompanied by new illustrations) by
writers such as Tomie Depaola (1985) and Arnold Lobel (1990).
o Picture Storybooks have the interaction between written text and pictures as
fundamental to interpretation. Examples are Make Way for Ducklings by Robert
McClosky (1941) and Stephanie’s Ponytail by Robert Munsch (1996). Other
examples are Twi and English Books by Sandra Amoako, Going Global with the
“What’s That?” A Ghanaian bilingual book series.
o Easy-to-Read Books are created specifically to help the beginning reader to read more
successfully and independently. They contain larger than average print, bigger space
between lines and limited vocabulary. Many of them (in common with many other
types of books for children) include devices such as word patterns, repeated text,
rhyming text and illustration clues (Tomlinson & Lynch-Brown, 1996/2002). Frog
and Toad are Friends by Arnold Lobel (1970) is an example of an easy-to-read
chapter book which is very well-known among children who are learning English.

 Common Theme in Children’s Literature

Through reading, children learn about relationships, complex issues, and the challenges and joys
they may face throughout childhood and beyond. There are many children's books with a wide
variety of themes. The following are most common themes found in children’s literature:
 - Themes focusing on Relationships
Many children's books often center around the theme of family relationships. Some are
heartwarming, inclusive stories of the many forms family can take, such as Who's in My Family?,
written by Robie H. Harris. Others help children deal with issues like separation and divorce.

- Loyalty and Dedication

Loyalty is a recurrent theme in many children's books. This theme is illustrated very well in A Sick
Day for Amos McGee, written by Philip C. Stead and illustrated by Erin E. Stead. This picture
book tells the story of Amos, a zookeeper who goes above and beyond to bond with the zoo
animals each day. When Amos is sick and misses his rounds, the animals miss him. Rather than
complaining that Amos is not there for them, they take it upon themselves to visit him, repaying
his loyalty in kind.

- Value and Power of Friendship

Many children's books focus on how priceless and powerful friendship really is. There are many
great options out there, including Save Me a Seat by Sarah Weeks and Gita Varadarajan. This
book tells the story of a friendship that develops between a local kid whose best friend has just
moved away and a new student whose family has just immigrated from another country.
Friendship blossoms as the two children band together to protect themselves from the school bully.

- Teamwork and Collaboration

Children spend a lot of time working in teams, from group work at school to sports teams on the
playground and beyond, so teamwork is a common theme in children's books. When Pencil Meets
Eraser, written by Karen Kilpatrick and Luis O. Ramos Jr. helps children to. understand that
everyone has different talents to contribute and that many talents are needed. Children discover
that the finished product is better when team members work cooperatively together. Another book
is Teamwork Isn't My Thing, and I Don't Like to Share! By Julia Cook.

- Themes About Emotions and Attitudes

Children can struggle with their emotions and attitudes, so children's books often focus on themes
related to these topics. Examples are My day is ruined! by Bryan Smith, I feel angry by Aleks
Harrison, Today I am mad, Listening to my feelings and How to accept No by Michael Gorden.
Others are The Memory String by Eve Bunting and Enemy Pie by Derek Munson

 Accepting Differences
Learning how to accept differences is a common theme in children's literature. The Kid and the
Chameleon, written by Sheri Mabry and illustrated by Joanie Stone, is a picture book based on
this theme. The young heroine learns to respect that her Chameleon friend doesn't like the same
activities that she enjoys. Through pictures and words, youngsters learn that getting along requires
give and take. There are many children's books about cultural diversity. An example is Skin we
are in by Sindiwe Mogana and Nina Joblonski.

 Bravery and Courage

Bravery and courage are often the focus of children's books. The Harry Potter book series by J.K.
Rowling illustrates the universal appeal of this theme, beyond even the audience of children.
Adults and children alike are inspired by the bravery and courage of Harry and his friends
throughout their many adventures.

 Compassion for Others

Compassion is a recurrent theme in children's literature. Example is In Uncle Willie and the Soup
Kitchen by DyAnne Disalvo Ryan seeks to encourage children to feel compassion for those who
depend on the kindness of others for survival. The author has real-world experience as a soup
kitchen volunteer, so the book is based on a unique perspective on volunteering in a soup kitchen,
as well as depending on one for sustenance.

 Honesty and Trust

Many children's books have themes focused on the importance of telling the truth. Honesty is
important in all that we do and it is never too early to teach kids about the importance of being
honest. Children’s books about honesty will help children learn about this important character
trait. The rhyming picture book Edwurd Fudwupper Fibbed Big by Berkley Breathed (of Bloom
County cartoon fame) demonstrates just how much trouble a kid can face as a result of telling the
truth. It is a fun and positive story that clearly illustrates that honesty is the best policy. Other
books of this category are Tell the Truth B.B. Wolf by Judy Sierra, The Honest-to-Goodness Truth
by Patricia C. McKissack and Lying up a storm by Julia Cook.

 Self-Concept
Learning to feel comfortable with who they really are is an important lesson for kids to learn. As
a result, self-concept is a common theme in children's books. In Calvin Can't Fly: The Story of a
Bookworm Birdie, an adorable picture book written by Jennifer Berne and illustrated by Keith
Bendis, a young bird who doesn't fit in with his siblings because he'd rather read than fly ends up
saving the day when a crisis requires book knowledge.

- Themes Related to Behavior

Children's literature provides a great tool for children to learn positive behavioral habits.

 Coping With Anger

Early in life, kids need to learn how to cope with feelings of anger. The picture book When I Feel
Angry, written by Cornelia Maude Spelman and illustrated by Nancy Cote is a great example of
this theme in an age-appropriate book for preschoolers. It provides kid-friendly strategies for
recognizing, understanding and effectively handling the emotion of anger.

 Generosity and Sharing

Many children's books focus on the importance of sharing and generosity. The Berenstain Bears
Think of Those in Need by Stan and Jan Berenstain emphasizes just that. In this picture book, the
beloved family of bears realizes that they have more possession than they need, so they donate the
excess to others. They feel so good about sharing that they also decide to volunteer in their
community.

 Hard Work
Kids are never too young to learn the value of hard work. One of the most popular classic tales
focused on this theme has been around since 1930, when Watty Piper first wrote The Little Engine
That Could. It has been adapted and updated many times, but the timeless tale remains as relevant
today as when it was first written.
  Imagination and Exploring Possibilities
Children who learn to use their imaginations are well-prepared to unlock their creative potential.
The picture book I Don't Want To, written by Joseph Maxfield and illustrated by Nate Anderson,
focuses on how even everyday activities and less-than-exciting tasks can become wonderful when
children infuse a bit of imagination into them.

 Perseverance and Persistence

Too often, youngsters are ready to give up too soon. Fortunately, perseverance and persistence are
common themes in children's literature. Salt in His Shoes is a picture book that tells the story of
how all-time great basketball player Michael Jordan wanted to give up the sport because he was
tired of waiting to grow tall enough. Written by Deloris Jordan and Roslyn Jordan (Michael's
mother and sister) and illustrated by Kadir Nelson, this book uniquely demonstrates the power of
persistence.

 Self-Control
Many children's books focus on stories designed to help children learn how to control their
impulses. That's the central theme of What Were You Thinking? by Bryan Smith. The book
focuses on a third-grader whose lack of self-control leads to disruptive behavior in class and
making other children cry. The story reveals age-appropriate strategies for thinking before acting
that kids can apply in their own lives.

- Life Transitions Themes

Children's books can make it easier for children to understand and work through the life challenges
they experience.

- Growing Up
Children of all ages face the joy and agony of coming of age on a daily basis. Many children's
books focus on the theme of growing up to help children learn to cope with this phenomenon. Are
You There God? It's Me, Margaret by Judy Blume is a classic example of a book with a coming
of age theme.
 - Holidays and Traditions
For all of the many holidays that exist, there are many books for kids. Children can learn about
holidays their families celebrate, as well as observances practiced by other groups. Christmas
books are one example, but there are plenty of options for every holiday occasion. Explore a
powerful selection of holiday multicultural books for children.

- Loss and Grief

Unfortunately, children are not immune to experiencing tragedy. Because youngsters need to learn
to cope with loss, death and the resulting grief, these topics are common themes in children's
books. There are many thoughtful children's books about death and dying, including When a Pet
Dies by Fred Rogers (of the long-running children's TV show Mr. Rogers' Neighborhood).

- School Life
Children spend a lot of time at school, so school life is one of the most popular themes in children's
literature. For young kids, Miss Nelson is Missing!, a read-along picture book written by Harry G.
Allard Jr. and illustrated by James Marshall, provides a fun lesson on how important it is to
appreciate your teacher and others you should value. The young students don't quite realize how
good they have it with their regular teacher until a less-friendly substitute takes her place for the
day.

 Peace on Earth
With so much upheaval in the world, many children don't know what peace feels like. That's what
children's book author Vladimir Radunsky hopes to convey in What Does Peace Feel Like? This
unique children's picture book relates peace to the five human senses, from the mouths of babes.
The author asked real children to relay what peace feels like to them; that's what's highlighted in
this unusual book.

- Themes Related to Social Issues

It's so important for children to be aware of social issues that impact the world in which they are
growing up.
  Fairness and Equity
Fairness is a common theme in children's literature. The Little Red Hen by Paul Galdone is a
classic tale that conveys the message that it's only fair to share in the work if you expect to benefit
from the results of that work. Animals who refuse to help the title character gather the ingredients
to make bread find themselves going without after the hen makes the bread. If only they had
contributed, it would have been fair for them to expect the hen to share.

 Hope for The Future

With the 24-hour news cycle and prevalence of social media, it can be hard to protect children
from some societal turmoil. As a result, hope for the future has become a common theme in
children's books. In 2020, actress Kristen Bell partnered with author Benjamin Hart and illustrator
Daniel Wiseman to create The World Needs More Purple People. This picture book reminds
children that they are special and valued for who they are, while also encouraging them to seek
common ground with others.

 Ethnicity and Injustice

Children's books often tackle tough topics, including the themes of ethnicity and injustice.
Something Happened in Our Town by Marianne Celano is a contemporary and insightful story
about a police shooting of a black man, told from the perspectives of a white family and a black
family. It includes materials for educators, parents or caregivers to use to help facilitate productive
discussions with children on this difficult, yet timely and all-too-important topic.

 Making a Difference
The fact that everyone can make a difference is a common theme in children's literature. This
theme is illustrated very well in The Smallest Girl in the Smallest Grade, a rhyming picture book
written by Justin Roberts and illustrated by Christian Robinson. The heroine is young and small,
but she does her part to make things better for everyone who crosses her path. Her small actions
of empathy and courage illustrate how everyone can make the world a better place, one act of
kindness at a time.
  Taking A Stand
Children need to learn to stand up for what is right. This is a central theme of many children's
books, including the well-loved tale of Horton Hears a Who by Dr. Seuss. Horton is an elephant
who, because of his enormous ears, is able to detect a community of Whos residing on a speck of
dust. Since no one else can see or hear them, others make fun of him and bully him. Horton knows
the Whos are there and that they matter, so he sticks by what he knows to be the right thing to do.
UNIT: CHILDREN’S LITERATURE: VALUES AND ROLE OF TEACHER AND
PARENTS

Introduction

 Values of children’s Literature

Traditional literature is that which has been passed from one generation to the next which provides
readers with insight into the world's various cultures. Its main purpose is to provide entertainment.
However, important themes often exist within traditional literature which inculcate in children
certain values. Giving children access to all varieties of literature is extremely important for their
success. Educators, parents, and members of the society should help learners develop a love and
passion for reading. Children’s study of literature puts in their lives some values which are
essential to their development and well-being. The moral lessons they learn from the stories they
read inculcate in them certain values. The following are some values children acquire from
literature:
- Sincerity
- Respect
- Loyalty
- Obedience
- hard work
- honesty
- Co-operation and teamwork
- Love for the other
- Trustworthiness
- Positive personality and social skills
- Boosts self-esteem

- Benefits/ Importance of Children’s Literature

Children’s literature has the following benefits or importance to the child:

- Helps develop the cognitive skills of learners

 Children’s literature provides students with the opportunity to develop their cognitive skills
through their responses to literature, which help develop their own opinions about the topic.
This gives children the opportunity to have deeper thought about literature. Quality
literature does not tell the reader everything he/she needs to know; it allows for some
difference in opinion. One reader may take something completely different away from the
piece of literature than the next reader, based on the two personal viewpoints and
experiences. Students can learn to evaluate and analyze literature, as well as summarize
and hypothesize about the topic. Children’s wordless picture books are excellent stimuli
for oral and written language (Norton, 2010). Children reading wordless books are able to
analyze the illustrations and develop their own dialogue for the story. This strengthens their
cognitive function.

- Provides an avenue for students to learn about their own cultural heritage and the cultures
of other people
It is crucial for children to develop positive attitudes toward their own culture and the
cultures of others to ensure both social and personal development (Norton, 2010). As
educators, we need to introduce children to books which will help nurture in them positive
attitude towards other cultures. An example of such books is Adaku at the Homowo festival
by Amy Owusua Aseidu. There are many children’s books available that depict culture as
an important piece of society that is to be treasured and valued. Teachers should expose
children to such books.

- Helps students develop emotional intelligence.

Children’s story books have the power to promote emotional and moral development.
Children’s literature books contain numerous times or flashes of crisis, when characters
make moral decisions and consider the reasons for their decisions. This is an important
skill for children to see modeled in their books. Children’s literature encourages students
to think deeper about their own feelings.

- Encourages creativity.
One role that literature plays is nurturing and expanding the imagination of readers. A book
like Kwajo and the Brassman's secret by Meshack Asare depicts this. It is a tale of old
 Ashanti Wisdom and Gold where Kwajo's father makes him a little brass drummer which
comes alive and transforms Kwajo into a land of proverbs and riddles. It is a land where
the figures represent money, and the people are citizens in a powerful kingdom. Kwajo is
tempted by riches but must first decode a series of riddles and symbols. He fails at the last
test, but nonetheless learns an important lesson. This story transforms the imagination of
the reader. Children’s literature promotes the development of students’ internal
imaginations.

- Fosters personality and social development.

Children are very impressionable during the formative years, and children’s literature can
help them develop into caring, intelligent, and friendly people. Psychologically, as students
move from the pre-operational to the operational stage of cognitive development, they
become less egocentric. Whereas students in preschool and kindergarten may be entirely
focused on themselves but as students grow older they begin to take into account the
feelings and viewpoints of others. Being able to understand other people’s viewpoints and
to not be selfish are important skills that adults must nurture in children. Children’s
literature can foster social development by encouraging students to accept other people and
their differences. Children’s literature can also encourage students to develop relationships
with people, encouraging social contact. Typical examples are the Big welcome for Uncle
Ransford by Kwasi Otopah, Bobo the Kind King Lion by Kwesi Annoh and Gradma comes
to stay by Ifeoma Onyefulu. Children’s literature encourages learners to be considerate and
friendly people and these traits may be consistent with developing students into quality
citizens.

- Is a timeless tradition
Children’s literature books are the major means of transmitting our literary heritage from
one generation to the other. Classic stories like The Brassman’s secret and are important
books to read to children because of their literary heritage. For a younger audience,
children could build their cognitive and language skills through exposure to rhyme books.
One example of a Afia the Ashanti Princess by Crystal Boateng and Gabriela Yancheva,
Gradma comes to stay by Ifeoma Onyefulu, Children are only young for a short time, and
 so we must give them access to a basic literary heritage of timeless books. Quality
children’s literature has the great power to captivate audiences for many generations.

Children’s literature is valuable in both the school setting and at home. Teachers and parents
should both be able to differentiate between quality and mediocre literature, in order to give
students, access to the best books to encourage the important values of literature and considering
developmental domains enumerated above. Children’s literature is valuable in providing an
opportunity to respond to literature, as well as cultural knowledge, emotional intelligence and
creativity, social and personality development and literature history to students across generations.
Exposing children to quality literature can contribute to the creation of r5esponsible, successful,
and caring individuals.
 UNIT Teaching Children’s Literature (Role of Teachers and Parents)
Introduction:

 Role of teachers in promoting Children’s literature skills

Teachers have a pivotal role in helping children to develop and maintain a positive attitude towards
literature. When teachers motivated children to read more, they use more complex cognitive
strategies, and thus become better readers and develop love for literature. The role of the teacher
is to encourage children to attempt to read, write, and speak. Teachers should allow children of
varying ability to experience the different function and use of literacy activities. The following are
some roles teachers can play to promote their children’s reading leading to their love for literature:
- Provide Knowledge and Skills
Every teacher must have an understanding of the intricacies or difficulties of the reading process
and the skills to implement all of the components of effective reading instruction to enhance
children’s literature skills. To help children decode and comprehend text in reading to enhance
their literature skills, classroom teachers should:
a. encourage children to use their prior knowledge when reading and provide them with
appropriate background information if they lack context for understanding material they
will read.
b. provide direct instruction for promoting decoding, fluency and comprehension; answer
children's questions and monitor performance; think aloud so that children become aware
of how a capable reader and writer approaches literacy tasks;
c. provide opportunities for children to engage in purposeful talk in the classroom,
recognizing that oral language is the foundation for the development of reading and writing
skills, which is crucial to developing children’s love for literature. Encourage children to
ask and answer questions to acquire, clarify, or confirm information and to explore ideas
and recognize the role of thinking in reading achievement and development of literature
skills.
- Motivate Children to like Read
Teachers have a pivotal role in helping children to develop and maintain a positive attitude towards
reading children’s literary materials. Motivated children to read more, and thus become better
readers. To motivate children to read and develop love for literature, classroom teachers:
 a. Must demonstrate a passion for reading/literature (act as models for their students, know
how children perceive the value of reading and aim to enhance the perceived value by
linking reading with the children's own interests and goals.
b. Teachers must know how children perceive their own ability as readers and support them
in developing a positive self-image by having them work with materials that are at their
current reading level and by providing them with enough time to complete their reading
tasks.
c. encourage children to apply learned reading strategies when they are not sure about the
text (e.g., rereading, reading ahead, using pictures, looking at the initial consonant, and
asking, "Does it make sense?");
d. make reading meaningful; taking into account the age, interests, and needs of the children.
e. provide a rich and varied literacy environment that includes interesting reading material,
displays, and engaging multimedia resources (e.g., audio, video, and overheads), and that
reflects the cultural diversity of the school and community;
f. provide opportunities for children to choose their own reading material and develop a sense
of control over the reading process.
g. provide opportunities for discussion, teamwork, and other social interactions that make
reading interesting and funl
h. integrate reading into other activities to show that it is an essential, everyday skill with
practical value
i. focus on the intrinsic reward of personal satisfaction and the achievement of goals that
matter to the individual child.
j. Provide confidence to children to read and develop their literature skills.

- Plan and Organize

Teachers should adjust their instruction to match their students' current level in reading by
recognizing that as children progress, they will need to spend less time developing and practicing
some skills and more time on others. Teachers should use classroom time as effectively as possible,
with an appropriate combination of large-group, small-group, and individual instruction. As
planners and organizers aim at promoting the literature skills of children, teachers should:
 a. provide large blocks of uninterrupted classroom time for reading instruction and
plenty of meaningful practice.
b. maintain predictable schedules and classroom reading routines so that children
know what is expected of them in various activities throughout the day
c. implement and monitor these established routines before starting small-group
instruction, to ensure that children are able to work independently while the teacher
is otherwise occupied.
d. use reflective practice, observation, and a variety of assessment strategies to
identify each child's reading needs and provide differentiated instruction.
e. know strategies and effective practices for engaging children in large groups, small
groups and individual instruction, and for organizing the groups in the most
appropriate ways for the reading task (e.g., mixed-ability groupings, or groupings
differentiated by age, developmental stage, or topic of interest).
f. use classroom management techniques that enable children to be responsible
managers of their own reading time.
g. monitor the children's time on reading and engagement in the reading.

- Observe and Assess

As language teachers who have a major role to play in enhancing the literature skills of their
children, we must know that ongoing assessment is fundamental for guiding children in their
reading and development of their literature skills. Teachers must:
a. use a variety of assessment tools and strategies, such as student self-reflection, conferences
with students, informal reading inventories and reading records of materials they have read.
b. use assessment data to determine the current strengths and needs of children.
c. continually adapt their teaching strategies to match a child's reading development.
d. provide meaningful feedback on the children's work, rather than just providing a mark.
e. pay attention to the needs of children who are at risk of reading failure and seek timely
intervention and supports when it is clear that excellent classroom instruction will not be
enough for them.
 f. work cooperatively with literacy experts who provide reading intervention and supports,
in order to ensure that help outside the classroom is supported and reinforced by regular
reading instruction in the classroom.
- Promote Teamwork
Effective teachers understand the importance of working as part of an early literacy (reading) team.
They recognize that teachers in the early grades lay the essential groundwork for children to
succeed in the upper grades. They know, for example, that children's reading achievement at the
end of Grade 3 will depend in large part on the reading instruction they receive in Kindergarten
and Grades 1 and 2, and so they work collaboratively to ensure seamless progression.
They meet with colleagues on a regular basis to plan cooperatively, share teaching ideas and
strategies, engage in professional reading, and discuss observations based on visits to each other’s
classrooms. Together, reading teachers who aim at developing children’s literature should:
a. act as models
b. agree on common reading strategies
c. establish school reading goals
d. build reading capacity within the classroom/school.
e. work actively to involve families in their children's reading at home.
f. let children form reading clubs and be reading to themselves.
g. encourage reading competition among and between learners.

- Make Cultural Connections

Teachers' expectations of and relationships with their learners profoundly affect learners' learning.
Numerous research studies in literacy (reading) have shown that students are more academically
successful when they feel welcomed, valued, and challenged by material that builds upon their
prior knowledge, experiences, and interests. When these attitudes, behaviors, and curriculum
considerations are missing, children from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds may
resist learning (Willis, 2000).

All teachers have a vital role in promoting respect for the cultural diversity of their students and
the community. Good teaching builds upon the cultural and language backgrounds, ways of
making meaning, and prior knowledge that all children bring to the classroom. Effective teachers:
 a. develop their knowledge of other cultures.
b. have high expectations for all children.
c. provide a welcoming environment that affirms all children.
d. work with family members and the community to promote student reading (children’s
literature) and build bridges of cooperation.
e. Culturally informed teaching supports the reading needs of all children, regardless of their
cultural or linguistic background. Teachers should capitalize on diversity and to recognize
when an individual child or group of children has a particular need or deficit that is making
it harder to learn to read.
- Pursue Professional Expertise
Teachers should upgrade their professional knowledge in developing children’s reading and
literature skills by engaging in ongoing, intensive workshops. This should be an integral part of a
every early grade and upper primary teacher's regular work. In addition, professional development
should demonstrate a positive correlation with increased teacher effectiveness in reading and
improved student achievement. (US Department of Education, 1996). They should seek out
opportunities to expand their knowledge by participating in peer coaching, mentorships,
professional reading circles, networking opportunities with colleagues and literacy workshops and
conferences. Most effective professional development happens in schools during the school day,
with the support and involvement of lead literacy teacher in the school. Topics could include
phonemic awareness and concepts about print, phonics and word study, vocabulary development,
selection and use of high-quality literature to develop and expand oral language and vocabulary,
ongoing assessment to inform instruction; and strategies for motivating children to read and write.

- Work with parents

a. Organize parents’ literacy workshops
b. Guide parents on effective literacy practice at home
c. Provide literacy knowledge and skills to parents

 Role of parents in developing children’s literature skills

Parents play a central role in developing their children’s literature skills and love for literature.
Research shows that parental involvement in their children’s learning positively affects the child’s
performance at school (Fan & Chen, 2001) in both primary and secondary schools (Feinstein &
Symons, 1999), leading to higher academic achievement, greater cognitive competence, greater
problem-solving skills, greater school enjoyment, better school attendance and fewer behavioral
problems at school (Melhuish, Sylva, Sammons et al., 2001). Similar impacts have also been
identified with regards to literacy (reading) practices, including:
- They help in the selection of books for their children. They accept or reject their children's
suggestions, influence their children's choices, and permit or do not permit the borrowing
or buying of specific books (Švab, & Žumer, 2015). They should also provide
reading/literature materials for their children.
- They prepare their children for formal literacy instruction. Parental involvement in their
child’s reading has been found to be the most important determinant of language and
emergent literacy (Bus, van Ijzendoorn & Pellegrini, 1995). Furthermore, parents who
introduce their babies/children to books give them a head start in school and an advantage
over their peers throughout primary school (Wade & Moore, 2000).
- Parents’ involvement with reading/literature activities at home has significant positive
influences not only on reading achievement, language comprehension and expressive
language skills (Gest, Freeman, Domitrovich & Welsh, 2004), but also on pupils’ interest
in reading, attitudes towards reading and attentiveness in the classroom (Rowe, 1991). This
implies that parents should involve themselves in the reading/literature development of
their children.
- Read aloud to your child to build positive attitudes toward books, to develop an
understanding of written language and to enjoy the sound of spoken language.
- Act as models for their children to emulate. Parents should be good examples. A child
replicates what he/she observes at home. Thus, in order for children to become good
readers and have love for literature, they should witness their parents reading. Children
behave as their parents do, for better and for worse (Baker and Scher 2002). Parents should
show active involvement in reading and literature skills development and help their
children to develop reading skills.
- Devote some time for reading stories: parents must set aside times to read stories to their
children because it can enhance their children’s comprehension, vocabulary, decoding of
words and syllabus. Regular habit of reading makes children develop the desire to read
 independently. The more a skill is practiced the more it is mastered, applied, and retained
in memory because practice brings perfection (Mwamwenda, 2004)
- Creates a family reading time: Parents need to spare time to read with their children at
home. Every member of the family should get involved and it must be a daily ritual of
reading together. Children from literacy rich home environment, tend to ask their parents
to read to them more often (Aulls & Sollars 2003).
- Provide reading space with comfortable chairs, tables and proper lighting, supporting and
participating in shared reading and reading aloud.

 Difficulties/challenges of Involving Parents in children’s reading/literature

Parent helping children to read and cultivate the love for literature is not an easy task.
The majority of the parents indicate that they face many challenges getting involve in helping
children to read and develop children’s literature skills. The challenges experienced are similar
across the board. Some of the challenges experienced are as follows:
- The major challenge is illiteracy; some parents do not know how to read and write(illiterate).
- Some of the parents failed to attend meetings that are held at school; this is because of transport
problems, lack of time, etc.
- Parents who have heavy schedule fail to assist their children because of time constraints and
fatigue.
- Some parents are not aware of their roles in children’s literature development.
- Some parents have no capacity assisting their children with reading activities, e.g. finance
- Some parents feel it is the responsibility of teachers to assist learners in reading leading to
development of literature skills because they are paid for it.
- Home environment does not permit parents so support their children in developing reading and
literature skills.
- Parents are discouraged to be involved in the reading development of their children due to lack
of information.

 Addressing the Challenges

The following are some suggested ways of address the challenges involved in enhancing the
reading/literature skills of their children:
- Ensure effective communication between educators and parents amongst parents;
- Introduce of reading centers/informal education in rural areas specially to address illiteracy.
- Assign a guardian who is educated (read and write) to assist the children of parents who have
heavy work schedule.
- Mobilize parents to assist learners in groups so that they could share experiences
- Manage their time in order to assist their children
- Hold Parents’ Day at school whereby parents who performed well in assisting their children
are recognized and rewarded.
- Have parental meetings at least every term to share their experiences in helping their children
with reading skills/literature skills.

 Strategies of involving parents in improving their children’s reading/literature Skills

The following strategies can be used to get parents involved in improving the reading/literature
skills of their children: Parents should be

- encouraged parents to read with their children at home, maybe 10-15 minutes everyday
before going to bed.
- train to parents to know how to select appropriate story books for the level and interest of their
children.
- Encourage parents to read together with their children at least a day in a week.
- organize a concert wherein each and every leaner comes with his or her parents and let
every leaner read while parents are listening.
- encourage parents to attend “parent’s day” and give each parent time to explain how they help
their children in reading, so that the teachers may know how to help them develop their
children’s reading/literature skills”.
- present parents with certificate/prizes whose children win the school’s reading award day to
encourage the parents.
- teach parents the importance of reading of their children in their academic work.
- establish good relationship between parents and teachers.
  Misconceptions about children’s literature
The following are some misconceptions people have about children’s literature:

- You should always finish a book you’ve started

- There are no right answers

- Children’s literature is difficult

- Children’s literature is for the academically talented students.

- Old writers are better than new writers

- Literature is for girls

- Never judge a book by its cover

- Children’s literature is just for entertainment

- Children’s literature is boring

- Children’s literature cannot be read by adults

- Children’s literature is a difficult subject and thus children cannot be taught literature.

- Children’s literature is an aspect of English so why should it be taught?

- Children's literature does not improve language acquisition.

- Children's literature is easier to write.

- Children's Literature books must deal with only concrete ideas.

- Children's literature can be written by anyone who has control over the language.
Unit CHILDREN’S LITERATURE TEACHING-LEARNING MATERIALS

 Introduction
This unit is essentially devoted to preparation and use of language teaching and learning materials.
It begins with the definition of teaching-learning materials (TLMs) in general and children’s
teaching-learning materials in particular, classification and types of children’s literature TLMs.
The unit also deals with the principles underlying the choice of TLMs, importance of TLMs, and
selection of children’s literature TLMs. In this same unit, designing teacher made TLMs, why
teacher-made TLMs and advantages of teacher-made TLMs for children’s literature are discussed.
The unit ends with how to use children’s TLMs appropriately and efficiently (see required
textbook – Introduction to language teaching: A resource for language teachers. pp. 387- 418).

 Definition of (children’s literature) Teaching-Learning Materials

To make language teaching task easier and effective, several approaches are employed by teachers.
The effective application of teaching learning materials makes language teaching and learning
easier. Language teachers are often accused of talking too much in class (over-verbalization).
Language teachers are encouraged to use other resources to make their teaching effective. These
resources are referred to as teaching-learning materials. Generally, language teaching materials
are any resources (traditional, electronic or digital) used for language learning and teaching
purposes. Teaching materials are also seen as aids used by teachers to help them teach lessons
effectively and also help learners learn effectively. It is anything which is used by teachers to
facilitate the learning of language (Tomlison, 2003). Brown (1995) defines teaching-learning
materials as systematic description of techniques and exercises to be used in classroom teaching.
The key issue in all these definitions is that language teaching-learning materials are used to
enhance teaching and learning to achieve a set objective. With this understanding, children’s
literature teaching-learning materials are materials used by literature or reading teachers to
enhance literature teaching and learning to achieve stated or marked literature objective.
  Classification of (children’s literature) teaching learning materials
TLMs are classified into various forms but in this section children’s literature will be classified.
into how they appeal to the senses. This classification gives the following (Nacino-Brown, Oke
and Brown, 1982): Visual, Audio and Audio-visual. Visual materials appeal to the eye, e.g., books,
cup, table. Audio are materials that appeal to the ear; helps in developing the listening skills of
learners. Examples include radio, record players, tape recorders, headphones. Audio-visual
teaching-learning materials appeal to both the ear (listening) and eye (viewing). Examples are
television, video films, motion pictures,

 Principles Underlying the Choice of (Children’s literature) TLMs

Selecting materials for language teaching, especially children’s literature materials should not be
done haphazardly. It should be done bearing in mind certain principles. Materials selected should
- Be appropriate to pupils' needs, interests, experiences and knowledge
- Provide opportunities for meaningful communication in the teaching learning process
- Enrich learners’ general knowledge
- Agree with learners’ proficiency level.
- Stimulate learners to seek further information
- Be presented in a variety of types and media
- Arouse and maintain learners’ interest and attention
- Achieve desire objective
- Encourage learners’ involvement
- Help learners develop confidence
- Provide meaningful activities to accompany the TLM
- Take into account individual differences

 Importance of using Children’s literature Teaching-Learning materials

The use of teaching-learning materials in the teaching learning process, especially in language
(literature) teaching has immense impact on teaching and learning. It must be noted that the
educational values of teaching-learning materials cannot be underestimated. When teaching-
learning materials are properly prepared and carefully employed in the language (literature)
classroom it has the following benefits:
- They enhance students’ literature experience.
- They enhance students’ understanding and memory.
- They save time in the literature teaching-learning process.
- They help learners learn what they need to know (assist with achievement of lesson
objectives).
- They promote effective communication in the literature classroom
- They ensure better retention of books read, thus making learning more permanent.
- They help overcome the limitations of the literature classroom, by making the inaccessible
accessible
- They encourage active participation in the literature learning process
- They help develop interests in literature

 Negative aspects of teaching-learning materials

Teaching-learning materials themselves do not possess any particular magic to promote learning
in the classroom. Wrong perception about teaching-learning materials and their incorrect use by
language teachers may lead to ineffective teaching-learning situation (Van Rooyen & Van der
Merwe, 1996). The following might have contributed to the negative perception of using teaching-
learning materials:
- There are insufficient (sometime non-existence) literature teaching-learning materials due
to limited funds.
- Teacher training institutions do not provide any formal training and practice in the
selection and use of literature teaching-learning materials.
- Inaccuracies in some commercially produced teaching-learning materials
- Most literature classrooms are not designed properly for the display literature teaching-
learning materials.
 Unit SELECTING, DESIGNING AND USE OF (children’s literature) TEACHING-
LEARNING MATERIALS

 Introduction

 Selecting children’s literature teaching learning materials

Choosing TLMs that will have positive impact on literature learning for children has always not
been an easy task for teachers, especially beginning teachers. Whether a school has abundant or
insufficient literature materials, the teacher has a responsibility of planning for the selection,
production, acquisition and use of such materials. The teacher has to make a decision on which
literature materials to use: adopt (select existing materials), develop (create new materials) or adapt
(select and make modification/adjustments to existing materials). The following are suggested
guides to selecting TLMs to give the desired effect for the teaching of literature to children:
- Suitability or appropriateness for intended purpose.
Consider your objective for the literature lesson. You need to ask yourself the following questions:
a. Does the TLM help develop skills in interpreting the literature concept?
b. Does the TLM develop the ability to detect right from wrong based on what is read?
c. Does the TLM help learners to form independent judgments based on facts from what has been
read?
d. Does the TLM develop the ability to distinguish facts from opinions in a literature material read
or used?
- Relevance of the teaching aids
The teaching aids that are selected for teaching literature must as much as possible be related to
the learner’s social environment. Do not use unfamiliar materials.
- Suitability for intended learners
The materials you select should be understood by your learners. If you are going to use existing
materials, ensure that you review, preview, or examine the materials to determine whether or not
they are within the students’ level of understanding and also their experiential background.
- Consider the physical qualities of the literature material
Ask yourself the following questions:
a. Is it attractive?
b. Is it easy to handle?
c. Is it authentic?
- Consider the cost and time involved
Cheap materials are always not the best and the same can be said about expensive ones. Materials
selected should be within the budget of the school. Select materials that can be displayed within
the timeframe for the lesson. Try as much as possible to avoid TLMs that may need more time
than a class period.
- Consider materials that appeal to the diverse group in the class; age, ethnic group,
religion, social and cultural background.

 Designing Children’s Literature Teaching-Learning Materials (Teacher-made

TLMs)
TLMs are very crucial in literature teaching in particular and language teaching in general. As a
result, teachers rely heavily on TLMs in their (literature) language teaching process. Despite the
availability of commercially produced materials (from textbooks, videotapes, pictures, to internet)
most teachers spend a lot of time finding, selecting, evaluating, and adapting materials to use in
their literature teaching. Looking at the considerable time spent by teachers looking for existing
materials, it sometimes makes sense and time-saving to design their own materials. To design an
appropriate (literature) TLM, the teacher should consider the following guidelines/factors:

- Consider the learner

We should consider the age, level of language proficiency (in both L1&L2), interest, motivation,
experience and learning needs of the learner. This will help the teacher design a TLM which is
appropriate to the learner to enhance learning of literature.
- Consider the curriculum and the context
The TLMs we prepare should seek to achieve the objectives/aims of the curriculum, which is what
the learners are to achieve. The context in which the teaching and learning occurs should be
considered because it will influence the types of materials to be used.
- Consider the resources and facilities available
The availability of materials will depend on which TLMs to be designed. For example, if there is
no electricity, the teacher will not prepare a TLM which requires electricity to function.
 - Consider personal confidence and competence
Make sure you have the experience and the skill to manipulate the material before you make it.

 Why design your own TLMs?

Harmer (2001), Podromou (2002) and others give the following as reason why teachers prepare
their own TLMs instead of using commercially produced ones for teaching children’s literature:
- Contextualization
Commercial materials sometimes do not take into consideration the context in which the materials
will be used because it is difficult to produce a material which will suit all contexts. Commercially
produced materials are generic in nature and not aimed at any specific group of learners or
particular cultural or educational context. As a result, teachers design their own TLMs to suit their
particular learning environment and to overcome the lack of ‘fit’ of the TLM.

- Individual needs
Teacher-made TLMs normally takes into consideration the individual differences and
needs of learners in the class. Teacher-designed materials can be responsive to the heterogeneity
inherent in the classroom. Designing TLMs provide the opportunity to develop materials that suit
the right level for particular learners to ensure appropriate challenge and levels of success.

- Personalization
Teacher-made materials have the advantage of tapping into the interest and taking into account of
the learning styles of students which increases motivation and engagement in learning.

 Disadvantages of teacher-designed TLMs

- Organization: Since some teachers are not adequately trained in TLM preparation what
they sometimes produce is disorganized. Sometimes such materials lack coherence and a
clear progression.
- Quality: Teacher-made materials may not be of quality type. They sometimes contain
errors and may not contain clear instructions on how the material should be used.
- Materials are sometimes not viable.
  Using Children’s Literature TLMs
Children’s teaching-learning materials on their own cannot do much to improve literature teaching
to help children acquire the needed literature skills but their value lies in their use by the teacher.
For more effective use of literature TLMs to give the desired effect, the following must be
considered (Nacino-Brown, Oke, & Brown, 1982):
- Prepare yourself
Familiarize yourself with the materials that you intend to use. This will help you to know
how and when to use the material. Preparing in advance will enable you to know the questions
you want to ask and the follow-up activities you want to use.
- Prepare the materials
Prepare the materials to ensure that they are at a place where they come in handy at the
time you need it. Test all materials to ensure they are working properly before you us them
(preview before use). You have to do this to avoid wasting time in the teaching learning process.
- Prepare the environment
The classroom teacher going to use a TLM should make sure that the environment conducive to
the audio-visual experience planned. For example, if you will use audio aids, make sure the room
is free from distracting noises as possible. The environment should be prepared in such a way that
learners can see clearly and hear distinctly what is being said and done.
- Prepare the students
Provide sufficient background information about the subject under study so that students can gain
maximum benefit. Brief learners on what they are expected to do during and after using the
material.
- Use of the material
Make sure you properly and adequately introduce materials to students to make them aware of the
purpose for using them and how they fit into the lesson being taught. Also, make sure the materials
are in good shape. In sum, use the materials in the most professional way possible so that the
desired effect is achieved.
- Evaluate the materials
After you have used a material, ask yourself the following questions:
a. Did it help you to achieve your purpose?
b. Did your students understand and appreciate or they were confused?
- What portion of the TLM needs improvement?
- Was it worth the time and energy spent on preparing and using the material?
Unit DEVELOPING SUPPLEMENTARY READING MATERIALS FOR CHILDREN

 Introduction

Literacy development at the Basic Education Level, especially at the early grade and Upper
Primary levels is essential because it is the foundation for success in academic work in general.
Literacy is core to every meaningful education. Despite the importance of literacy in education,
most developing countries including Ghana have paid little attention to its development in
education, especially at the early grade level until recent times. Literacy can be developed in
children, among other things through reading. Reading to improve children’s literature skills can
be achieved when there are enough readers for children in schools. This unit deals with how
supplementary reading materials can be developed for children to enhance their reading skills and
appreciation for literature.

 Developing Supplementary Reading materials for KG to P6

Developing supplementary reading materials for children is not an easy task for teachers and
writers. In this unit, it is suggested that supplementary reading materials to improve children’s love
for literature is developed around the following sections:

- Structure (Genre, form, text structure, content, themes, vocabulary, sentence structure,
Language and literary features, book and print features)

- Scope and sequencing of themes/key concepts/messages

- Font Type and size

- Word and Letter Spacing

- Illustrations

- Color

- Inclusiveness

- Gender Sensitivity
 - Cultural Sensitivity

- Books and Print Features

- Pilot Testing

- Checklist for evaluating supplementary reader

o Structure
Structure of a text is the overall architecture of a piece of writing. It is sometimes referred to as
organization. This includes genre, form, content, theme, vocabulary, sentence structure, language
and literary features, and book and print features.

- Genre: This deals with whether the text is fiction or non-fiction. A fiction text is an
invented, imaginative prose, drama or poetry that tells a story while non-fiction provides
factual information. Supplementary reading materials for KG to P6 children can be any of
the two genres. The genre selected by the author can be in any of the following forms
depending upon the level of readers. The fiction and non-fiction texts should possess the
following characteristics:

Kindergarten 1 - 2 Primary 1 - 3 Primary 4 - 6

Fiction: Fiction: Fiction:
Realistic fiction, Realistic fiction, traditional Realistic fiction, historical
folktale, simple animal literature (folktale, fairy fiction, traditional literature
fantasy tale, fable), animal fantasy, (folktale, fairy tale, fable,
hybrid text, adventure myth, legend, ballad),
Non-Fiction:
story, animal story, family, complex fantasy including
Simple factual texts, friends and school story, science fiction, hybrid text,
memoir (personal memory humorous story and special types of fiction
story), simple procedural historical fiction (mystery, adventure stories,
texts Non-Fiction: animal story, family,
simple expository texts, friends, school stories,
simple narrative, simple
 biography, memoir, humorous story, sports
procedural texts, simple story)
persuasive texts, hybrid text
autobiography, Non-Fiction:
Expository non-fiction,
narrative non-fiction,
biography, autobiography,
memoir, procedural text,
persuasive text, hybrid text

o Form: It is the kind of text which is characterized by particular elements like short story.
Material developers must adjust the form of material written as the reader develops within
a category and across the various categories. Based on the framework of Fountas and
Pinnell (2017), the following forms of materials for the various grade level categories are
suggested:

Kindergarten 1 - 2 Primary 1 - 3 Primary 4 - 6

Picture books, wordless Series books, picture books Series books, picture books,
picture books, label books, (enlarged), wordless books, play books, chapter books,
short poems, nursery rhymes, poems, nursery rhymes and poems, poetry collection,
rhymes and songs, concept songs, brief plays, concept plays, short stories, rhymes
books, charts/posters, ABC books, label books, ABC and songs from other cultures,
books, counting books, books (sophisticated), photo essays, news and
padding books, pup up books, counting books, chapter feature articles, speeches,
tongue twisters, puzzles books, letters, types of poetry diaries
(jigsaw puzzles – pictures of (lyrical, free verse, narrative),
animals, objects cut out into poetry collection, short
different shapes and children stories, photo essays, news
asked to arrange) and feature articles, speeches
o Text Structure:
Text structure deals with how a text is organized and presented (Fountas & Pinnell, 2017)
to readers to facilitate comprehension. The text may be a narrative. Sometimes, the text
may have sections with headings. Some texts may be description, sequence, compare and
contrast, cause and effect, and problem and solution. Combination of such text structure
challenge students as they read. It must be noted that as one progresses within the define
level and across levels the structure becomes a bit complex.

Kindergarten 1 - 2 Primary 1 - 3 Primary 4 - 6

 Very simple narratives  Simple narratives with clear  Narrative with straightforward
using pictures structure – beginning, middle structure and multiple episodes
 Very simple narratives and end (can have more  Stories with complex plots and
with beginning, middle episodes) several problems
and end  Simple stories with simple  Longer stories with multiple plots
 Simple narratives with plot  Chapter books to a single plot
repetition  Many texts with repeating  Collection of short stories
 Focus on single topics patterns informational texts
with usually one idea  Informational texts with  Stories of description, cause and
per page clearly defined structure effect, problem and solution, and
 Simple descriptions  Stories with complex plot question and answer
 Stories with simple  Simple biographical and  Informational text with examples
plots historical text with narrative of simple argument and
structure persuasion
 Underlying structural patterns  Stories with variation in structure
– description, cause and e.g. flashback, story within a
effect, sequencing etc. story
 Text with circular or parallel
plots
 Biographical and historical texts
with narrative structure
  Longer narratives with many
plots.

o Content:
The content of a supplementary reading material refers to the subject-matter of the text. What
is the text about? In fiction, content refers to the setting or the kind of problems characters
have, while non-fiction content deals with topic of focus. The content of a text should be
considered in relation to readers’ prior experience of knowledge (Fountas & Pinnell, 2017).
The content of a supplementary reader should be accessible and interesting. The content of
any supplementary reader should be appropriate to children’s cognitive development, social
and emotional maturity and life experience. It must be linked to content of the course work in
the classroom. This will enhance integrated learning. It should engage children’s curiosity and
emotions.
The following are some suggested content for the various levels:

Kindergarten 1 - 2 Primary 1 - 3 Primary 4 - 6

 Books for language and  Books for language and word  Content that promotes inquiry
word plays: Rhymes, plays: Rhymes, tongue and investigation
tongue twisters, songs, twisters, songs, alphabets,  Familiar authentic and relevant
children poems poems, sound devices, parts content e.g. animals, family,
 Conceptual understanding of speech, alliterations relationship, friendship,
content: colors, shapes,  Conceptual understanding sports/games, nutrition, music,
counting, size, alphabets content: colors, shapes, community, occupation
 Everyday actions/things counting, size, alphabets,  Complex but subtle humorous
which are familiar to position topics
children: playing, making  Everyday actions/things  Content that expands and
things, eating, dressing, which are familiar to reinforces the horizon of the
cooking, shopping, children: playing, making child and the world
greeting things, eating, dressing,  Content that is beyond the
cooking, shopping, greeting child’s immediate environment
 Authentic and familiar  Relevant and authentic  Content that deals with
topics: animals, pets, familiar topics: animals, pets, different settings, languages
family, friends, food, self, family, friends, the and culture
clothes, school compound, senses, health and sickness,  Content on historical
Homes – (Kitchen, safety, body parts, school, importance e.g. places/periods
bathroom, bedroom) neighborhood, food, plants,  Content on other subjects
friends, clothes, weather (content-based)
neighborhood, plants,  Humorous content which is  Content on contemporary
games easy to understand e.g. funny issues
 Sorting out materials e.g. situations, jokes  Content that reflect complex
color, size  Content related to specific characters, setting and fantasy
 Content that is humorous areas of study events
and easy to comprehend  Content that expands  Content that reflects the
 Content that is beyond the children’s knowledge of the understanding of the physical
immediate experiences world e.g. wild animals, and social world of the child
 Content on fantasy things desert, ocean, events from  Content with dense
 Content on content about various places presentation of facts and ideas
common sounds in the  Content about imaginary and
environment real characters
 Content on simple  Content that develops enquiry
instructions e.g., stand up, and investigation
sit down
 Books associating names
with objects, alphabets
letters with objects

- Reading questions: It is not compulsory to have comprehension questions at the end of a

chapter or at the end of the entire reading text but it is helpful to have one. Having
comprehension questions in supplementary readers help readers to test their understanding
of what is read. This is essential if such supplementary reading materials are directly
 developed to supplement textbooks. However, if the supplementary reading materials are
developed for extensive reading purposes, then comprehension questions will be
detrimental. In any case, if a writer decides to add comprehension questions, then they
should be diversified. At the lower level, questions can be at the literal and the interpretive
levels. At the higher level from P4 onwards, critical level comprehension questions should
be included. Though comprehension questions are not compulsory in developing a
supplementary reader, sometimes their inclusion is appreciated.

- Glossary - A glossary is an alphabetical list of words/vocabulary and their definitions or

meanings. Glossaries normally appear at the end of a book and include terms within the
book that are newly introduced, uncommon, or specialized. They are almost like a
dictionary only that the list of words is those that are relevant to the contents of the book.
They are useful for readers to understand the meaning of new or specialized vocabulary.
Sometimes it helps readers to get the meaning of words in the context in which they are
used. It will be more appreciated, if writers include glossary in their books, especially from
Primary three onwards.

o Themes
According to Fountas and Pinnell (2017), the theme of a reader (supplementary or
textbooks) refers to the underlying message or ‘a big idea’ of a story communicated by the
writer. A text may have multiple themes or a main theme and several supporting themes.
The selected theme must be in consonance with the age and background experience of the
child. This implies that each of the themes below can be developed for any age group but
the writer must bear in mind the reading level of the reader. However, supplementary
reading book developers must acknowledge that some themes are more suitable to early
grade readers than upper primary readers. The broad themes suggested are not topics to be
developed. They are to serve as a source from which many stories can be developed.
Common suggested themes to be exploited in developing supplementary readers for the
Ghanaian child may include the following:
Kindergarten 1 - 2 Primary 1 - 3 Primary 4 - 6
 counting  School  Election
 letters  Family  Education
 babies  Food (vegetable,  Social issues
 Animals (domestic) foodstuff, fruits)  Citizenship
 Colours  Cultural values  Cultural issues
 Family  Change our  My country
 Parents differences  Patriotism
 Friendship  Other people  Occupation (tradition
 Objects  Feelings and contemporary)
 Safety  Solving conflicts  Environmental issues
 Food  Holidays  Holidays
 My body  Mu community  Workplaces
 Days  My country  Animals (domestic,
 home  Occupation wild and exotic)
 School  Environmental issues  Crime
 Etc.  Citizenship  Living together
 Science and  Adventures
technology  Etc.
 Etc.

o Vocabulary
The type of vocabulary used in a reader plays a major role to ensure readability. This implies
that developers of supplementary reading materials must pay particular attention to the type
vocabulary they use in their writing. Vocabulary is a strong indicator of reading success
(Biemiller, 2003). The complexity of vocabulary used in a text has a strong relation to readers’
ability to understand a text. They should consider the age and reading level of the readers.
The type or complexity of the vocabulary use will also depend on the language used in writing.
Is it the L1 of the child or L2? The vocabulary used in L1 readers will differ in complexity
for children of the same level when it is in the L2. Writers need to note that when children do
 not understand the meanings of important words in a text, they are unlikely to understand the
text. Therefore, the vocabulary writers provide in their texts is a critical aspect of literacy
development. Supplementary readers’ developers at the KG 1 and 2 levels should note that
children’s vocabulary development at this age is largely through oral (i.e. words which they
can understand when heard and use themselves) so they need to develop materials which will
make the teacher using such material to use vocabulary which children will learn.

- KG 1-2 Level: Few vocabularies are made use of in writing at this stage. Most importantly,
at KG 2 there should be few interesting words that are new to children but are easy to
understand, few content words which are easy to understand, and common adverbs and
adjectives.
N.B: They can be introduced to words in progression i.e. from single words like, boy, girl, fan, doll etc, before
one sentence of 2 or 3 words, two sentences of 4 words etc. at Term 3 of KG2.

- Primary 1-3 Level: A few interesting and content words which are easy to comprehend, a
few simple adverbs and adjectives and simple and common connectives. At Primary 2 new
content words which are connected to concepts children are learning, words children can
use for play, adjectives and adverbs suitable at the level, and common simple connectives
(like and, but, so, because, before, after). At Primary 3, writer can use discipline-oriented
words, connectives that clarify and link ideas, many adjectives describing people, places
and things and adverbs that describe action. A few technical terms are recommended.
- Primary 4-6 Level: Vocabulary used at this level is a build-on of the previous level,
sophisticated connectives like although, between, before etc., words with multiple
meanings, some idioms, words used figuratively, words used connotatively, a few words
used ironically, and some academic connectives: despite, whenever etc.
A key suggestion worth noting is always consider the age, reading level of the learners and the
language used as the medium (L1 or L2).

o Sentence structure
Sentence structure or complexity refers to the way words are aligned to make meaning.
According to Fountas and Pinnell (2017), text with simpler sentences are easier to process and
understand but sentences with embedded and conjoined clauses make a text easier to
 understand. Complicated sentence structure is known to cause reading difficulties among
readers. This assertion has implications for supplementary readers’ developers. The following
are suggested ideas of the type of sentence structure to use in supplementary reading materials
at the various levels:

- At the KG level because most learning and learning is done orally, it is advisable for
the teacher to use simple sentences which are easy to follow and comprehend and
sentences that are questions which children can respond with simple sentences.
Example:
(a.) This is Ama.
(b.) Ama is a girl.

- At the Primary 1-3 level, reading materials should have sentences which are easy to
follow, simple sentences (subject and predicate), simple sentences with adjectives and
adverbs and sentences with variation in the placement subject. As one progresses in the
level, text can contain sentences with multiple adjectives, adverbs and prepositional
phrases. Additionally, sentences can have simple and later sophisticated connectives
(e.g. and/but and because), and simple compound and complex sentences. Example: I
have a black book. The boy has a book (a) I have a black book
(b) The boy has a book and a pen.
- At Primary 4-6, writers can use simple and complex sentences, sentences with multiple
adjectives, adverbs and prepositional phrases, sentences with embedded clauses and
phrases and sentences with simple and sophisticated connectives and sentences with
cohesive or transitional words. Example:
(a)The teacher saw a black hen in the room
- If you go to the market, buy me some oranges
- The man who came here yesterday bought a nice shoe for me.
The age, reading level of readers and language used as the medium of the text will influence the
nature of sentence structure to use.
 o Language and literacy features
One aim of a supplementary reading material is to make reading enjoyable and satisfying to
readers so supplementary materials developers must make sure they use language and literacy
features that will help achieve this objective. Language and literary features include the use of
dialogues, figurative language and other literary structures such as characters setting and plot.
In this framework, the following language and literary features are recommended for use at the
various levels:
- KG 1-2 Level: Language and literary feature used in KG supplementary readers should
include simple elements of fantasy (animals talking, humans flying etc.), predictable
story outcomes, familiar setting, memorable characters, characters with simple traits,
predictable sequence of events, and some poetic language (e.g. repetition, rhyme,
rhythm). It must also include some literary language (e.g. once upon a time, a very long
time ago, one day) and some simple plots with problem and solution.
- Primary 1-3 Level: At this level, reading materials/texts should build on KG language
and literary features. It should also include predictable story outcomes, familiar setting
clues to children’s experience, both realistic and fantastic settings, events and
characters, straightforward memorable characters, and characters with one or two
simple traits. Additionally, texts should have language and literary features like
character actions related to clear consequences, main characters and supporting
characters, predictable sequence of events, simple plot, figurative language, simple
dialogue, procedural language and literary language.
- Primary 4-6 Level: This level features is a build on of the previous level. Reading texts
at this level should have language and literary feature like stories with distant setting
in time and place, main characters and supporting characters, multiple characters,
characters develop as a result of plot events, and variety in presentation of dialogue.
Texts should also have language and literary features like plots with few episodes,
comparative language, many text told from a single point of view, descriptive and
poetic language, and figurative and persuasive language.
o Book and Print Features
It is recommended that when we are selecting books for children for reading, we need to consider
the physical aspects of the book, such as length, size, and layout (Fountas & Pinnell, 2017). Book
and print features also include organizational tools such as table of contents, glossary,
pronunciation guide, indexes, sidebars and headings. Book and print features have components
which include length, and print and layout. The following are some of the things writers need to
consider under book and print layout at the various levels:

- KG 1-2 Level: The KG supplementary reader should be in the form of short picture
books can be read in one sitting. The picture book should have prints which are large
enough for children to see clearly and with decorative or informative illustrations. The
designs should catch attention of children and the cover should have attractive designs.

- Primary 1-3 Level: At the initial point of this level, the books can be short picture
oriented and can be read in one sitting. The books can also include notice letters, simple
phrases, labels, or short sentences large enough to be seen and books with decorative
or informative illustrations.

- Primary 4-6 Level: There should be short picture stories that can be read at one sitting
at the initial point at this level. There should also be long illustrated texts and some
texts that require several days to complete, many short stories and long illustrated texts
with sections that can be selected and read.
o Font Type and size
a. Font: A font is a set of printable or displayable text character in a specific style and size.
Fonts are decodable symbols used in communicating through reading. They are the letters of
the alphabet used in publishing books, posters, charts etc.

Font Type: Its size is the overall size of a font shown on a screen or printed on a page. A
font is typically measured in a point (pt) size. There are numerous font types which can be
used in books. Examples include Andika, Helvetica, Ariel, Cordia New, ZNuscript,
Myraid Pro, Times Roman and Sans-serif. In this framework sans-serif is recommended,
especially for early graders. It is recommended because it supports children’s letter
recognition principle. Again, it corresponds with what the teacher writes on the board and
with what they also write in their books (Keyes, 1993). The uniform thickness of sans-
 serif ensures consistency and makes children spend less time on decoding the typographic
cues and more time on understanding the meaning of the text being read. The focus is on
clear, easy-to-perceive letter forms that will not be readily confused with one another
(Frank, 2013). The following is recommended, especially for KG to P3.

- Font Size: Font size influences the child’s rate of reading and comprehension. The
reading speed of children 5 - 7-year olds is more dependent on font size than
children aged 8 – 10 years. According to Marinelli, (2011), an increase in font size
therefore increases and improves reading rate in children until it reaches a plateau,
called the Critical Print Size (CPS). Font size is also linked with the issue of letter,
word and sentence spacing, that is, the number of words per line and the number of
lines per page. In this framework, the following font sizes is recommended for
supplementary reader developers:
Recommendation for font size (these are approximations)
Class KG 1 – 2 P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6
Font Size 28 – 32 26 –28 26– 28 24– 26 14-16 12/14 12/14

 Word and Letter Spacing:

The way developers of supplementary reading materials space their letters and words affect
readability. Readability is defined as the ‘sum total of all those elements within a given piece of
printed material that affect the success a group of readers have with it’ (Dale & Chall, 1995), p.23).
When developing materials for learners who are still developing their reading ability, too many
typographic cues (which include the use of bold and italic text, color, pictures, page numbers, etc.)
can become distracting. The use of effective spacing mechanism helps in reducing the detracting
phenomenon. Spaces in between letters, words and sentences help to make features such as
headings or bold text stand out more thus increasing the extent to which learners can process this
information (Keyes, 1993). The issue of spacing is not only relevant for letters, words and sentence
lines, but also for the use of illustrations. Both text and illustrations should be positioned
consistently to provide a ‘frame of reference within which the learner can move about, leave and
return without confusion’ (Hartley, 1994, p.18).

The spacing after story titles, between titles and text, between pictures and text, and between lines
can also enhance learners’ ability to understand the story. If spacing decreases hierarchically
(proportionally), then learners can distinguish the information more easily. For example, if the
spacing between the main heading and the subheading is four lines, then the spacing between the
subheading and the text should be two lines.

In situations where the number of words per line and number of lines per page are concerned,
especially for lower primary, the following guidelines by Praphamotripong (2010) are necessary:
- For KG2 children (later stage - ± 5 years old), there should be approximately 2 to 4 words
per line and 4 to 5 lines of text per page. At KG 2 towards the end, picture and label is
recommended. E.g. Ama is a girl.
- For Primary 1 children (± 6 years old), there should be approximately 4 to 6 words per line
and 4 to 6 lines of text per page. E.g. Ama climbed the tall tree yesterday.
- For Primary 2 children (± 7 years old), there should be approximately 6 to 8 words per line
and 6 to 8 lines of text per page. E.g. Ama climbed the mango tree near the house.
- For Primary 3 children (±8 years old), there should approximately 8 to 10 words per line
and 8 to 10 lines of text per page. E.g. Ama fell from the tall tree near the white house.
- Form Primary 4 onwards (± 9 years old and above), there should be approximately 10 to11
words per line and 10 to 12 lines per page.

The number of words per line and number of lines per page will depend on the language in which
the text is written because some languages have longer words than others. The writer will have to
use his good judgment to make the text readable.

 Illustrations
Illustrations in readers provide a great deal of information to readers. As Fountas and Pinnell
(2017: 17) indicate, “a high-quality picture book is a coherent form of literary art”. The
illustrations in children’s supplementary readers should be sharp and colorful. Colors used must
be bright and attractive to pupils. The images should be such that the pupils can identify with them
easily. For example, a goat should not look like a sheep or a cow to confuse readers. Illustrations
should also be used carefully when designing materials for those learning to read
(Praphamotripong, 2010). Illustrations should relate to the text but should not allow the reader to
figure out the text without having to read the words (Davidson, 2014).

Moreover, if illustrations are not used to reinforce the making of one-to-one links between the
picture and the words, then learners can be distracted from the central task of reading
comprehension (Breznitz, 1988). It is crucial that designers of supplementary reading materials
consistently use illustrations to reinforce the meaning of words, not just to increase the
entertainment factor, or to fill up a page. Pupils like cartoons and it will not be out of place to
have some cartoons in the readers. Illustrations in KG supplementary readers should be large,
colorful and of variety to support meaning. They should add meaning to the text and they should
be simple not to distract readers. The illustrations in books at this stage should depict important
events in a story. Some illustrations at this level should have labels. At Primary 1-3, the
illustrations should be colorful and support meaning, extend and enhance meaning. The
illustrations should support interpretation and enhance enjoyment. The illustrations should also
be simple and in a variety of forms. Besides, illustrations in books at this level should convey
complex emotions and reflect the theme.

At the later stage of this level, illustrations can be complex with many details, and convey mood.
Additionally, there can be minimal illustrations. From Primary 4 to 6, there can be illustrations
in variety of forms which support meaning of a text, some complex illustrations, some text with
black and white illustrations and those without illustrations. There can also be chapter books with
few illustrations and some illustrations which portray figurative and symbolic characteristics
requiring interpretation. Some of the illustrations can have figurative and symbolic characteristics
that reflect the mood of the writer. The key to having quality illustrations that will facilitate
comprehension is to consider the age and level of the reader.

 Color
Supplementary Readers and other learning materials in full color are mostly recommended for
children in the early grades. In the recent past, publishers used color only for book covers. This
trend has changed tremendously as most reading materials meant for early grade learners appear
very colorful. Available research reports indicate that color motivates readers, especially early
grade learners and children with less reading experience. This has made colored reading materials
more attractive to children than those in black and white (Praphamotripong, 2010). This attraction
has inherent value since it may instill a love for reading in young learners. Color has also been
identified as a potential element for improving classroom environment thus making children enjoy
the setting which culminates in improving learning. Researchers have identified four main
advantages of color:
- Color motivates children to pick up a book and enjoy reading instead of perceiving it as a
scholarly task;
- Color in illustrations can aid object recognition, which facilitates better comprehension of the
text;
- Color that groups similar elements places emphasis on what is being taught
- Color can strengthen structure of the visual information of a text (Hartley, 1994; Marinelli,
2011; Praphamotripong, 2010).
- The use of color appropriately ensures legibility of the text. For instance, the use of black letters
on white background has the highest legibility (Harley, 1994) as oppose to putting yellow
letters on green background.
However, if color is not used properly it can
- Interfere with reading comprehension
- Take attention away from other important cues such as shape (Marinelli, 2011).
- Make text difficult to read when bright and shiny/glossy colors are used.

Characteristics of reading materials for the early grades determine the applicability of the
advantages of using color on reading acquisition. Colour attracts children and therefore serves as
the first advantage of motivating children to read from early age. Colorful books with colourful
illustrations attract children. They recognize objects more quickly when their colors reflect what
they see in the physical world. Upon seeing an object that is colored differently, like a blue orange,
it can cause cognitive dissonance that the viewer must resolve. Of course, you may intentionally
use unusual colors as a creative, playful or dissonant approach. But if you are aiming for speedy
recognition of children’s book, use colors that are normally associated with an object or scene that
they are used to. For example, a ripe orange should be yellow and not green. Color can differentiate
the word or element to which one wants to draw attention; it can facilitate the grouping of elements;
and it can increase interest in the reading material. This implies that supplementary reading
materials developers should be conscious of how to use colors to get the desired effect.

 Inclusiveness
Supplementary readers must mainstream disability issues and have psycho-social support.
Conscious efforts must be made by writers and illustrators to introduce inclusiveness in the readers.
The stories (pictures) should include pupils with disabilities or living with persons with disability:
the visually impaired, physically challenged, hearing impaired, autism etc. Additionally, writers
and illustrators should consider talented/gifted pupils1. This will help diffuse some superstitious
beliefs that are common in Ghanaian communities. People living with disabilities should be
accepted in the community. For example, portraying a person with disability as the goalkeeper of
the school football team, a blind girl captured as a doctor, a physically challenged boy who is the
general manager of a company or a professor of a university. Supplementary reader developers
should write to promote acceptance and understanding of those with physical or intellectual
disabilities. Some of the books should highlight the positive traits and views of disability and be
written to demystify the negative beliefs of disability.

 Gender sensitivity
This framework recommends that supplementary reading books must be gender neutral and
appropriate. Such books should not project the supremacy of any one gender. The pictures should
not reflect gender stereotypes. The situation where the boys are always playing and the girls in
the kitchen or performing one chore or the other or boys learning science and girls home
economics. The portrayal of boys more in books than girls should be avoided. There should be
equal representation. The portrayal of boys as spoke persons for a group all the time should be
avoided in supplementary reading materials. It should be possible for a girl to be the spoke
person/class prefect/school prefect and a boy as office cleaner. It should also be possible for a
boy to run to a girl for protection when he has seen a mouse or snake. Additionally, portraying
boys in supplementary reading materials without girls is unacceptable. We need to give equal
attention and coverage to both sexes; gender discrimination should be avoided. Stereotypes should
be avoided.

 Cultural Sensitivity
Ghana is multilingual multiethnic nation. This implies that supplementary reading materials
developed for children should be culturally sensitive. Authors need to develop culturally sensitive
materials to ensure the dignity of the various ethnic groups in Ghana. Materials developed should
promote peaceful co-existence and cultural tolerance among ethnic groups. However, the cultural
background of the child should not be relegated to the fringes. We need to portray the culture of
the individual before expanding it to other cultures. Writers need to provide readers with
awareness of other cultures too i.e., inclusion of materials of other cultures of the country. In
addition, writers need to include materials that help readers see the similarities and differences
between the various cultures. This will help children appreciate the contribution of other cultures
in the total development of the country. Supplementary reading materials developers use cultural
materials that lessons anxiety and prejudices towards those who are different. Materials dealing
with tradition and modernity must be well-balanced. Materials that enforce negative cultural
stereotypes should be avoided. Suggested themes to be in supplementary reading materials may
include, living in peace, loving and caring, caring and sharing, good neighborliness, being your
neighbor’s keeper, respecting other people’s religion/beliefs/culture, acceptance for ethnic
diversity and accommodating individual differences.

 Pilot Testing
Every supplementary reader developed must be pilot tested before it is accepted to be used in
schools. This will ensure the appropriateness and suitability of the book to the intended age and
level. This will be done by the Ghana Education Service, through National Council on Curriculum
and Assessment (NaCCA) at the publisher’s expense. Officers from the NaCCA with selected
literacy experts will go to selected schools in some selected districts to pilot-test the supplementary
reader in question.
 Unit SELECTION AND USE OF CHILDREN’S LITERATURE
BOOK/SUPPLEMENTARY READING MATERIAL

 Introduction:
The unit begins with the rationale for using children’s literature books or supplementary reading
materials for the development of children’s love for literature. The unit continues with issues to
consider when selecting children’s literature book or supplementary reading materials and hints
on using them. The unit concludes with discussion on criteria for selecting supplementary reading
material for children’s literature.

 Rationale for using supplementary reading materials

Supplementary reading materials are any reading material which relate to the curriculum and are
available for teacher to use and/or student use and selection. Supplementary reading materials are
essential in language learning and development of children’s reading and literature skills and the
bedrock of syllabus design and lesson planning. The value of supplementary reading materials in
language learning generally and literature skills development cannot be underestimated. Graves
(2000) indicates that supplementary reading materials sometimes serve as the basis for planning
the reading development of children, and this cannot be overemphasized. It is therefore crucial to
give due consideration to the selection and use of supplementary reading materials for our children,
especially in a second language learning program. The following are the rationale for using
supplementary reading materials to develop the literature skills of learners:
- Supplementary reading materials help to reduce the time that teacher would have spent on
material development.
- Supplementary reading materials can be used to support classroom activities and
curriculum content (Garinger, 2003).
- Supplementary reading materials sometimes ensure standardization in instruction of
reading or literature, maintenance of quality and efficiency and provide effective language
models and inputs, especially if they are recommended by validating bodies, e.g. Ghana
Education Service (GES) (Richards, 2001).
- Supplementary reading materials sometimes provide structure and a syllabus for a
program.
 - Supplementary reading materials are visually appealing to students.

 Advantages of using supplementary reading materials

Supplementary materials are used to provide extension, enrichment, and support to the curriculum.
- encourages independent access to information and arouses the interest of pupils in matters
outside the curriculum
- provides training in the use and retrieval of information, a skill which is essential for higher
education and lifelong learning.
- Supplementary materials help to motivate the learners by creating interests in reading and
encouraging them to use the language in the class.
- they enable the learners to understand and grasp information.
- to give learners extra language or skills practice to children
- to add variety to reading
- they complement what are in the reading textbooks.

 Points to note when selecting a language supplementary reader to hekp children

improve their literature skills:
- Check whether the supplementary reading material will help advance the aims of reading
and development of children’s literature skills.
- Consider using a supplementary reading material, which are in series or use individual
materials that deal with several themes/genres.
- Check whether the supplementary reading material is appropriate to the intended learners
(cultural background, age, interest)
- Check the skills presented in the material.
- Review the appropriateness of exercises and activities (if any) in the supplementary reading
material (e.g., will they contribute to literature development skills? Are exercises varied
and challenging? Do the exercises move students along?)
- Consider practical concerns (Is the material available? Can the material be obtained in
time? Is it financially visible for learners to purchase?)
- Look at reviews to see what have been said about the book.
 - Does the supplementary reading material take into consideration of cultural diversity,
inclusivity and gender issues?

 Hints on using a supplementary reader

- Encourage children to select books which suits their age, learning styles, motive/need,
level, background, attitude etc.
- Help explain difficult words and provide needed background to learners to facilitate their
reading.
- Make sure the tasks/exercises/activities (if any?) suit students’ language needs
- Provide additional support to facilitates children’s reading.
- Make the supplementary reading material come live by using visual teaching materials
when reading to children.

 Checklist for selecting a supplementary reading material

This checklist below is a synthesis of what renowned reading materials’ writers have identified as
criteria for selecting a supplementary reading material. Your answers to the following questions
will be of great help to you in selecting a good supplementary reading material for your learners:
o Content
- Does the content support the goals of improving children’s reading?
- Is the theme presented in a way which is appropriate to the intended learner?
- Does the content of the supplementary reader provide opportunities to advance children’s
reading?
- Is the content appropriate to the age level of learners?
- Does the content teach moral lessons?
- Is the supplementary reader part of a series, and if so, would using the entire series be
appropriate?
- Are the selected readings authentic pieces of language?
- Is the content sensitive to the cultural background and interest of learners?
- Are the grammar rules presented in the reader accurate?
- Is the vocabulary presented in variety of ways?
- Are the new vocabulary words presented at an appropriate rate so that the text is
understandable and easy for students to decode and comprehend?
- Is the new vocabulary repeated in subsequent sections of the book to reinforce their
meaning and use?
o Exercises and Activities (if any)
- Do the activities and exercises promote learners’ reading and language development?
- Is there a balance between controlled and free exercises?
- Do the exercises and activities (if any) promote students’ higher thinking skills?
- Do the exercises and activities (if any) reinforce what students have already read?
- Are the exercises and activities presented in progressive manner from simple to complex?
- Are the exercises and activities designed in a way that will continually motivate and
challenge learners?
- Are instructions to the exercises and activities clear?
o Skills
- Are the skills presented in the book appropriate to the level?
- Are skills integrated to enhance students’ reading?
- Do the skills in the textbook presented to promote children’s cognitive skills?
- Does the supplementary reading material provide learners with adequate guidance as they
are acquiring the skills?
o Attractiveness/Practical Concerns
- Is the supplementary reader available?
- Is the supplementary material cost effective?
- Is the cover of the supplementary reader appealing?
- Is the supplementary reader of high-quality editing and publishing?
- Has the supplementary reader got an appropriate title?
- Is the supplementary reader durable?
- Are the visual images in the supplementary reader of high aesthetic quality?
- Are illustrations in the supplementary simple, clear and help with the understanding of the
content?
- Is the font size appropriate to the intended learners?
  Checklist specifically for assessing the quality of Children's Literature book

Here are some things to think about when choosing early grade and upper primary children’s
literature. Some of these questions can be used to evaluate a single book; however, the questions
are most effective when used to review a complete collection.

o Story
- Are the stories interesting to children?
- Are there various conflicts for children to explore?
- How are the conflicts resolved?
o Characters
- Do characters represent people from a variety of cultural groups?
- Do "good" characters reflect a variety of backgrounds?
- Are females as well as males depicted in leadership roles?
- Are children interested in the characters?
- Are the characters similar to them or drastically different from them?
- Do the characters go through a range of emotions: sadness, joy, courage, fear, surprise
and humor?
- Do the behavior and thinking of the characters change and develop through the story?
o Themes
- Do the stories offer children a variety of things to think about, to question and to
consider?
- Are values being explored instead of preached?
- Are there lessons to be learned?
o Settings
- Do the stories reflect a variety of settings?
- Are urban, suburban and rural settings represented realistically?
- Are cultural settings represented realistically?
o Illustrations
- Are diverse groups of people represented?
- Is there diversity represented within cultural groups?
- Are characters realistically and genuinely represented?
 - Do the illustrations avoid reinforcing societal stereotypes?
o Other considerations
- Will the stories encourage discussions?
- Are children exposed to multiple perspectives and values?
- Do the stories promote understanding of our diverse society?
- Are the stories age appropriate to ensure children can understand what is presented?

In brief, the books chosen for children’s literature represent a variety of settings, problem -
solving approaches and themes, and should provide opportunities for children to consider
different perspectives and values. Multicultural children’s books should not speak to a limited
group of children; they should speak to all children.

 Deficiencies of supplementary reading materials and overcoming the weaknesses

Every supplementary reading material has some deficiencies and for teachers to use them and give
the desired effect such deficiencies should be addressed. The following are some deficiencies
likely to be identified in supplementary reading materials.
WEAKNESS STUDENT DIFFICULTY OVERCOMING
WEAKNESS
The language may be difficult Children may find it difficult Test for readability and level
for intended level. to decode and understand the of material before prescribing
content for intended learners.
Treat difficult language with
children before reading.
May not contain questions and Student may not think Make your own questions and
activities critically about the content activities on the content to
help learners appreciate the
book.
Material may not reflect the Students cannot appreciate Give background information
background of learners and understand the content about the book before learners
read
 They may have lower-level Students critical thinking Ask higher level thinking
thinking questions (if any). skills may not be developed questions and extending
activities
May not be multicultural and Children may have disrespect Select good multicultural
reinforces negative for others books which has an anti-bias
stereotypes approach.

Besides these, explore under deficiencies you may find as you go through other children’s
literature books.

 Assessing children’s literature skills

Literature is a powerful vehicle for helping children understand their homes, communities and
the world. Even before young children can read, family members and teachers read them stories
about people in faraway places, sometimes from the distant past and sometimes about people
whose lives are similar to their own. The impressions and messages contained in these stories
can last a lifetime. A good children’s literature book makes children use their imaginations,
expand their vocabularies and gain a better understanding of themselves and others. If the books
reflect the diverse groups of people in the world around them, children can learn to develop
respect for self and others. Children’s literature books should be both a mirror in which they can
see themselves reflected, and also a window through which they can explore the world around
them. For teachers to be able to assess the literature skills of children and provide the necessary
support we need to have an idea of the outcomes or goals for teaching literature to children.

 Importance of assessing children’s literature skills

Assessments are vital tools for reading/literature teachers as they navigate reading/literature
instruction. While overarching literature themes and skills can be taught to a group of children at
the same time, such as letter sounds or main idea, the fact is that each individual child is unique
and will therefore learn at different pace. An appropriate children’s literature assessment system
may include different assessments for different categories of purpose, such as: assessments to
support learning and assessments for identification of special needs of children in literature. The
following are some importance of assessing children’s reading/literature skills:
 - helps language teachers on a day-to-day basis. Knowing a child's specific abilities in
reading literature allows a teacher to place students in appropriate reading/literature study
groups and create center work that promotes specific skill development. Continued
informal assessments allow for flexible movement within these instructional groups as
learners progress and their needs change.
- gives teachers information about which students are in need of additional help; perhaps
requiring interventions if the child is lacking basic skills, or further screenings to see if a
child has special needs, such as dyslexia.
- helps identify struggling students and provide the needed intervention. These are neither
formative nor summative, but rather a parallel assessment that is solely used to measure a
students' performance to determine their skill level. Sometimes using assessment as a
screening means results in children receiving extra help. Some teachers use screening
assessments in reading/literature for all students at the beginning of the year to see where
students are in their reading/literature skills development.
- helps literature teachers to modify their instructional methods to help learners. It provides
teachers with information on how instruction can be improved to benefit all learners.
- helps teachers report to parent about the performance of children in literature to parents,
- helps teachers know whether literature instructional objectives have been achieved.
- helps teacher to identify skills that need review.
o helps teachers the literary competence of their children.
o develops decision-making and meaning-making skills of children.
o helps teacher to develop specific language skills – oral literature assessment challenge the
speaking and listening skills of children, while written literature develops skills in
reading and writing.

o General Principles of Assessing Children’s Literature skills (Principles and

recommendations for early childhood assessments) Kagan, et.al. (1998) Retrieved from
https://govinfo.library.unt.edu/negp/reports/prinrec.pdf

The following general principles should guide both policies and practices for the assessment of
young children, especially in literature:
- Children’s literature assessment should bring about benefits for children. Gathering
accurate information from young children is difficult and potentially stressful. Formal
assessments may also be costly and take resources that could otherwise be spent directly
on programs and services for young children. To assessments conducted for children in
literature must have a clear benefit - either in direct services to the child’s improvement
of literature or in improved quality of educational programs.
- Children’s literature assessments should be tailored to a specific purpose and should be
reliable, valid, and fair for that purpose. For example, if the teacher wants to find out
children’s understanding of a book read, the assessment should do so. The test should be
authentic.
- Assessment policies should be designed bearing in mind that reliability and validity of
assessments increase with children’s age. The younger the child, the more difficult it is to
obtain reliable and valid assessment data. It is particularly difficult to assess children’s
cognitive abilities accurately before age 6.
- Assessment of children’s literature should be age-appropriate in both content and the
method of data collection. Assessments of young children should address the full range of
early learning and development, e.g., motor development; social and emotional
development; approaches toward learning; language development and cognition and
general knowledge. Methods of assessment should recognize that children need familiar
contexts in order to be able to demonstrate their abilities. Abstract paper-and-pencil tasks
may make it especially difficult for young children to show what they know.
- Assessments of children’s literature should be linguistically appropriate, recognizing that
to some extent all assessments are measures of language. Each child’s first- and second-
language development should be taken into account when determining appropriate
assessment methods and in interpreting the meaning of assessment results.
- Parents should be a valued source of children’s assessment information, as well as an
audience for assessment results. Assessment results should be shared with parents as part
of an ongoing process that involves parents in their child’s education.
  Ways of assessing children’s literature skills.

Below are some ways Early Grade and Upper Primary teachers to assess the literature skills of
their learners:

- Concept Maps – It is a diagramming technique for assessing how well children see the
"big picture" after reading a story book.
- Concept Tests - Conceptual multiple-choice questions that are useful in large classes to
check children’s understanding after reading a story book. This can be done orally or in a
written form.
- Exams – It can be formative or summative exam to check children’s knowledge about a
story book they have read as a group in class or individually.
- Oral Presentations – Children present to class oral about a story book they have read. At
the early grade level this can be done in the Ghanaian language to help children do proper
presentation. At the Upper Primary, it can be done in English with the Ghanaian language
use to support where there is the need.
- Poster Presentations – Children present their understanding of a book they have read to
their class in a poster presentation form (either using picture or words), where colleagues
will move around to have an idea of the content of the book and ask questions for
clarification.
- Peer Review - Having students assess themselves and each other on a book they have
read individual.
- Portfolios - A collection of evidence to demonstrate mastery of the content of a story
book they have read. This should be properly organized to represent the content (story
line) in an orderly manner so one can get the content after looking at the portfolio without
necessarily reading the book;
- Written Reports – Children make a drawing (for Early Grade) or a write-up (for Upper
Primary) to show their understanding of the story book they have read. This should
include their appreciation/evaluation of the book and perhaps their recommendation (if
any).
  Common literature tests
o Common literature tests to be used in the assessment of children include:
- Multiple-choice
- True or false
- Gap-filling
- Essay test
- Oral test
o Literature test can be categorized into two broad areas, which include
- Test of literary information
- Test of literary interpretation

 Examples of children’s literature tests

There are 5 examples of literature tests. These are testing literal comprehension, testing
reorganization, testing inference, testing evaluation and testing appreciation. These can be either
objective type of essay type.

- Testing literal comprehension – This includes recall of details, main ideas, sequence,
comparison, cause and effect relationship, and character traits. In this example we can
have both objective and essay type tests. The objective test in this category can include
recall of details in the story and sequencing of ideas as it happened in the story. The essay
type test here can include comparison (contrasting characteristics of the antagonist and
the protagonist) and character traits (cite instances in the story that show the strained
relationship between the characters).
- Testing reorganization – It involves classifying, summarizing and synthesizing ideas
from a story read. It also can be objective or essay type tests. Examples of objective type
tests in this category are classifying (e.g. selecting items that do not belong to the group),
synthesizing (e.g. from the choices given, select the statement that expresses the theme of
the following sections), The essay types can be outlining (e.g. construct a topic outline of
the story providing at least 3 main themes and a number of sub-themes), while
summarizing may involve writing a one-paragraph summary of the plot.
- Testing inference: Inference tests require students to use information explicitly stated in
the story along with personal experiences and knowledge in other to guess and to form
hypothesis. Examples include inferring supporting details, main ideas, cause and effect
relationships, character traits, author’s organization, predicting and interpreting figurative
language.
- Testing evaluation: This testing requires children to compare information and ideas in a
story book with material presented by the authorities and the instructor and with learners
own knowledge. Examples are reality and fantasy, facts and opinions, adequacy and
validity, appropriateness, worth and acceptability.
- Testing appreciation: This requires children to articulate emotional and esthetic responses
to the text based on personal and professional standards of literary forms, styles, genre,
themes and critical approaches. Examples are giving emotional response to a story read,
identifying wit characters and incidents, reacting to author’s or speaker’s connotative and
denotative use of language and reacting to imagery.

These types of testing will be suitable to Upper Primary learners rather that Early Grade
learner but it does on mean they cannot be used for Early Grade learners if the language used
is familiar and at the level of the children.

 Challenges of assessing children’s literature skills

- Negative history of testing children
- Inadequate training on the part of teachers in assessing children’s literature skills.
- Children’s lack of competency in the L2
- Large class sizes.
- Inadequate knowledge in the use of children’s literature assessment tool.
- In adequate children’s literature skills assessment resources
- Lack of knowledge in differentiated literature assessment
- Testing brings about anxiety in children
- Lack of academic vocabulary, which is a specific type of vocabulary that refers to
children’s literature.
- Lack of cultural familiarity.
 - It is particularly difficult to assess children’s cognitive abilities accurately before age 6.
- It is costly and take resources that could otherwise be spent directly on programs and
services for young children.
 Addressing challenges of assessing children’s literature skills
- Use test as a diagnosing item rather that as competition
- Ensure test does not make children more anxious; always conduct test in an environment
the lowers the affective filter of children.
- Ensure self-competition instead of group competition
- Test children based on a book they have read
- Teachers should be given adequate training in children’s assessment
- Update knowledge in children’s literature assessment.
- Use language which is appropriate the children’s level
- Ensure an environment conducive to testing
- Postponed some types of assessment until children are older, while other types of
assessment can be pursued, but only with necessary safeguards.

Children’s Literature Assessment tolls (Refer to required textbook Introduction to language

teaching: A resource for language teachers, pp. 465-481).
 TEACHING CHILDREN’S LITERATURE

Introduction:

 Selecting and using children’s literature to teach English.

Children’s literature can be used in helping children to learn English as a second language in the
case of the Ghanaian child. This helps children learn English without realizing that they are
learning the language. This is what Krashen (2001) refers to as the “power of reading”.
Smallwood (1988) recommends that the criteria for the selection of children’s literature for
second language learners (of English) should include the following:

- age-appropriate theme
- simple language
- limited use of literary devices
- use of unfamiliar experiences
- use of rhyme
- unambiguous plot
- realistic but simple dialogue
- potential for reading aloud
- brevity
- good illustrations to help tell the story
- meet curriculum objectives
- contain repeated, predictable language patterns
- short simple story
- interesting and fun
- bilingual and multicultural

 Literature Instructional goals / outcomes by Grade Level (culled from Sweetland (n.d)
http://www.homeofbob.com/literature/curriculum/index.html)

Knowing the goals or outcomes for literature teaching, will help us assess our learners
effectively to enhance their literature skills. Since we do not have specific section of our primary
curriculum for literature, we may use the following suggested outcomes/goals for teachers and
learners:

1. Possible Kindergarten and 1st Grade Literature Objectives/Outcomes

The teacher will:

a. communicate an appreciation of literature.

b. promote a lifelong enjoyment of literature.

c. provide many opportunities for students to enjoy books.

d. make reading literature aloud a top priority and read from a variety of authors and
illustrators.

e. provide many opportunities for students to self-select literature.

f. have quality literature available in the classroom.

g. provide plenty of library time.

h. introduce different genre (most likely through picture books).

i. introduce story elements – character, setting, plot, point of view, tone, style.

j. introduce strategies to focus attention and improve comprehension of literature.

k. encourage students to tell and interpret stories.

Learners will:

a. develop their own opinions.

b. interpret a story or characterization through role playing or other activities.

c. develop literature skills by identifying main characters, developing empathy with

characters, telling plot sequence, describing setting, and determining elements of tone and
style.

d. improve their listening skills.

e. improve their attention span.

 f. develop positive self-images about reading good literature.

2. Possible 2nd and 3rd Grade Literature Goals/Outcomes

The teacher will:

a. promote a lifelong enjoyment of literature.

b. read literature aloud an average of 20 minutes every day.

c. silent read for an average of 15-20 minutes a day.

d. provide many opportunities for students to self select different types of literature.

e. provide experiences to make students aware of the availability of literature in different

real-world locations.

f. provide enriching literary experiences.

g. use trade books (fiction and nonfiction) with thematic units, displays, speakers.

h. introduce a variety of authors, illustrators.

i. introduce students to different genre.

j. provide opportunities for students to respond to literature in a variety of ways in a risk-

free flexible environment (book talks, murals, mobiles, puppets, play).

k. communicate an appreciation of literature.

l. provide a risk-free environment for students to communicate their emotional reactions to

literature (book talk, literature logs, author chair, tape records, etc.).

Learners will:

a. develop a critical understanding of elements of good literature.

b. develop a critical understanding of story elements - character traits, setting, plot, theme,
point of view, tone, and style.

c. communicate aspects of literature in retellings, webs, maps, connecting story elements to

themes and main ideas of story and genre.
 d. develop an awareness of different genre.

e. become aware of different styles of writing for different authors.

f. become aware of diversity in life in literature.

g. compare and contrast poets and poetry.

h. develop a stance that literature fosters humanistic awareness and attitude.

i. believe they have creative abilities and skills.

j. communicate an appreciation of literature.

3. Possible 4th and 5th Grade Literature Goals/Outcomes

The teacher will:

a. promote a lifelong enjoyment of literature.

b. provide time on a daily basis for reading literature aloud. (20 to 30 minutes each day).

c. provide time for drop everything and read (DEAR) (15 minutes each day).

d. provide many opportunities for students to self-select different types of literature.

e. provide time for creative writing and production of literature in different media.

f. allow time for sharing of literature.

g. provide experiences to make students aware of the availability of literature in different

real-world locations.

h. provide enriching literary experiences.

i. use trade books (fiction and nonfiction) with thematic units, displays, speakers.

j. introduce a variety of authors, illustrators.

k. introduce student to different genre.

l. provide opportunities for students to respond to literature in a variety of ways in a risk-

free flexible environment (book talks, paintings, mobiles, puppets, play).
 m. communicate an appreciation of literature.

n. provide a risk-free environment for students to communicate their emotional reactions to

literature (book talk, literature logs, author chair, dialog literature journals, tape records).

Learners will:

a. select books of choice.

b. acquire a source for literature (regularly visit the school or class library or purchases or
borrow from friends ...)

c. identify with characters in a book by listing ways they are like the character or different

d. relate to a character's situation by explaining how they would react.

e. compare animal similarities to people (characterization)

f. identify any story's origins (place it in geographic place)

g. choose books of different genre to read

h. choose books with different elements of literature

i. participate in activities where s/he can identify the elements of literature

j. relate their creative skills to different characters' skills

k. share reading ideas with others.

l. share their opinions and reactions about specific books read.

4. Possible 6th - 8th Grade Literature Goals/Outcomes

The teacher will:

a. promote a lifelong enjoyment of literature.

b. read aloud literature to the students approximately 20 minutes a day.

c. provide opportunities for students to enjoy their literature preferences.

d. provide silent sustained reading (SSR) time for about 15-20 minutes a day.
 e. integrate multicultural literature throughout the curriculum.

f. incorporate genre and elements of good literature into the reading and literature
curriculum.

g. encourage students to express their opinions about literature in a risk-free environment.

h. provide opportunities for students to express creative skills in a risk-free environment.

i. provide opportunities for students to share personal reactions to literature.

j. provide time for creative writing and production of literature in different media.

k. provide many opportunities for students to self-select different types of literature

l. provide experiences to make students aware of the availability of literature in different

real-world locations.

m. provide enriching literary experiences.

n. use trade books (fiction and nonfiction) with thematic units, displays, speakers.

o. introduce a variety of authors, illustrators.

p. provide opportunities for students to respond to literature in a variety of ways in a risk-

free flexible environment (book talks, murals, mobiles, puppets, play).

q. communicate an appreciation of literature.

r. provide a risk-free environment for students to communicate their emotional reactions to

literature (book talk, literature logs, author chair, dialog literature journals, tape records).

Learners will:

a. acquire a source for literature (regularly visit the school or class library or purchases or
borrow from friends ...).

b. identify and critically evaluate story elements - character, setting, plot, theme, point of
view, tone, and style.

c. identify and critically evaluate different genres and media quality attributes.
 d. describe multiple ways a person might react to different character's situations.

e. identify story's origins (place it in geographic place).

f. choose books of different genre to read.

g. recognize authors and illustrators works and describe the similarities and differences.

h. relate their creative skills to different genre, story elements and quality literature.

i. share literary ideas with others.

j. share their opinions and reactions about specific literature they read, view, and listen to.

k. identify stories in different media - text, visual, graphic, video, song, dance.

o Sample Literature Objectives, Concepts, and Outcomes (Sweetland (n.d))

The following are sample objectives that can be stated for a literature lesson for children:

a. Objective - learners will read the story and answer literal comprehension questions from
memory, or reread the text to find appropriate references about the story elements.

Concept - information used to tell a story has words that specifically describe objects, ideas, and
events within the story that can be used to describe the story elements.

b. Objective - after reading the story learners will answer interpretive comprehension
questions, from memory or rereading the text, by using reasoning skills to join literal
references to make interpretive analysis about the characters actions.

Concept - sometimes information about characters feelings, actions, and reasoning are not
described specifically within the story, but can be interpreted or inferred by reasoning about
intentions or motivations by relating ideas, that are not specifically described in the text, like
clues and hints to solve a problem.

c. Objective - learners will read the story and identify, from memory or rereading the text,
the setting, main character, minor character, and plot.

Concept - all stories have a sequence of events that happen at a certain time and place that
involves a person, animal, or object that have self-awareness.
 d. Objective - learners will use their definition sheets, created in previous classes, to
identify, from memory or rereading the text, the setting, main character, minor character,
and plot after reading the story and share their answers and reasons for those answers
with the class.

Concept - all stories have a sequence of events that happen at a certain time and place that
involves a person, animal or object that have self-awareness.

e. Objective - learners will use the examples of similes, discussed and recorded in their
journals, in class to identify three similes while reading (e.g. chapter three), share their
examples with the class, and reason why they selected each.

Concept - a simile is a comparison that uses like, as and occasionally than to describe something
in a manner that communicates a deeper understanding with economy of words or beyond a
physical or direct description.

o Process and Inquiry Skills Related to Literature

The following are process and inquiry skills related to Literature with appropriate verbs: culled
from Sweetland (n.d) http://www.homeofbob.com/literature/curriculum/index.html

Perceiving Responding Imaging Creating Communication Evaluating

see speak recall problem solving speak compare

hear move associate improvise listen contrast

touch feeling image characterize clarify imply

smell encode visualize role play question summarize

taste abstract fantasize negotiate perform conclude

observe generalize recapture synthesize encode affirm

concentrate participate transform rehearse decode reflect

decode empathize modify cooperate represent appraise

discriminate express elaborate interact narrate abstract

interpret answer hypothesize originate persuade categorize

feel describe intuit compromise empathize rate

name report organize gesture

recognition narrate

 Points to consider when teaching children’s literature

o Approaches to employ as a teacher of children’s literature

- Information-Based Approach
a. Elicit information from students about the text.
b. Explain the content of the text to the class.
c. Ask questions to check students’ knowledge based on what they have read.
d. Provide students with background information of the book

o Personal-Response Approach
a. Encourage students to relate the themes to personal experiences
b. Elicit students' response to a text
c. Encourage students to express feelings towards the issues of the text
o Language-Based Approach
a. Guide students to express their opinions towards a text
b. Set language activities in literature lesson
c. Encourage students to actively participate in the process of understanding

the meaning of text

d. Students work with their classmates in the process of understanding the

 text

e. Generate language practice using the text

o Paraphrastic Approach
a. Re-tell the text to students to help them understand
b. Use simple terms to explain what the story is about to students
c. Discuss what the author says in the text
d. Get students to tell the storyline of the text

o Moral-Philosophical Approach
a. Incorporate moral values in lessons
b. Ask students the values they learn from the text
c. Get students to search moral values from a text
d. Raise students' awareness of values derived from the text 4
o Stylistics Approach
a. Guide students to interpret a text by looking at the language used by the author
b. Get students to mark any linguistic features from the text that are

significant to their reading

c. Encourage students to discuss beyond the surface meaning of the text

 Activities Employed by Teachers in teaching children’s literature lesson

In teaching children’s literature, the teacher can engage learners in some of the following
activities:

o Personal-Response Activities
a. Explain a text to students
b. Journal writing
c. Brainstorming sessions
d. Small group discussions
e. Writing about feelings/reactions towards an issue
o Language-Based Activities
a. Group work
b. Language activities (cloze, jigsaw puzzle, prediction exercises)
c. Debate
d. Performance activities (drama, role play, poetry recital)
o Paraphrastic Activities
a. Translation of text using L1
b. Re-tell story to students
c. Students read paraphrased notes in the workbook/handouts
d. Students re-tell story to the class
o Moral-Philosophical Activities
a. Reflective sessions
b. Discussions on moral dilemmas
c. Tell moral values to students
d. Conduct self-evaluation activities
o Stylistics Activities
a. Identify linguistics features (e.g., vocabulary, tenses) in a text
b. Discuss different meanings of a text
c. Extract examples from a text that describe a setting
d. Identify adjectives that describe a character

 Challenges of teaching children’s literature

- Insufficient children’s literature books in schools
- Difficult nature of some books
- Limited language proficiency of children
- Inadequate training of teachers in teaching children’s literature
- Lack of resources
- Lack of internet to help children read e-books to supplement books available

Note: The lesson plan for teaching children’s literature should follow pre-, while and post