Diocese of Tarlac

Our Lady of Peace College Seminary

San Isidro, Tarlac City

Philosophy Week 2024

Philosophy Across Boundaries

Quiz Bee Reviewer

ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY
 Thales was a native of Miletus, in Asia Minor. He flourished in 585 BCE. Aristotle
attributes the following four views to Thales:
1. The earth rests on water.
2. Water is the archê of all things.
3. The magnet has a soul.
4. All things are full of gods.
 Archê is Aristotle’s word which means beginning or source or principle.
 Monism means the reduction of a host of complex phenomena to a single, simple basis.
 Like Thales, Anaximander was a monist. But he rejected Thales’ supposition that water
is the material archê. Instead, he proposed the apeiron, an immaterial one (the indefinite,
or the infinite).
 Apeiron – Anaximander thought that everything originated from the apeiron (the
“infinite,” “unlimited,” or “indefinite”), rather than from a particular element, such as
water. These have all been considered possibilities about apeiron:
1. Spatially infinite.
2. Qualitatively indefinite.
3. Temporally infinite (i.e., eternal).
 Anaximenes postulates air as the archê. Anaximander thought of the basic stuffs and
qualities of the world as opposites in conflict. Anaximenes had a different conception: the
basic stuffs and qualities are not opposed, but different stages of a continuum
 Heraclitus – flourished in 500 B.C. in Ephesus, north of Miletus in Asia Minor. He was
known in antiquity as “the obscure.” In other accounts, he is described as ho skoteinos for
his obscurity.
 Heraclitus had an extremely negative reaction to Milesian thought. For the Milesians,
what is real is fixed and permanent; change somehow had to be explained away. They
understood changes as alterations of some basic, underlying, material stuff which is, in its
own nature, unchanging. Heraclitus reversed this: change is what is real. Permanence is
only apparent.
 Parmenides came up with his central thesis, it is impossible to think or talk about what
does not exist, he attempts to deduce from this thesis the following conclusions:
1. There is no coming into existence or ceasing to exist.
2. There is no alteration or change.
3. There is no movement.
4. There is no plurality.
 Socratic Definitions

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 1. Socrates asked a simple kind of question that revolutionized philosophy: “What is
it?”
2. Such questions are the central concern of the “Socratic” (early) dialogues of Plato.
3. A so-called “Socratic definition” is an answer to a “What is X?” question.
4. Socratic definitions are not of words, but of things. Socrates does not want to know
what the word ‘justice’ means, but what the nature of justice itself is.
 Theory of Recollection - also known as anamnesis, is a Platonic doctrine that states that
people possess all knowledge at birth, but forget it and then recollect it later.
 Plato (c. 427–347 BCE) was an ancient Greek philosopher, a student of Socrates, and the
teacher of Aristotle. He is one of the most influential figures in Western philosophy, and
his works have shaped many aspects of Western thought.
Major Works and Dialogues of Plato
 Republic: A foundational text in political philosophy, where Plato explores justice, the
ideal state, and the philosopher-king. It includes the famous “Allegory of the Cave” and
discussions on the Theory of Forms.
 Phaedo: Discusses the immortality of the soul and Socrates’ final hours before his
execution. It also introduces the Theory of Forms in the context of the afterlife.
 Symposium: A dialogue on the nature of love, featuring speeches from several prominent
figures, including Socrates. It introduces the concept of “Platonic Love.”
 Meno: Examines the nature of virtue and whether it can be taught. It introduces the
concept of recollection, suggesting that learning is essentially an act of remembering.
 Timaeus: Discusses the creation of the universe and the nature of the physical world,
blending philosophy with cosmology and metaphysics
Major Philosophical Concepts of Plato
 Theory of Forms: Plato believed that non-material abstract forms (or ideas) represent the
most accurate reality. These forms are perfect and immutable, unlike the material world,
which is a mere shadow of these forms.
 Allegory of the Cave: This allegory illustrates Plato’s view on the nature of human
perception. It describes prisoners in a cave who see only shadows of objects, representing
the limited perspective of people who are not enlightened.
 Philosopher-King: Plato argued that the ideal ruler would be a philosopher-king,
someone who understands the Forms and thus knows what is truly good for the state.
 Theory of the Soul: Plato believed that the soul is immortal and exists in a realm of
forms before birth and after death. The soul’s ultimate goal is to attain knowledge and
understand the true reality.
 Platonic Love: A concept that refers to a deep, non-sexual bond between individuals. It’s
derived from the dialogues in the “Symposium,” where love is discussed in terms of the
pursuit of beauty and truth.
 Aristotle - (384–322 BCE) stands as one of the most influential figures in Western
philosophy and science. A student of Plato and the tutor of Alexander the Great,
Aristotle's work spanned a remarkable range of subjects, including metaphysics, ethics,
politics, logic, natural sciences, and rhetoric.
Contributions of Aristotle:
Logic
 Developed formal logic; known for the syllogism (a form of reasoning where a
conclusion is drawn from two given or assumed propositions).

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  His logical works are compiled in the "Organon."
Metaphysics
 Introduced the concept of substance as the fundamental reality underlying everything.
 Explored the nature of being and existence in his work "Metaphysics."
Ethics
 His ethical theory is centered on virtue ethics.
 In "Nicomachean Ethics," he introduced the concept of the Golden Mean, which
advocates for moderation and balance between excess and deficiency.
Politics
 Emphasized the role of the polis (city-state) and advocated for a mixed government that
incorporates elements of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy.

MEDIEVAL PHILOSOPHY
Augustine of Hippo (354-430)
 Major Works: Confessions, City of God, On the Trinity
 Confessions: An autobiographical work that explores Augustine’s spiritual journey and
his views on the nature of time, memory, and divine grace.
 City of God: A comprehensive treatise defending Christianity against pagan criticisms
and discussing the relationship between the earthly and heavenly cities.
 On the Trinity: An exploration of the Christian doctrine of the Trinity, emphasizing the
unity and distinction within the Godhead.
 Epistemology and Time: Augustine proposed that time exists only in the human mind as
a measure of change, rejecting the notion of time as an external reality. He argued that
past and future are merely mental constructs.
 The Problem of Evil: Augustine addressed the existence of evil as a consequence of
human free will, maintaining that God’s goodness is not incompatible with the presence
of evil in the world.
 Grace and Free Will: Augustine’s doctrine of original sin and grace emphasizes that
human will is profoundly affected by sin, requiring divine grace for salvation.
Boethius (480-524)
 Major Works: Consolation of Philosophy
 Consolation of Philosophy: A philosophical dialogue between Boethius and Lady
Philosophy, exploring themes of fortune, happiness, and divine providence.
 Philosophical Focus: Boethius is known for his attempt to reconcile classical philosophy
with Christian doctrine. His work Consolation of Philosophy addresses the problem of
fortune and the nature of happiness, drawing heavily on Stoic and Neoplatonic ideas.
Isidore of Seville (c. 560-636)
 Major Works: Etymologies
 Philosophical Focus: Isidore’s Etymologies is an encyclopedia that reflects the intellectual
heritage of his time. It covers a wide range of subjects and aims to preserve the
knowledge of the ancient world.
Anselm of Canterbury (1033-1109)
 Major Works: Proslogion, Monologion, Cur Deus Homo
 Proslogion: Known for presenting the ontological argument for the existence of God,
arguing that God’s existence is logically necessary.

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  Monologion: An earlier work that explores the nature of God and the attributes that can
be deduced from reason alone.
 Cur Deus Homo: Addresses the necessity of Christ’s atonement, arguing that the
incarnation and crucifixion were necessary to restore justice and satisfy divine honor.
 Philosophical Focus: Anselm is famous for his ontological argument for the existence of
God, which asserts that God’s existence can be deduced from the concept of God as the
greatest conceivable being. His work also explores the nature of faith and reason.
Peter Abelard (1079-1142)
 Major Works: Sic et Non, Historia Calamitatum
 Philosophical Focus: Abelard is known for his work on logic and ethics. Sic et Non
examines contradictions in theological writings, encouraging critical thinking. His ethical
theory emphasizes the intention behind actions rather than their outcomes.
Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)
 Major Works: Summa Theologica, Summa Contra Gentiles, Commentaries on Aristotle
 Summa Theologica: A comprehensive work that systematically addresses theological
questions, including the existence of God, the nature of faith, and moral theology.
 Summa Contra Gentiles: Aimed at defending Christian doctrine against non-Christian
objections, using Aristotelian philosophy.
 Commentaries on Aristotle: Aquinas’s extensive commentaries on Aristotle’s works,
integrating Aristotelian philosophy with Christian theology.
 Philosophical Focus: Thomas Aquinas is a central figure in medieval philosophy, known
for his synthesis of Aristotelian philosophy with Christian theology. His works address a
broad range of issues, including the nature of God, the relationship between faith and
reason, and ethics. His Five Ways to Prove the Existence of God are particularly
influential.
 Five Ways to Prove the Existence of God: Aquinas provides five arguments for the
existence of God, including the arguments from motion, causation, and contingency.
 Natural Law: He articulates a theory of natural law, positing that moral principles are
derived from rational understanding of human nature and the natural order.
William of Ockham (c. 1287-1347)
 Major Works: Summa Logicae, Ockham’s Razor
 Philosophical Focus: Ockham is known for his nominalism, which rejects the existence
of universal entities outside of individual things. His principle, known as Ockham’s
Razor, advocates for simplicity in explanations, asserting that one should not multiply
entities beyond necessity.
John Duns Scotus (1266-1308)
 Major Works: Ordinatio, Quodlibeta
 Philosophical Focus: Scotus is known for his contributions to metaphysics and
epistemology, including his defense of the doctrine of univocity of being, which argues
that the term “being” can be used univocally for both God and creatures.

MODERN PHILOSOPHY
Rationalism - is a school of philosophy that champions the primacy of reason as the source of
knowledge. It emerged in the late 17th century in France, and regarded reason as the only
reliable source of knowledge and access to truth.

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Empiricism - is a philosophical current that emphasizes the role of experience and evidence in
the formation of ideas and acquisition of knowledge.
René Descartes (1596-1650)
 Meditations on First Philosophy (1641): Descartes' foundational text where he develops
his method of doubt, establishing the famous dictum "Cogito, ergo sum" ("I think,
therefore I am"). The work seeks to establish a secure foundation for scientific knowledge
through reason.
 Discourse on the Method (1637): Introduces Descartes' method of systematic doubt and
the quest for certainty. It also outlines his contributions to mathematics and physics.
 Principles of Philosophy (1644): A more comprehensive exposition of his philosophical
system, integrating metaphysics with natural science.
Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677)
 Ethics (1677): Spinoza's major work, presenting his system of pantheistic monism. The
text is divided into parts on God, nature, human emotions, and the path to human
freedom.
 Theological-Political Treatise (1670): Argues for the separation of philosophy and
theology and defends freedom of thought and the role of religion in society.
 Short Treatise on God, Man, and His Well-Being (1662): An earlier work that lays the
groundwork for his later philosophy, addressing the nature of God and human happiness.
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716)
 Monadology (1714): Presents Leibniz’s metaphysical system, which posits that the
universe is composed of simple substances called monads.
 Discourse on Metaphysics (1686): Explores the nature of reality and the principles of
metaphysical thought.
 New Essays on Human Understanding (1765): A critique of Locke’s empiricism and a
presentation of Leibniz’s own views on knowledge and perception.
John Locke (1632-1704)
 An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1689): Explores the nature and limits of
human knowledge, arguing against innate ideas and proposing that knowledge comes
from experience.
 Two Treatises of Government (1689): Offers a defense of individual rights and the
principles of government based on social contract theory.
George Berkeley (1685-1753)
 A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge (1710): Argues that
existence is dependent on perception, rejecting materialism.
 Three Dialogues Between Hylas and Philonous (1713): A work in dialogue form
defending his idealism and attacking the notion of material substance.
David Hume (1711-1776)
 A Treatise of Human Nature (1739-1740): An exploration of human psychology,
epistemology, and ethics, emphasizing empirical skepticism.
 An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding (1748): A more accessible version of
his epistemological views, addressing the nature of human cognition and knowledge.
 An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals (1751): Discusses moral philosophy,
focusing on the role of sentiment in ethical judgments.
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

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  Critique of Pure Reason (1781, revised 1787): Kant’s seminal work that redefines the
nature of knowledge, proposing that we can only know phenomena (things as they
appear) and not noumena (things-in-themselves).
 Critique of Practical Reason (1788): Explores Kant’s ethical theory, including the
concept of the Categorical Imperative and the role of reason in moral action.
 Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (1785): Lays the foundation for Kant’s moral
philosophy, presenting his formulation of the Categorical Imperative.
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831)
 Phenomenology of Spirit (1807): An investigation into the development of
consciousness and self-awareness through a dialectical process.
 The Science of Logic (1812-1813): Examines the nature of logic and its relation to
reality, presenting Hegel’s dialectical method.
 Elements of the Philosophy of Right (1820): A work on political philosophy, ethics, and
the nature of the state, integrating Hegel’s ideas on freedom and social institutions.
Friedrich Schelling (1775-1854)
 System of Transcendental Idealism (1800): Introduces Schelling’s view of nature and its
relation to the human spirit, emphasizing the organic unity of reality.
 Philosophical Inquiries into the Nature of Human Freedom (1809): Explores the
concept of freedom and its implications for philosophy and ethics.
Søren Kierkegaard (1813-1855)
 Fear and Trembling (1843): Examines the concept of faith through the biblical story of
Abraham and Isaac, contrasting the "ethical" and "religious" life stages.
 Either/Or (1843): A work presenting the aesthetic and ethical stages of life, exploring
themes of choice and commitment.
 The Sickness Unto Death (1849): Discusses despair and the nature of the self,
highlighting the existential struggle for authenticity.
Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900)
 Thus Spoke Zarathustra (1883-1885): Presents Nietzsche’s philosophy through the
character of Zarathustra, introducing concepts such as the "Übermensch" and the "eternal
recurrence."
 Beyond Good and Evil (1886): Critiques traditional moral values and introduces
Nietzsche’s ideas on power, morality, and the will to power.
 The Birth of Tragedy (1872): Analyzes the nature of art and culture, contrasting the
Apollonian and Dionysian elements in Greek tragedy.
Edmund Husserl (1859-1938)
 Logical Investigations (1900-1901): A foundational work in phenomenology, addressing
issues of meaning, logic, and the nature of consciousness.
 Ideas Pertaining to a Pure Phenomenology and to a Phenomenological Philosophy
(1913): Expands on the concept of intentionality and the study of consciousness.
Martin Heidegger (1889-1976)
 Being and Time (1927): Explores the concept of Being, focusing on existential themes
such as authenticity, temporality, and "Being-toward-death."
 The Question Concerning Technology (1954): Investigates the essence of technology
and its impact on human existence and understanding.
Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980)

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  Being and Nothingness (1943): A comprehensive exposition of Sartre’s existentialist
philosophy, exploring concepts like bad faith, freedom, and the nature of existence.
 Nausea (1938): A novel that illustrates Sartre’s existentialist ideas through the
experiences of its protagonist, highlighting themes of alienation and absurdity.
 Existentialism is a Humanism (1946): A public lecture defending existentialism against
criticisms and explaining its principles.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHY
 Transcendental- idea that there is status in a mind that make a reality.
 Absolute Idealism- The world is not divided into thoughts, objects, ideas but everything
is a part of Geist or Spirit.
 Geist- It is universal mind that continuous evolving through the process of Dialectic.
 Determinism- Thing that should happen as they should. People’s actions had to happen
the way they do.
 Utilitarian Philosophy- is the view that any actions is Good if it is in human happiness
and bad if it is leads to loneliness.
 Egoist- One will act if and only If are beneficial to him or that one person.
 Utilitarian- One makes a decision based on weather and based on the beneficiary of the
majority.
 Higher Pleasure- It satisfy our mind and spiritual needs.
 Lower Pleasure- It satisfy the material and body needs.
 Functionalism- One of the anthropological theories that Duerkheim explains and claims
that all features of society serve his social purposes in Interdependence of various part of
society.
 Fallibilism- all beliefs and theories are subject to revision in light of new evidence or
changing circumstances.
 Anti-Foundationalism- They argue that knowledge is contingent, spontaneous,
experiences and the purpose for which is used.
 Instrumentalism- The truth or validity or an Idea is judged by its practical
consequences.
 Symbolic Language- It allows proposition to be accurately described to easily
understand.
 Logical Atoms- These are facts that are not dependent into other facts for their meaning.
 Logical Positivism- It is a Philosophy movement relate into metaphysics or speculative
claims.
 Frankfurt School- These are the group of Marxists thinkers.
 Marxism- It analyzes the impact of the ruling class on the laborers, leading to uneven
distribution of wealth and privileges in the society.
 Existential Freedom- Individual have the capacity to make meaningful choices and take
responsibility for their life.
 Logo Centrism- Philosophical Concept that emphasized the centrality of Language and
Meaning is communicated while language is constructed.
Saul Kripke (b. 1940)
Kripke is a central figure in contemporary philosophy, particularly in the philosophy of language
and metaphysics. His work challenges traditional views on reference and meaning.

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  Naming and Necessity (1980): This seminal work introduces the theory of rigid
designation, which argues that names and natural kind terms refer to the same object in
all possible worlds where that object exists. Kripke critiques descriptivist theories of
meaning and introduces the notion of necessary a posteriori truth.
 Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language (1982): This book critiques Wittgenstein’s
later philosophy on rule-following and private language. Kripke's interpretation of
Wittgenstein has been highly influential and controversial, stimulating extensive debate.
Hilary Putnam (1926-2016)
Putnam's work spans epistemology, philosophy of mind, and philosophy of language. He is
known for his arguments on semantic externalism and the critique of the fact/value dichotomy.
 Reason, Truth, and History (1981): This book defends semantic externalism, which
asserts that meanings and truths are not solely determined by internal mental states but by
external factors and contexts.
 The Collapse of the Fact/Value Dichotomy (2002): Putnam challenges the traditional
separation of facts and values, arguing for their interconnection and mutual relevance in
philosophical discourse.
Jacques Derrida (1930-2004)
Derrida is a major figure in poststructuralism and is best known for developing deconstruction, a
method of critical analysis that seeks to expose the underlying assumptions and contradictions in
texts.
 Of Grammatology (1967): Introduces deconstruction and critiques the metaphysical
concepts of writing and meaning. Derrida argues that writing has been undervalued
compared to speech, challenging traditional hierarchies in philosophy and literary theory.
 Specters of Marx (1993): Reassesses the legacy of Marxism and its relevance in
contemporary politics and philosophy, arguing for a continued engagement with Marxist
thought in a post-Cold War context.
Michel Foucault (1926-1984)
Foucault’s work addresses the relationships between power, knowledge, and social institutions.
He is known for his historical and genealogical approach to analyzing how knowledge and power
structures shape human societies.
 Discipline and Punish (1975): Examines the evolution of penal systems and the ways in
which modern societies exert control through disciplinary mechanisms. Foucault explores
the shift from physical punishment to surveillance and normalization.
 The History of Sexuality (1976-1984): A multi-volume work that investigates the
historical development of sexual norms and practices, challenging the notion that
sexuality was repressed before the modern era and emphasizing the role of power in
shaping sexual discourse.

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