Article

Development of a Three-Finger Adaptive Robotic Gripper to

Assist Activities of Daily Living
Md Mahbubur Rahman 1,2 , Md Tanzil Shahria 3 , Md Samiul Haque Sunny 3 , Md Mahafuzur Rahaman Khan 1 ,
Emroze Islam 2 , Asif Al Zubayer Swapnil 1 , David Bedolla-Martínez 4 and Mohammad H Rahman 1,3,∗,†

1 Mechanical Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI 53211, USA;

[email protected] (M.M.R.); [email protected] (M.M.R.K.); [email protected] (A.A.Z.S.)
2 Industrial Engineering and Management, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology,
Khulna 9203, Bangladesh; [email protected] (M.M.R.);
[email protected] or [email protected] (E.I.)
3 Computer Science, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI 53211, USA; [email protected] (M.T.S.);
[email protected] (M.S.H.S.)
4 Instituto de Ingeniería Industrial y Automotriz, Universidad Tecnológica de la Mixteca,
Huajuapan de León, Oaxaca 69000, Mexico; [email protected] or
[email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]
† Current address: BioRobotics Laboratory, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, 115 East Reindl Way, USR 281,
Milwaukee, WI 53212, USA.

Abstract: A significant number of individuals in the United States use assistive devices to enhance
their mobility, and a considerable portion of those who depend on such aids require assistance from
another individual in performing daily living activities. The introduction of robotic grippers has
emerged as a transformative intervention, significantly contributing to the cultivation of indepen-
dence. However, there are few grippers in the fields, which help with mimicking human hand-like
movements (mostly grasping and pinching, with adoptive force control) to grasp and carry objects.
Additionally, the data are not available even on how many Activities of Daily Living (ADL) objects
they can handle. The goal of the research is to offer a new three-fingered gripper for daily living
Citation: Rahman, M.M.; Shahria,
assistance, which can both grasp and pinch with adaptive force, enabling the capabilities of handling
M.T.; Sunny, M.S.H.; Khan, M.M.R.;
Islam, E.; Swapnil, A.A.Z.;
wide-ranging ADL objects with a minimal footprint. It is designed to handle 90 selective essential
Bedolla-Martínez, D.; Rahman, M.H. ADL objects of different shapes (cylindrical, irregular, rectangular, and round), sizes, weights, and
Development of a Three-Finger textures (smooth, rough, bumpy, and rubbery). The gripper boasts a meticulously engineered yet
Adaptive Robotic Gripper to Assist simple design, facilitating seamless manufacturing through 3D printing technology without compro-
Activities of Daily Living. Designs mising its operational efficacy. The gripper extends its functionality beyond conventional grasping,
2024, 8, 35. https://doi.org/10.3390/ featuring the capability to pinch (such as holding a credit card) and securely hold lightweight objects.
designs8020035 Moreover, the gripper is adaptable to grasping various objects with different shapes and weights
Academic Editor: Roveda Loris with controlled forces. In evaluation, the developed gripper went through rigorous load tests and
usability tests. The results demonstrated that the users picked and placed 75 objects out of 90 daily
Received: 11 March 2024
objects. The gripper held and manipulated objects with dimensions from 25 mm to 80 mm and up
Revised: 2 April 2024
to 2.9 kg. For heavy-weight objects (like books) where the centroid is far apart from the grasping
Accepted: 9 April 2024
areas, it is difficult to hold them due to high torque. However, objects’ textures have no significant
Published: 14 April 2024
effect on grasping performance. Users perceived the simplicity of the gripper. Further investigation is
required to assess the utility and longevity of grippers. This study contributes to developing assistive
robots designed to enhance object manipulation, thereby improving individuals’ independence and
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors. overall quality of life.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article Keywords: robotic hands; assistive grippers; ADLs
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).

Designs 2024, 8, 35. https://doi.org/10.3390/designs8020035 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/designs

Designs 2024, 8, 35 2 of 18

1. Introduction
Over the last decades, the prevalence of upper limb dysfunctions (ULDs) has escalated
at an alarming rate, primarily due to stroke, spinal cord injury (SCI), cerebral palsy (CP),
multiple sclerosis (MS), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), trauma, occupational injuries,
and geriatric disorders [1,2]. Stroke is identified as the leading cause of ULDs, accounting
for 34% of cases, followed by SCI (27%), MS (19%), and CP (8%) [3]. This condition
severely limits an individual’s independence, impacting employment, domestic life, and
social participation and often relies on wheelchairs and assistive devices. Over 6.8 million
Americans use assistive devices to help them with mobility, 1.7 million are wheelchair users,
and almost one-third of mobility device users need assistance from another person in one or
more of the ADLs [4]. Notably, an average annual increase of 5.9% in wheelchair usage has
been observed [5]. Wheelchair users often report significant limitations in both basic ADLs
(BADLs) and instrumental ADLs (IADLs) [6]. The inability to perform essential ADLs can
lead to unsafe living conditions and a diminished quality of life [7]. For individuals with
a ULD, the capacity to perform self-care without significant assistance is crucial. Current
solutions, such as caregivers and assistive devices like reachers and adaptive utensils,
support specific tasks. Therefore, there is an immense need for research on ADL assistance
targeting people with ULD to enhance their independence and reduce the caregiving
burden on families. These ADLs encompass a wide range of occupations, spanning from
handling and transporting objects to performing complex movements that replicate the
dexterity exhibited in human hands [8]. Numerous researchers have actively engaged in
advancing this academic field.
The development of assistive robotics marks a significant advancement in aiding
individuals with disabilities, particularly in enhancing their ability to perform ADLs [9].
This need is highlighted by the substantial number of disabled individuals in the United
States who require assistance with ADLs, impacting not only their independence but also
placing a considerable burden on caregivers and healthcare systems [10]. Robotic grip-
pers, designed to emulate human hand movements, play a crucial role in this context.
These devices enable the grasping and manipulating of various objects, facilitating routine
tasks that might be challenging or impossible for those with physical limitations. Inte-
grating such technology into daily life is key to enhancing user autonomy and quality
of life. The landscape of robotic grippers has evolved significantly, with various designs
emerging to address the diverse needs of users, particularly those with disabilities. Rigid
links grippers [11], such as those using lead screws [12], offer energy efficiency through
self-locking mechanisms but are hindered by slow motion [13]. Handling fragile objects
remains a challenge, leading to the development of softer grippers in soft robotics [14].
Innovations like gecko-inspired grippers [15] and soft robotic grippers [16] demonstrate
adaptability to different object shapes but face bulkiness and carrying capacity limitations.
Traditional grippers with rigid fingers, while effective for simple tasks, fall short in complex
manipulations [14,17], and underactuated grippers [18] offer versatility but may lack the
force needed for certain applications [19,20]. These limitations underscore the need for a
more adaptable, efficient, and versatile gripper design capable of addressing the nuanced
requirements of individuals with disabilities in performing daily living activities. Despite
notable advancements in robotics, particularly in the area of gripper creation for assisting
individuals in diverse occupations, the current solutions remain lacking in terms of com-
prehensiveness. The current market lacks multifunctional grippers capable of emulating
the human hand’s dexterity over a wide spectrum of ADL objects. This scarcity arises due
to the prevailing trend of gripper designs that cater to specialized functionalities rather
than offering versatility.
Hwang et al. [21] engineered a high-payload soft gripper using electroadhesion, featur-
ing a mechanically reinforced structure. This industrial gripper, equipped with two flexible
polyimide film fingers and a multilayered dielectric elastomer actuator, demonstrated
versatility in gripping cylindrical bottles, spherical light bulbs, hexahedral polyethylene
terephthalate (PET) boxes, flat paper boxes, chocolate packed with PE film, and concave-
Designs 2024, 8, 35 3 of 18

shaped PET bottles. The gripper can effortlessly lift and transport objects of diverse shapes
that are 100 times heavier than the gripper itself, which weighs 6.2 g. However, it has yet
to undergo testing for handling everyday objects in a home environment. Moreover, the
two-finger gripper generally suffices for most applications; the requirement for enhanced
accuracy and precision in handling delicate and fragile items justifies the utilization of the
three-finger gripper type [22].
Yoon et al. [23] conducted an analysis of the fingertip force vector concerning two-
finger grippers (SARAH) designed for robust environmental adaptation. The proposed
finger mechanism employs an underactuated four-bar linkage, mirroring the natural move-
ment of the human hand [23]. However, this design choice comes with inherent trade-offs,
compromising precision and dexterity [24]. Additionally, akin to the limitations associated
with other two-finger grippers [21], this gripper exhibits similar constraints.
Kim et al. [25] introduced the gripper named BLT, an adaptive three-finger gripper
with the ability to actively transition between precise pinch and compliant grasping modes.
Despite employing a simplified algorithm, the gripper exhibits ample capability for various
grasping tasks and achieves a high payload capacity. However, it is noteworthy that the
gripper has undergone experiments involving objects of different shapes, providing limited
insight into its performance concerning texture, size, and weight, especially in the context
of ADL objects.
Hernandez [26] devised a three-finger gripper tailored for assistive robots (GARs) to
aid in ADLs. The gripper’s actuators, outfitted with worm gear mechanisms, possess force-
sensing capabilities solely during pushing actions, neglecting static force measurement.
However, object manipulation often induces reorientation, altering the forces exerted on
grasped objects, necessitating static force sensing for intricate shapes [27]. Moreover, while
the GAR effectively grasps objects, it lacks the ability to pinch, which is essential for
securing lightweight items like credit cards. As a consequence, it diminishes the capacity
to manipulate numerous ADL objects [28].
This undertaking is motivated by the acknowledgment of a substantial gap in the
functionality of prevailing gripper designs, notably their effectiveness in handling a diverse
array of ADL objects, primarily due to the absence of (a) simultaneous pinching and
grasping capabilities and (b) adaptive static force application. The principal aim is to
address this deficiency in the realm of assistive robotics through the meticulous design and
development of an innovative three-finger gripper, engineered to adeptly grasp and pinch
objects with adaptable force. The design is grounded in minimalism, resulting in an efficient
and cost-effective product that can be easily manufactured using 3D printing technology.
This approach not only ensures economic viability but also promotes accessibility. The
gripper’s adaptability is a cornerstone of its design, enabling it to proficiently grasp objects
of varying shapes and weights with precise force regulation. This feature is enhanced by
integrating a customized linear force feedback system, allowing for the adjustment of grip
force in accordance with the object’s characteristics, thereby ensuring the safe handling of
both hard and soft objects. Additionally, the gripper’s design allows it to fully fold when
closed, a feature that optimizes space utilization and adds to its practicality.
The study’s contribution extends beyond mere functionality; it represents a significant
stride in the evolution of assistive devices, aligning technological advancement with the
nuanced needs of those it aims to assist. A comprehensive series of usability and load tests
were conducted to evaluate the feasibility and effectiveness of the newly developed three-
finger robotic gripper. The results of these tests are illuminating, offering valuable insights
into the practical application of the gripper in assisting with ADLs. The gripper exhibited
remarkable adaptability, handling objects varying in size up to 80 mm and managing
weights up to 2.9 kg, and while the results are promising, they represent an initial step
in developing assistive robots for ADLs. Further research is necessary to evaluate these
grippers’ enhanced functionality and durability in everyday tasks. This study’s findings
demonstrate the gripper’s potential in practical applications and lay the groundwork for
future advancements in assistive robotics.
Designs 2024, 8, 35 4 of 18

The rest of the manuscript is structured to present the research and its findings me-
thodically. Section 2 delves into the design and development process of the advanced
robotic gripper, highlighting the design objectives, prototype creation, and the integration
of the gripper with a robotic arm for testing in ADLs. Section 3 details the experimental
setup and procedures, including the selection of materials and components, the design of
the gripper’s fingers, and the electronic control system. Section 4 offers a comprehensive
analysis of the usability testing and load tests, showcasing the gripper’s efficacy in handling
various objects and user feedback on its simplicity and effectiveness. Section 5 explores
the implications of these findings, particularly the impact of the three-finger adaptable
robotic gripper in assistive robotics and its potential to enhance the independence and
quality of life for people with disabilities. Conclusion in Section 6 encapsulates the study’s
contributions to assistive robotics, emphasizing the innovative aspects of the gripper and its
significance in improving the autonomy and well-being of individuals reliant on assistive
technology for ADLs.

2. Methodology
This research embarked on the development of a sophisticated 3-finger adaptive
robotic gripper, focusing on advancing its intelligent functionalities to support activities
of daily living (ADLs). The initial phase entailed delineating clear design objectives that
encapsulated the essential capabilities required for effectively assisting individuals with
ADLs. Following the establishment of these objectives, the methodology progressed to the
conceptualization and computer-aided design (CAD) of the prototype. The manufacturing
process leveraged 3D printing technology for rapid and cost-effective prototype develop-
ment. Subsequent iterations refined the prototype to enhance its durability and reliability
in anticipation of extensive testing. The culmination of this development process saw the
integration of the gripper with a robotic arm, facilitating its comprehensive evaluation in
performing ADLs within a controlled laboratory environment mimicking home scenarios
at the UWM-BioRobotics Lab. This methodological approach underscores the commitment
to creating a versatile and user-friendly assistive device, tailored to meet the diverse needs
of individuals requiring support with daily tasks.

2.1. Design Objectives

The design parameters were established to construct a minimum viable solution for a
functional robotic gripper covering a maximum amount of ADL tasks and carrying objects
up to 2.5 kg weights in horizontal mode and 1 kg weights in vertical mode. The constraints
encompass the restriction of three fingers, where each finger is limited to having only one
active degree of freedom (DoF) and one passive degree of freedom [26]. This facilitates it
to grasp the parallel gripping mode and cylindrical gripping mode and partial spherical
mode. Plastic components have been selected for the gripper to make the manufacturing
cost-effective. Further, design, development, and evaluation became fast due to the 3D
printing components.

2.2. Materials and Components Selections

This section comprises the choices of materials and other components selected for the
assembly of the gripper.

2.2.1. Materials
The gripper is equipped with a material that demonstrates the ability to securely grasp
objects of weight up to 2.5 kg. The mechanical components employed in this system are
fabricated using polylactic acid (PLA) [29] via the technique of additive manufacturing,
specifically 3D printing. PLA, a thermoplastic polymer, demonstrates superior printabil-
ity and strength when compared to acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), thermoplastic
polyurethane (TPU), and nylon materials [30]. The utilization of 3D printing technology
assisted the expeditious conversion of a computer-aided design (CAD) model into a func-
Designs 2024, 8, 35 5 of 18

tional prototype [31]. The integration of various components was accomplished by using
adhesives, M3 wood screws, and M2 nuts and bolts.

2.2.2. Actuators
To drive the motion of each finger, it utilized a set of coreless DC motors, the MightyZap
12Lf-100PT-27 (Parameters are shown in Table 1). Each actuator is equipped with an in-
tegrated lead screw mechanism, enabling the conversion of rotational motion into linear
actuation, thereby allowing for a maximum applied force of 100 N at a duty rate below
20% [32]. Additionally, an incorporated potentiometer (absolute position sensor) is em-
bedded within the motor to ensure precise and high-resolution monitoring of the spring’s
position force realtime force feedback [33].

2.2.3. Electronic Control System and Motor Driver

A customized circuit board was specifically developed to streamline the integration
of the control components for the robotic gripper. This board features an Arduino Nano
housing an ATmega328 microcontroller [34]. Furthermore, the circuit board includes three
compact DC-DC 4R7 converters, which efficiently step down the power supply voltage
from 24 V to 12 V [35]. This configuration enables precise position control, enabling the
gripper to perform actions such as opening, closing, or pinching. Moreover, each finger is
equipped with a tailor-made force sensor, providing continuous force feedback that can be
adjusted for different grasping forces depending on the specific object being handled.

2.3. Mechanical and Electrical Design

This portion covers the design of the fingers and their spatial orientations, followed
by an explanation of the organization and control of electronic content.

2.3.1. Finger Design

In [36], the authors introduce an optimized gripper with a geometric design tai-
lored for a three-phalanx underactuated finger. The primary objective is to enable the
gripper to execute three distinct types of grips: spherical, parallel, and cylindrical. As
highlighted in [37], human grasping typically involves three fingers—the index, middle,
and thumb—prompting the selection of three fingers in the design to align with this nat-
ural functionality. Additionally, to enhance simplicity, the design adopts a two-phalanx
mechanism, mirroring the approach outlined in the study [36]. In this proposed gripper,
each underactuated finger mechanism possesses two degrees of freedom. The incorpo-
ration of a passive element, specifically a spring positioned between the first and second
finger phalanges, activates the second degree of freedom. Figure 1 illustrates the schematic
design of the finger, featuring two phalanges, two links, a spring, and a third-grade con-
nector element that transforms linear motor motion into rotary motion for the mechanism.
Spring’s presence allows the finger to rotate around a fixed pivot, resembling a single rigid
body. When the first phalanx contacts a surface, the actuator’s force stretches the spring,
transmitting motion exclusively to the second phalanx [36]. The gripping motion concludes
when the two phalanges come together to grasp an object, completing the full grasp, as
depicted in the comprehensive design presented in Figure 2. This design showcases all the
key elements within the system, aligning with the gripper’s multifunctional and adaptable
grip capabilities.
Designs 2024, 8, 35 6 of 18

Front View Unit mm

RHS View
Figure 1. Spatial position of the flanges of the gripper.

Figure 2. The figure captures the gripper performing three distinct functions: (A) Glue manipulation,
showing the gripper’s fine motor control and dexterity. (B) Grasping, illustrating the gripper’s ability
to hold larger objects securely. (C) Pinching capability, where the gripper adeptly handles slim objects
like a credit card, showcasing the precision and versatility.

Table 1. The proposed gripper at a glance.

Gripper Properties Actuators, MightyZap 12Lf-100PT-27 [38]

Materials PLA Input voltage DC 6V-13V
No of Fingers 3 Max Current 1.6 A
DoFs in each finger 2 Stroke 27 mm
No of Actuator 3 (Underactuated) Linear rated force 100 N
Length of each finger 84.5 mm Stall force at 1000 mA 48 N
Designs 2024, 8, 35 7 of 18

Table 1. Cont.

Gripper Properties Actuators, MightyZap 12Lf-100PT-27 [38]

Range of motion (degree) from
Joint1: −90 to 10, Joint2: −45 to 20 Max speed 7.7 mm/s
x-axis
Holding capacity Size: 80 mm, Weight: 2.9 kg Mechanical self-lock Yes
Cylindrical, parallel, and par-
Gripping type Size (Excluding spindle and hinge) 57.4 × 29.9 × 15 mm3
tial spherical
Finer position at idle Fully closed Weight (Excluding spindle and hinge) 48 g

2.3.2. Spatial Position of the Flanges

The configuration of the palm holds significance, influencing the angles between the
fingers and their coordination during the act of grasping. The spatial alignment of these
three fingers is crucial to create a gripper with the capability to securely hold objects within
a diameter range of up to 80 mm [26]. The test objects used in these assessments serve as
benchmarks, representing the minimum and maximum specifications for both length and
diameter relevant to each type of grip. Figure 1 shows the spatial position of the fingers,
where the illustrated arrangement of the components facilitates holding cylindrical objects
of a maximum diameter of 80 mm. Besides holding, the side where two fingers are located
prevents torque generated by the objects, rendering a firm grip.
The utilization of kinematic and dynamic analyses is fundamental in understanding
the motion and behavior of mechanical systems, particularly those characterized by un-
deractuation. This study employs principles of kinematics and dynamics to analyze an
underactuated gripper mechanism (Figure 3), as previously designed by Hernandez [26].

L1
L2 θ2
θ1 γ

θF1
F1

F2 Lb
L5

θF2
L3 θ4 θ5
L4 α
θ3 r

Figure 3. Vectorial representation of the finger [26].

Here, the positions of each phalanges,

θ1 = 90◦ + θ F1 (1)
◦
θ2 = 180 − r (2)
◦
θ3 = 90 + θ F2 (3)
θ4 = 180◦ − γ (4)
L3 Cosθ3 − L2 Cosθ4 − L4 Cosγ
 
θ5 = tan−1 (5)
L3 Sinθ3 − L2 Sinθ2 − L4 Sinγ
Linear force of the motor,
Designs 2024, 8, 35 8 of 18

−( L5 − Lb ) cos(α) Fk
 
FMotor = L4 (6)
L5 L6

2.3.3. Design of Phalanges for Pinching

This design integration of pinching functionality alongside traditional grasping ca-
pabilities enhances the versatility and adaptability of the gripper, making it suitable for a
broader range of manipulation tasks in various applications. In the proposed mechanism,
illustrated in Figure 4. The design of phalanges for pinching in the gripper mechanism
involves careful consideration of the lengths of the phalanges and the limit of the joint
motion (joint m). These parameters are crucial for enabling the gripper to perform both
pinching and grasping actions effectively.

Pinching steps: A-B-C Phalange 2 Joint m

Grasping steps: D-E-F Phalange 1

C B A
Credit card
Water bottle

F E D

Figure 4. Steps in pinching (credit card) and grasping (water bottle).

The gripper is capable of executing pinching motions in addition to conventional

grasping maneuvers. The design is optimized to facilitate pinching when external forces
are not exerted on phalange 1, as depicted in steps A-B-C of the mechanism. During
this operation, phalange 2 of the opposing finger remains parallel to effectively secure
objects such as credit cards. Conversely, during grasping actions (illustrated in steps D-E-F),
external forces are applied to phalange 1 initially. Subsequently, phalange 2 rotates to exert
pressure on the object, enhancing the grip strength and stability of the gripper.

2.3.4. Force Sensor Design

The proposed gripper incorporates our developed force sensors (depicted in Figure 5).
The primary component is a linear potentiometer, which undergoes adjustment by the
trigger part whenever any relative movement occurs between the motor spindle and the
output spindle. This relative movement transpires when there is a change in the applied
force on the spring. The controller is equipped with calibration for force sensing based on
the potentiometer position. It continuously reads the potentiometer position, representing
the force, at one-millisecond intervals, allowing it to make real-time decisions regarding
the finger’s position. As a result, the controller can apply appropriate pressures to objects
based on their shape, size, and weight, rendering the gripper adaptable for handling items
ranging from rigid to delicate parts.
Designs 2024, 8, 35 9 of 18

Spring

Motor spindle

Trigger part

Output spindle

Potentiometer
Cap

Figure 5. Customized force sensor for adaptable grasping.

2.3.5. Circuit Board Design

The circuit (Figure 6) receives a 24 V power supply, and this voltage is parallelly
converted to 12 V by three compact buck converters for the three motors. One of these
converters also provides power to the Arduino Nano, while the force sensor receives a 5 V
supply from the Arduino. Acting as a controller, it sends 5 V PWM Digital Logic inputs for
motors. On the other hand, it sends and receives commands by serial communication with
the robotic arms [39]. The Arduino reads user commands and monitors the force applied
by the three motors at one-millisecond intervals. Based on this real-time data, the Arduino
determines the precise positioning and actuation levels required for each motor. Figure 7
shows the control algorithm of gripping, pinching, and opening actions. All the electrical
components are assembled and hung to an actuator shown in Figure 8.

Linear actuator
GND TX Converter
24V RX
12V1
12V1 TX 12V1
PWM1
RX
12V2 5V
5V
PWM2 A3
PWM1
12V3 12V2 PWM2
PWM3
PWM3 A3 A2
A2
A1
12V3
A1
Input-Output Port
Arduino
Circuit board
Force Sensor

Figure 6. Overview of the circuit board components, detailing the color-coded wiring scheme. Bright
red denotes the 24 V supply, dark red signifies the 12 V supply, pink represents the 5 V supply, green
denotes ground connections, gray indicates signal lines, and cyan represents PWM connections.
Designs 2024, 8, 35 10 of 18

Read the user

Start
input if available

Case 1: The last input was to Case 2: The last input was to Case 3: The last input was to
close the gripper pinch the gripper release the gripper

Read the gripping force Read the fingers' position (r) Read the fingers' position

Yes
No
Are the fingers'
Has the required force position more than Are the fingers fully open?
been applied? 30 degree?
Yes

No Yes No
Rotate the finger (r) little Rotate the finger (r) little
amount (0.5 degree) to grip reverse (-0.5 degree)

Figure 7. Control algorithm of the gripper.

Phalange
Casing

Motor
Circuit holder
Circuit board
Mount adapter

Force sensor

Rubber skin
Spring

Figure 8. The CAD model of the gripper with internal mechanism.

2.4. Manufacturing and Prototyping

The fabrication process was fused deposition modeling (FDM) 3D printing techniques
with PLA filaments (Figure 9). The key actuators, located at Joint-1, consist of coreless
DC motors of the MightyZap 12Lf-100PT-27 model [38]. The actuators are connected to
the base with M3 bolts, facilitating revolute joints. With the same bolt, the force sensors
are attached to the spindle of the actuators. Then, the base-actuators–sensors assembly is
inserted into the case, where 8 M3 wood screws hold the base and case together. After
that, the fingers are attached to the other side of the force sensors. In fingers, phalanges are
connected by M2 bolts, where every joint provides rotating motions. Finally, the gripper
was mounted to the wheelchair-mounted multifunctional robotic assistive arm (mR2A)
(Figure 2), developed in BioRobotics Laboratory, University of Wisconsin Milwaukee. This
comprehensive integration of electronic control and fabrication techniques forms a robust
Designs 2024, 8, 35 11 of 18

foundation for the efficient functioning of the robotic gripper within the UWM-BioRobotics
Lab’s environment.

Base
Linear motor

Force sensor

Communication port

Circuit board

Arduino

Casing

Figure 9. The 3D-printed prototype of the developed gripper.

3. Experimental Study
This study investigates the designed three-finger adaptive robotic gripper, which
is purposed to augment daily living activities. This segment articulates the systematic
framework instituted for the evaluation, encompassing participant selection criteria, the
construction of the experimental milieu, the protocols for data acquisition, and the criteria
for assessing the gripper’s efficacy.

3.1. Study Site and Participants

The experimental work was conducted at the BioRobotics Laboratory, University
of Wisconsin–Milwaukee. A total of six individuals who were in good health and had
an average age of 26.3 years with a standard deviation of 2.3 years were included as
participants in this research investigation.

3.2. Experimental Setup

The experimental setup mirrored real-life conditions (Figures 10 and 11), featuring
an assortment of 90 distinct ADL objects (see Table 2) chosen for their commonality in
household settings and their varied shapes, sizes, textures, and weights [40]. These objects
were manipulated using a robotic arm equipped with the gripper, controlled via a joystick
interface to reflect the user experience of individuals with limited upper limb movement.

3.3. Data Collection Furthermore, Evaluation Criteria

Data collection was comprehensive, capturing both quantitative metrics such as the
number of successful grasps, object weights, dimensions, and forces applied and qualitative
feedback regarding usability and user satisfaction. We meticulously defined evaluation
criteria centered on the gripper’s capability to reliably grasp and manipulate objects without
causing slippage, damage, or user strain. Standardized protocols within a controlled
laboratory setting were employed to guarantee uniformity across tests, with consistent
robotic arm movements and clear participant guidance to reduce variability. The resulting
data were subject to thorough statistical analysis, fortifying the validity and dependability
of our research outcomes.

3.4. Load Test

The experiments involving the three-finger gripper entailed subjecting it to a range
of weights until it reached its load-bearing limit (Figure 10). The gripper was affixed to
the mR2A robots located within the BioRobotics laboratory at the University of Wisconsin–
Milwaukee. The mR2A is a six-degree-of-freedom robotic arm on a wheelchair. The
Designs 2024, 8, 35 12 of 18

end effector movements of the robot were directed using a joystick. To vary the weight,
different quantities of water were poured into a container, ranging from 200 g to 3.2 kg, with
increments of 300 g. Following the successful load test of 2900 g, the finger experienced a
fracture when subjected to a weight of 3200 g.

Gripper
Water
Robotic arm
Powered wheelchair

Figure 10. Load testing with mR2A robot.

Reasons for failure

Weight constraint
Small size constraint
Large size constraint
Weights, g

Torque constraint

ADL objects that the gripper cannot hold

Figure 11. Analyzing the failure reasons of the gripper for some ADL objects.
Designs 2024, 8, 35 13 of 18

3.5. Usability Test of the Gripper

The usability test involved a variety of shapes and materials to assess the participants’
interaction with different objects. The shapes were cylindrical, irregular, rectangular, and
round, while the materials included delicate fabric, food, and rigid substances. Table 2
presents the object lists categorized based on ADLs and their corresponding weight ranges.
This comprehensive range of objects aimed to evaluate the participants’ handling of items
with varying shapes, materials, and weights, providing valuable insights into the usability
of robotic systems in everyday scenarios.

Table 2. Object lists that have been considered in the usability test.

ADL Objects (Italics Are Failed in Grasping) Weight Ranges

USB memory, Earrings, Tea bags, Tic tac box , Necklace, Toilet paper,
Ruler, Credit/Debit card, Glue, Tacos, Bookmarker, Glasses, Pair of
Very light (1 g to 49 g)
socks, Bag of chips, Popcorn, bag, Sharpener, Phone charger, Cereal box,
Toothbrush, Earphones, Pencil, Wallet, Pen, Table lamp
Fruit peeler, Scissors, Highlighter, Hand watch, Remote control, Mouse,
Deodorant, Hat, Lipstick, Avocado, Artificial apple, Marker, Plum,
Light (50 g to 299 g)
French fries, Eraser, Hard drive, iPod, Pills, Slice of pizza, Stapler,
Pringle, Peach, Plum, French fries, Eraser, Hard drive
Protein shake, Power bank, Shoe, Ketchup, Bag, Knife, Tomatoes can,
Umbrella, Keyboard, Mouse pad, iPad, Cutting board, Moisturizer, First Medium (300 g to 999 g)
aid box, Portrait, Folder, Diary
Desk phone, Milk 1 Qt bottle, Detergent, Mouthwash, Coffee machine,
Heavy (1000 g to 4000 g)
Laptop, Blanket, Book, Milk 3 Qt

The participants utilized an assistive robotic manipulator (Figure 10), which was
affixed to a wheelchair, in order to manipulate a variety of objects routinely employed in
ADLs in the workspace shown in Figure 12. This was achieved by employing a joystick
controlled with a finger. Upon the conclusion of the experiment, a comprehensive usability
and satisfaction survey was administered to all participants in order to assess the efficacy
of the constructed three-finger-type robotic gripper. First, a two-page instruction sheet
was given to the subjects. Then, 90 objects (Table 2) were picked and placed in the ADL
workspaces to verify the gripper’s competence. After completing the study, participants
were requested to complete a user satisfaction survey.

W1: Workspace 1

W6
W3
W5
W7

Z
Y X
W1
W4
W2

Figure 12. ADL workspace relative to the users and the robot.
Designs 2024, 8, 35 14 of 18

4. Results
The three-finger gripper grasped 75 household items 93% of the time. Compare success
rates of grasping, manipulating, and releasing objects of different shapes, sizes, weights,
and textures. The gripper can hold 2.9 kg and manipulate objects between 25 mm and
80 mm in at least one dimension. The amount of gripping force exerted is contingent on
factors such as the surface texture, weight, and the position of the center of mass of the
objects. Objects with greater weight and smoother surfaces necessitate increased gripping
force. However, the object’s texture is not important in grasping success because the fingers
have silicon skin that facilitates enough contact friction with every object.
On the other hand, the object’s shape is a deciding factor for medium and heavy
objects. Items with a center of gravity positioned farther from the gripping point, such as
books, require a higher level of gripping force to manage high torque. Consequently, the
gripper could not handle books and iPads, though its weight was below the maximum
capacity of the gripper (Figure 11).
The gripper demonstrates the capability to execute both grasping and pinching actions
with adaptive force (Figure 2), thereby achieving our primary objective. As a secondary
aim, the gripper is engineered to fully close during periods of non-operation (Figure 9),
thereby minimizing its footprint and safeguarding the fingers from potential damage by
eliminating unnecessary protrusions during transportation and storage.
In the conclusive phase of our study, the thorough usability and satisfaction survey
unequivocally illustrated the gripper’s user-friendly nature and intuitive control interface.
Respondents consistently reported a high level of ease in operating the gripper, validating
its efficiency and practicality in ADL applications, thus contributing positively to user
satisfaction. This outcome underscores the successful integration of user-centered design
principles into the gripper’s functionality, affirming its accessibility and usability across
various daily tasks and scenarios.

5. Discussion
The developed three-finger adaptable robotic gripper is a significant advancement in
assistive robotics, especially considering its potential to improve the independence and
quality of life for people needing help with ADLs. The device’s potential is enhanced by its
adaptability, simplicity of design, and capacity to manage a diverse array of object sizes and
weights. The gripper is capable of pinching and securely holding a wide variety of objects.
The usability and load test results demonstrate that the gripper successfully managed to
pick and place 75 out of 90 daily objects, showcasing a 93% success rate. This level of
performance underscores the gripper’s capability to interact with a broad spectrum of
household items, highlighting its adaptability and practical utility in real-world scenarios.
The ability of the gripper to handle objects varying in size up to 80 mm and up to 2.9 kg
in weight is particularly noteworthy. This range covers a substantial portion of everyday
objects, indicating that the design objectives focusing on adaptability and controlled force
application were effectively met. A notable aspect of these grippers is their development
using 3D printing technology, which underscores the feasibility of short-time, cost-effective
production and opens avenues for easy customization and repair.
Furthermore, it is noteworthy to highlight that the gripper’s finger exhibits the ca-
pability to achieve closure with a minimal footprint, as illustrated in Figure 9. This par-
ticular design feature holds significant implications for enhancing the overall portability
of the gripper system. The reduction in spatial requirements for finger closure not only
contributes to the compactness of the device but also facilitates ease of transport. Such
considerations are pivotal in applications where portability and maneuverability are crucial
factors, underscoring the practical and functional advantages of the proposed gripper
design. Additionally, the simplicity of the design, as perceived by the users, further adds to
the device’s practicality, making it a viable option for individuals who need assistance with
ADLs. This simplicity is crucial, as it lowers the barriers to adoption and usage, especially
for individuals who are less familiar or comfortable with robotic technology.
Designs 2024, 8, 35 15 of 18

Table 3 presents a comparative analysis of benchmarks involving analogous tech-

nologies that have evaluations with ADL objects. Alternative grippers have undergone
assessments involving 3 to 7 ADL objects or sample objects with four to five distinct shapes.
In contrast, the proposed gripper has undergone comprehensive testing with a carefully
chosen set of 90 ADL objects, successfully handling 75 of them. This rigorous evaluation
underscores the gripper’s effectiveness, particularly in the context of applications related
to ADLs.
Even though these results appear beneficial, additional investigation and development
are needed in specific segments. The design needs to be improved, and it needs to be tested
for more extended periods to see how well it works and how long it endures. The fact
that the gripper could not handle 15 of the tested items suggests room for improvement
in its design. This might involve enhancing the grip strength, increasing the range of
sizes and shapes that can be accommodated, or improving the sensitivity of the gripper to
handle more delicate tasks. Additionally, future investigations should focus on long-term
performance assessments, including wear and tear under standard usage settings, as well as
exploring user experience optimization to ensure that the gripper is not only functional but
also easily accessible and enjoyable for all potential users. Moreover, integrating the gripper
with various robotic arms and platforms must be explored to enhance its applicability in
diverse environments. Compatibility with different robotic systems would increase its
utility and make it a more versatile tool for aiding ADLs. Another consideration for future
research is that the path forward involves a multidisciplinary approach, combining insights
from robotics, ergonomics, user experience design, and direct feedback from end-users to
create a more inclusive and efficient assistive tool. While the simplicity of the gripper was
well-received, a detailed study on user interaction and control interfaces could provide
insights into how to make the device more intuitive and user-friendly, especially for those
with limited technical skills or physical capabilities.

Table 3. Bench-markings with similar type of technologies.

Robotic Grippers Grippers’ Characteristics Number of Success ADL Objects

Li et al. [15] Multiple legged; Gecko-inspired adhesion gripper 3 (steel plate, soccer ball, and glass)
3 fingers; Origami inspired; Flexible and rigid polymer
Lee et al. [41] composite; Central servomotor; Cable driven; Underactu- 3 (fabrics, clementine, egg, and rubik’s cube)
ated fingers
3 fingers; Fexible belt materials with high-stiffness;
BLT Gripper [25] 3 (driller, pencil, and tape)
ABS structure
2 fingers; 1 DoF in each finger; Variable friction surface;
7 (custom objects prepared for the experi-
Lu et al. [42] ABS/TPU material; 2 Dc motors for changing the friction;
ments)
2 servo motors for the fingers; Clamp/clip mechanism
Li et al. [16] 2 fingers; Soft gripper; It pick and arrange small objects 4 (pliers, tape, haptic device, and screwdriver)
gripper; 2 fingers
5 (screw, washer, tape, pully, and peg)
in each;
2 fingers; ABS material; Serrvo motor controlled; Underac-
Hussain et al. [44] 4 (cup, tennis ball,and small box)
tuated fingers; Tendon-driven
3 fingers; 3D printed; Thermoplastic elastomer (TPE) /PLA
Tlegenov et al. [45] /ABS; Central servo motor; Underactuated fingers; No 4 (pencil, bottle, witheboard eraser, and ball)
force feedback
3 finger; 3D printed; Underactuated fingers; Force feed
Proposed gripper back; Customized force sensor; Cylindrical, parallel, and 75 (Table 2)
partial spherical; Fingers are fully closed at idle

Furthermore, the study’s positive findings in terms of usability and accessibility

indicate an optimistic future for robots in everyday life. The potential impact on those who
require assistance with ADLs is significant, providing a path to better independence and
Designs 2024, 8, 35 16 of 18

quality of life. This research not only contributes to the field of assistive technology but
also paves the way for broader applications of robotics in enhancing daily living, signaling
a significant step forward in integrating technology and personal care.

6. Conclusions
Our study reveals the impressive performance of the three-finger gripper in grasping
a wide range of household items, achieving a success rate of 93%. Through meticulous
analysis, we compared the success rates of grasping, manipulating, and releasing objects
of different shapes, sizes, weights, and textures. We found that the gripper effectively
held objects weighing up to 2.9 kg and manipulated items ranging from 25 mm to 80 mm
in at least one dimension. Grip force exertion varied based on factors such as surface
texture, weight, and the object’s center of mass position. Notably, the gripper’s silicon
skin enabled sufficient contact friction, rendering object texture less significant in grasping
success. However, object shape proved crucial for medium and heavy objects, with items
like books requiring increased grip force to manage torque.
Despite its remarkable performance, the gripper faced challenges handling certain
objects, particularly books and iPads, due to their unique shapes and weight distribution.
Nevertheless, our usability survey demonstrated the gripper’s user-friendly design and
intuitive control interface, confirming its practicality and efficacy in assisting Activities
of Daily Living (ADL). Users consistently reported ease of operation, highlighting the
successful integration of user-centered design principles into the gripper’s functionality.
Overall, our findings support the gripper’s utility in enhancing independence and quality
of life for individuals requiring ADL assistance, marking a significant advancement in
assistive robotics.
In future iterations of this research, it is imperative to conduct tests with real subjects
to gain deeper insights into the practical usability and ergonomic aspects of the gripper
in real-world scenarios. A significant area of focus will be on reducing the size of the
gripper to enhance its portability and ease of use while increasing its aesthetic appeal
to make it more user-friendly and less obtrusive. The current prototype, constructed
using PLA filaments through 3D printing technology, presents an opportunity for material
advancement. Transitioning to more robust materials such as aluminum or polyethylene
terephthalate glycol (PETG) could substantially improve the durability and longevity of the
gripper and increase its payload capacity. However, this material shift necessitates further
development and refinement of the current design, particularly in miniaturization, to ensure
that the enhanced robustness does not compromise the gripper’s functionality or user
accessibility. Integrating more sophisticated sensory feedback mechanisms, such as tactile
sensors, could significantly improve the gripper’s ability to adapt to different objects and
environments. This enhancement would allow for a more nuanced and sensitive handling
of a wider range of objects, particularly those requiring delicate manipulation. Employing
machine learning algorithms and artificial intelligence could enable the gripper to learn
from its interactions and improve its performance over time. This could involve the gripper
adapting its grip based on the object’s weight, texture, and fragility, increasing its efficiency
and effectiveness. This evolution is expected to significantly elevate the performance and
applicability of the gripper in assisting individuals with daily living activities.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.M.R. and M.H.R.; methodology, M.M.R.; validation,

M.M.R., M.M.R.K., M.S.H.S., M.T.S., A.A.Z.S., E.I., D.B.-M. and M.H.R.; formal analysis, M.M.R. and
A.A.Z.S.; investigation, M.M.R. and E.I.; resources, M.H.R.; data curation, M.M.R.; writing—original
draft preparation, M.M.R., M.M.R.K., M.S.H.S., M.T.S., A.A.Z.S., E.I. and M.H.R.; writing—review
and editing, M.M.R.K. and M.H.R.; visualization, M.M.R. and M.M.R.K.; supervision, D.B.-M. and
M.H.R.; project administration, M.H.R.; funding acquisition, M.H.R. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: The contents of this article were partially supported by two grants from the National
Institute on Disability, Independent Living, and Rehabilitation Research (NIDILRR grant number
90DPGE0018-01-00 and 90DPKT0015-01-00). NIDILRR is a Center within the Administration for
Designs 2024, 8, 35 17 of 18

Community Living (ACL), Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). The contents of this
Journal do not necessarily represent the policy of NIDILRR, ACL, or HHS, and you should not
assume endorsement by the Federal Government.
Institutional Review Board Statement: The study was conducted in accordance with the Declara-
tion of Helsinki, and approved by the Institutional Review Board of the University of Wisconsin–
Milwaukee (UWM IRB# 23.155 and date of approval was 15 February 2023) as minimal risk under
category 1b as governed by 45 CFR 46.110.
Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
Data Availability Statement: The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current
study are not publicly available due to the conditions of the funding source but are available from
the corresponding author on reasonable request.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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