General Organic Chemistry (GOC)
This document provides a detailed explanation of General Organic Chemistry (GOC), covering fundamental concepts
like hybridization, resonance, acidity, basicity, and reaction mechanisms. Practice questions are included to help you
reinforce your understanding.
1. Hybridization and Molecular Geometry
Hybridization refers to the mixing of atomic orbitals to form new hybrid orbitals that influence the molecular geometry.
Types include: sp (linear geometry), sp2 (trigonal planar), and sp3 (tetrahedral). Example: In methane (CH4), carbon is
sp3 hybridized.
2. Inductive Effect
The inductive effect is the polarization of the sigma bond due to the electronegativity difference between atoms. It can
be electron-withdrawing (-I) or electron-donating (+I). Example: The -NO2 group shows a strong -I effect, while alkyl
groups show a +I effect.
3. Resonance and Mesomeric Effect
Resonance refers to the delocalization of electrons in molecules with conjugated systems, represented by multiple
resonance structures. The mesomeric effect is similar but focuses on electron donation (+M) or withdrawal (-M) through
pi bonds. Example: In phenol, the -OH group exhibits a +M effect.
4. Hyperconjugation
Hyperconjugation is the delocalization of sigma electrons through overlap with an adjacent empty or partially filled
p-orbital or pi-bond. It stabilizes carbocations and alkenes. Example: The stability of the tert-butyl carbocation is due to
hyperconjugation.
5. Electrophiles and Nucleophiles
Electrophiles are electron-deficient species that seek electrons, while nucleophiles are electron-rich species that donate
electrons. Example: H+ is an electrophile, and OH- is a nucleophile.
6. Reaction Intermediates
Reaction intermediates include: Carbocations (positively charged, sp2 hybridized), Carbanions (negatively charged, sp3
hybridized), Free radicals (neutral species with unpaired electrons, sp2 hybridized), and Carbenes (neutral species with
a divalent carbon atom).
7. Acidity and Basicity
Acidity and basicity are determined by the ability to donate or accept protons (Bronsted-Lowry) or donate/accept
electrons (Lewis). Factors affecting acidity: Resonance, inductive effect, and hybridization. Example: Phenol is more
acidic than ethanol due to resonance stabilization.
8. Types of Organic Reactions
Types of organic reactions include: Substitution (nucleophilic and electrophilic), Addition (to double and triple bonds),
Elimination (formation of double or triple bonds), and Rearrangement (reorganization of atoms in a molecule).
9. Reaction Mechanisms
Reaction mechanisms describe the step-by-step sequence of events in a chemical reaction. Key concepts: Homolytic
and heterolytic bond cleavage, transition states, and activation energy. Example: The SN1 and SN2 mechanisms for
nucleophilic substitution.
10. Practice Questions
1. Define the term 'hyperconjugation' and provide an example.
2. Explain the difference between inductive and mesomeric effects.
3. Arrange the following in order of increasing acidity: Ethanol, Acetic acid, Phenol.
4. Draw the resonance structures for nitrobenzene.
5. Identify the hybridization of carbon in ethene and ethyne.
