CHEMISTRY

E=mc2 In 1917, Albert Einstein proposed

Branch of science that deals with a model of the universe.
● Matter- its composition, properties, ● The universe is spatially bound
the changes it undergoes, and the (finite) with unchanging volume
energy associated with these changes (static isotropic) and uniformity of
● The smallest particles that make up observations at different locations
the macroscopic materials that we in the universe (homogenous).
are all familiar with and how their ● Lemaitre opposed Einstein model
behaviors affect and argued that his models is not
● Every part of everything that we use physically realistic since slight
and do variations in homogeneity would
● Everyday new consumer products result to a loss in equilibrium.
are introduced in the market, new
technologies to combat disease and EVIDENCE OF THE BIG BANG
minimize environment problems are THEORY
being developed., and new ideas to
explain the complexities of life HUBBLE OR COSMIC EXPANSION
evolve ● The early 1930s, American
astronomer Edwin Hubble made a
COSMOLOGY major discovery at Mount Wilson
Observatory in California, USA with
● Studies the origin and eventual fate the use of 100-inch Hooker
of the universe Telescope.
● He identified Cepheid (a class of
THE BIG BANG THEORY variable stars pulsating periodically
and which can be used as an
● Proposes the universe was formed
indicator of distance and velocity) in
from an infinitely dense and hot core
enormous spiral nebulae – now
of material
called galaxies – including the
● Proposed by Belgian astrophysicist
Andromeda nebula, which led to the
and priest Abbe Georges Edourd
discovery of other galaxies far
Lemaitre (1894 – 1966)
beyond the Milky Way galaxy.
● Hubble and his assistant, Milton
POSTULATES Humason, formulated Hubble’s Law
● The universe began in a packed state which proved that the universe is
of hot and enormous density and expanding thereby suggesting that
energy at a finite time in the the universe was once compact.
● The universe is constantly ● He explained that many stars and
expanding and cooling, not just a galaxies are moving away relative to
static universe. the Milky Way galaxy at a rate
 proportional to distance. It shines ● Refers to the process of producing
with light shifted toward the red end the “light elements” shortly after the
of the visible spectrum. This Big Bang.
phenomenon, called the redshift,
occurs because the light waves of Chemical reaction: The change of a
cosmic bodies are stretched into low- substance into a new one that has a different
frequency red waves as they move chemical identity while Nuclear reaction is a
away from an observer on Earth. process in which a nucleus either combines
with another nucleus (nuclear fusion) or
COSMIC MICROWAVE splits into smaller nuclei (nuclear fission).
BACKGROUND (CMB)
● In the 1940s, theoretical physicist
and cosmologist George Gamow,
together with Robert Herman
Alpher, predicted that if the early
stage of the universe was hot and
dense, then an afterglow of radiation
must have filled up the universe
brought about by the cooling STAGES OF THE BIG BANG
process. The afterglow is detected THEORY
radiation also known as the cosmic SINGULARITY
microwave background (CMB). In ● point in space and/or a moment in
1964, two radio astronomers of Bell time where the universe was
● Laboratories in New Jersey, USA – infinitely hot and dense
Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson –
confirmed the presence of the CMB
with an average temperature of 2.7 INFLATION
K. ● Theory of exponential expansion of
PRIMORDIAL OR BIG BANG space in the early universe. The
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS inflationary epoch lasted from 10^-
● Gamow, Herman, and Alpher 36 seconds
believed that the high temperature of
the universe is an appropriate NUCLEOSYNTHESIS
condition for nuclear processes to ● The process that creates new atomic
occur during the first few minutes of nuclei from pre-existing nucleons ,
the Big Bang. primarily protons and neutrons
● The process began with the fusion of
protons and neutrons to form nuclei RECOMBINATION
in a process known as ● The epoch at which charged
nucleosynthesis. electrons and protons first became
 bound to form electrically nuetral
hydrogen atoms Stellar explosion, or supernova, formed
the elements heavier than Fe.
ANNIHILATION
● Reaction in which a particle and its FORMATION OF HEAVIER
antiparticle collide and disappear, ELEMENTS
releasing energy FUSION
● The combination of nuclei to form a
ATOMS bigger and heavier nucleus
● The smallest unit of matter that have
all the properties of an element. They STELLAR EVOLUTION
composed of smaller subatomic ● The process by which a star
particles as protons, neutrons, and changes over the course of time
electrons.
STELLAR NUCLEOSYNTHESIS
● The process by which the natural
A ( mass number= A= Z+N)
abundances of the chemical
X (symbol)
elements within stars vary due to
Z ( atomic number= number of protons) N= nuclear fusion reactions in the cores
nuetron number and overlying mantles of stars
Atomic Number (Z) - indicates the number
of protons in an atom
TWO PHASES OF NUCLEAR
Atomic Mass (A) - equals to the sum of the FUSION REACTIONS
number of protons and neutrons
PHASE 1 - EXOTHERMIC
REACTIONS
ISOTOPE Proton-proton chain reaction
● Refers to atoms with the same ● Set of fusion reactions by which stars
atomic number but different atomic convert hydrogen into helium. It
masses dominates in stars the size of the sun
● The same element but with extra or smaller
neutron
● Three Isotopes of Hydrogen : CNO Cycle
PROTIUM , DEUTERIUM, ● (carbon-nitrogen-oxygen) sets of
TRITIUM fusion reaction by which stars
convert hydrogen to helium. It is a
COSMIC STAGES catalytic cycle
Big bang nucleosynthesis formed the
PHASE 2 - BURNING PHASE
light elements (H, He, and Li).
INVOLVING HEAVIER NUCLEI
Stellar formation and evolution formed Triple Alpha Process Nucleosynthesis
the elements heavier than Be to Fe.
 ● Set of nuclear fusion reactions by COSMIC ORIGIN OF ELEMENTS
which three helium-4 nuclei (alpha
particles) are transformed into ● The existence of all matter is
carbon believed to have started with the
birth of the universe.
ALPHA LADDER/PROCESS ● The most widely accepted
● One of two classes of nuclear fusion explanation to the origin of the
reactions by which stars convert universe is Big Bang theory.
helium into heavier elements, the ● The universe began in a packed
other being the triple-alpha process state of hot and enormous
density and energy at a finite time
MAIN-SEQUENCE STAR in the past.
● Star that is fusing hydrogen in its ● It is constantly expanding and
core and has a stable balance of cooling, not just a static universe.
outward pressure from core nuclear ● These are Hubble or cosmic
fusion and gravitational forces expansion, Cosmic microwave
pushing inwards background (CMB), and
Primordial or Big Bang
nucleosynthesis (BBN).
● In 1917, Albert Einstein
RED GIANT STAR proposed a model of the
● A dying star in the last stages of universe. He explained that the
stellar evolution universe is spatially bound (finite)
with unchanging volume (static
SUPERNOVA isotropic) and uniformity of
● The explosion of star observations at different locations
in the universe (homogeneous).
R-PROCESS His model gave rise to various
Rapid neutron capture process cosmological model, one of which
● Reactions in nuclear astrophysics is Lemaitre. He opposed Einstein
that are responsible for the reaction model and argued that his model
of (nucleosynthesis) of is not physically realistic since
approximately half the atomic nuclei slight variations in homogeneity
heavier than iron would result to a loss in
equilibrium.
S-PROCESS
Slow neutron capture process
● Series of reactions in nuclear
astrophysics which occur in stars
particularly AGB stars.
SCI 03 : PHYSICAL SCIENCE
Lesson 3: Atomos, Aristotle and Alchemy

Leucippus and Democritus air (all gases), water (all liquids and
● Two most important theorists metals) and earth (all solids)
about the natural and physical
world PLATO
● Each of the four kinds of matter is
● Called physicists in Ancient
composed of geometrical solids
Greece
(Platonic Solids) further divisible
● Considered the idea of atomism into triangles
ATOMISM
ARISTOTLE
● Idea that things are made up of
● The four elements could be
much smaller things that cannot be
balanced in substances in an
changed nor divided
infinite number of ways and that
● Atoms make up most of the things in
when combined gave proportions of
the universe; where there are no
“essential qualities” hot, dry, cold
atoms, there is a void
and wet. Transformations between
● Atoms are incredibly small and
the four elements caused changes in
cannot be divided , hence atoms
the universe
(uncuttable)
● Atoms themselves are solid,
homogeneous and cannot change ALCHEMY
● Atoms moving about and colliding in ● Science that was used in the Middle
the void cause the changes we see Ages with the goal of changing
in our universe ordinary metals into gold
● The shapes, sizes and weights of ● From the Arabic/ Greek alkīmiyā or
individual atoms influence the “the art of transmuting”
characteristics of the thing they
make up
GROWTH OF ALCHEMY ACROSS
DIFFERENT CIVILIZATIONS
NON-ATOMISTIC VIEWS OF THE
GREEKS MESOPOTAMIANS
● Had techniques to utilize metals like
ANAXAGORAS gold and copper
● A philosopher that argued that there ● Assigned certain symbols to match
was an infinite number of metals with the heavenly bodies
elementary natural substances in such as the sun and moon
the form of infinitesimally small ● Made use of other materials such as
particles that combined to comprise dyes, glass, paints and perfumes
the different things in the universe
EGYPTIANS
EMPEDOCLES ● Adapted techniques from the
● Philosopher who stated that Mesopotamians and perfected the
everything is made up of four eternal use of bronze, dye and glass that
and unchanging kinds of matter fire, the Greeks later copied
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Lesson 3: Atomos, Aristotle and Alchemy

elements and the techniques

CHINESE developed by other civilizations.
● Had their own processes for metal ● Alchemists tried to play with the
work and ceramic materials balance of the four elements (fire,
● Focused on finding materials , plants water, air, earth) and three principles
and substances that could prolong (salt, sulfur and mercury) to
life transform or transmute substances.
● Some of the substances discovered Among their aims was to try and
in Chinese medicine have been transform “impure” or “base” metals
found to have actual positive effects like lead or iron into the “purer”
while others were found useless or metals of silver or gold, discover a
even harmful, like mercury magical “Philosopher’s Stone,” and
produce the so-called “Elixir of Life.”
INDIANS With a T-chart, distinguish how
● Like the Chinese, had a kind of alchemy both contributed to and
alchemy (rasayana) that looked at hampered scientific thought
different substances and practices
for Vedic medicine. This is tied SCIENTIFIC CONTRIBUTIONS
closely to Hindu and Buddhist ● refined how to crystallize, condense,
beliefs. distill, evaporate and dissolve metals
● Perfected the use of iron and steel and materials
● Well-known manufacturers of dyes, ● took lots of notes and information
glass, cement, solutions for textiles, about what they did
and soaps ● developed step-by-step procedures
and specialized set-ups or
ARABS and MUSLIMS equipment
● Enriched not only the practice but ● discovered and investigated the
also the literature of chemistry properties of many now-useful
Jabir Ibn-Hayyan substances such as phosphorus,
● a scholar, also “Geber” sulfur and potash
● translated the practices and
Aristotelian thinking of the Greeks
and wrote extensively on how metals UNSCIENTIFIC CONTRIBUTIONS
can be purified. He came up with the ● used incantations, magic spells and
preparation of acids such as nitric, symbols
hydrochloric and sulfuric acids, as ● used esoteric symbols connected to
well as aqua regia (nitro-hydrochloric astrology and religion
acid). ● concerned with riches, purity,
immortality, and spirits
● promoted the Aristotelian concept of
WESTERN ALCHEMY
the elements
● The field of alchemy became
popular in the Western world
PROTOSCIENCE
because of Aristotle’s ideas on the
SCI 03 : PHYSICAL SCIENCE
Lesson 3: Atomos, Aristotle and Alchemy

● unscientific field of study which later

developed into real science (e.g.
astrology toward astronomy and
alchemy toward chemistry).
● also called “emerging science” or
“near science”

PSEUDOSCIENCE
● consists of statements, beliefs, or
practices that are claimed to be
scientific and factual, in the absence
of evidence gathered and
constrained by appropriate scientific
methods