Latch, Step and lockout relays

To be honest, expertise in relay systems is fundamental for comprehension and

creativity in circuits design. From bi-stable relays that maintain their states
without continuous power to step relays facilitating incremental changes, and
lockout relays guarding against unauthorized reenergization, each component
plays a vital role in shaping the functionality and safety of electrical circuits.

The analysis of relay control systems: Electrical schematics with latch, step and
lockout relays
In previous parts of this ‘Electrical Schematics’ series, we covered many
important topics, so I advise you to study those articles as well (I, II, III, IV, V,
and VI).
As we embark on an exploration of these relay systems, we delve into the
intricate mechanisms behind their operation and applications. The journey begins
with latch or bi-stable relays, where we unravel the principles governing setting

1
coil energization, the latch state, resetting coil activation, and the maintained
state.

Through this examination, we gain insight into how these relays uphold their
positions, providing stability and reliability in electrical systems.

Transitioning to step relays, we uncover their significance in facilitating

controlled step-by-step movements in electrical circuits. From understanding
their role in DC motor control circuits to their application in directing motor
direction and operation, step relays emerge as indispensable components in
automation and control systems.

The journey culminates with an in-depth exploration of lockout relays, also

known as master trip relays, designated by the ANSI code 86. These guardians
of power transmission systems stand sentinel against potential hazards,
preventing unauthorized re-energization during fault conditions. Through an
examination of their operation, manual reset mechanisms, integration with
targets, and diverse applications, we unveil the critical role lockout relays play in
ensuring operational safety and efficiency in electrical networks.
As we navigate through the intricate workings and applications of latch, step, and
lockout relays, we gain a deeper appreciation for their significance in the realm
of electrical engineering.

Through this exploration, we aim to equip engineers, technicians, and enthusiasts

with the knowledge and insights necessary to navigate the complexities of relay
systems and harness their potential to drive innovation and reliability in electrical
circuits.

Table of Contents:
1. Latch / Bi-Stable Relay:
1. Setting Coil Energization
2. Latch State
3. Resetting Coil Activation
4. Maintained State
2. Step Relay
3. DC Motor Control Circuit Using Step Relay:
1. Relay K1 (Step Relay)
2. Relay K2
3. Control Push Buttons (S1 and S2):
1. S1 (Start Push Button)
2. S2 (Stop Push Button)
4. Lock Out Relay or Master Trip Relay (ANSI Code 86)

2
 5. BONUS: Download Motor Circuit Design Guide (PDF)

1. Latch / Bi-Stable Relay

A latch relay, also known as a bi-stable relay, is a type of relay that differs from
traditional auxiliary relays in its operation and functionality. While auxiliary
relays typically have only one coil responsible for controlling the state of the
contacts, a latch relay has two coils: a setting coil and a resetting coil.
The distinguishing feature of a latch relay is its ability to maintain its state even
after the input power is removed. This is achieved through the use of two stable
conditions, hence the term “bi-stable“. Once the contacts of a latch relay change
their position due to energizing the setting coil, they remain in that position until
a pulse is applied to the resetting coil.
Figure 0 – Bi-stable relay (or latch relay) in electrical schematics

Figure 0 – Bi-stable relay (or latch relay) in electrical schematics

Here’s how the operation of a latch relay typically works:

3
1.1 Setting Coil Energization
When the setting coil is energized, the contacts of the latch relay change their
position, either from open to closed or closed to open, depending on the design
and configuration of the relay.

1.2 Latch State

Once the contacts have changed their position, they remain in that state even if
the supply to the setting coil is removed. This is because the relay has effectively
latched into this position, hence the name “latch relay“.

1.3 Resetting Coil Activation

To reset the contacts of the latch relay, a pulse is applied to the resetting coil.
This pulse doesn’t need to be sustained; it can be just a momentary signal. Upon
receiving this pulse, the relay contacts return to their original position,
effectively resetting the relay.

1.4 Maintained State

Once reset, the contacts of the latch relay will remain in their new position until
another pulse is applied to the setting coil to change their state again.

Latch relays find applications in various scenarios where maintaining a particular

state of the contacts is desired, even in the absence of continuous power . They
are commonly used in control circuits, automation systems, and other
applications where a specific state needs to be maintained until intentionally
changed.
Their bi-stable nature makes them versatile components in electrical and
electronic systems.
In Figure 1, we are presented with an illustration of a bi-stable relay, which is
distinguished by its unique characteristics and symbol. Unlike conventional
auxiliary relays, the bi-stable relay features two coils, denoted by terminals A1-
A2 and B1-A2.
4
This dual-coil configuration enables the relay to maintain its state even after the
input power is removed, a feature that sets it apart from its single-coil
counterparts.

Figure 1 – Normal position of bi-stable relay in the schematics

Figure 1 – Normal position of bi-stable relay in the schematics

Upon closer examination of the relay symbol, we notice a subtle but significant
difference from the standard auxiliary relay symbol. Two additional lines are
incorporated into the symbol, indicating the presence of two coils within the
relay. This visual cue serves to differentiate the bi-stable relay from other relay
types and signifies its bi-stable nature, capable of maintaining two stable
conditions.
Within the symbol, the relay itself, denoted as K, is depicted in its normal
position. This normal position signifies the state of the relay when it is not
energized or activated. The associated contacts are labeled accordingly: 13-14
represents the normally open contact, while 11-12 signifies the normally closed
contact.

These contacts play a crucial role in controlling the flow of electrical current
within the circuit, depending on the state of the relay.

5
Additionally, we observe another set of contacts labeled as 15-16-18, which
represent the changeover contact of the relay. This contact enables the relay to
switch between two different electrical circuits or states, depending on the
energization status of its coils.
By transitioning between these contacts, the bistable relay facilitates the desired
functionality within the electrical system, providing versatility and control in
various applications.
In summary, Figure 1 offers a comprehensive visual representation of a bi-stable
relay, highlighting its dual-coil configuration, distinctive symbol, and key
contacts. Through this illustration, we gain a deeper understanding of the relay’s
structure and functionality, setting the stage for further exploration into its
operation and applications in electrical circuits.

Figure 2 – Energizing the A1 coil will set the contacts

Figure 2 – Energizing the A1 coil will set the contacts

In Figure 2, we are presented with a scenario where the push button S1 is

pressed, initiating the energization of the bi-stable relay coil A1-A2. As a
result of this energization, several changes occur within the relay’s contacts,
contributing to the alteration of the circuit’s state.
Firstly, the normally open contact 13-14 of the bi-stable relay changes its
position from open to closed. This transition allows electrical current to flow

6
through the contact, enabling the completion of a specific circuit or the activation
of downstream components.

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step-lockout-relays

Medium voltage switchgear control circuits

In the previous article, an introductory part of the switchgear control circuits, including
DC/AC circuits and breaker closing circuit, was discussed thoroughly. This article
continues the discussion with a breaker trip circuit, bay control-protection unit (BCPU)
& alarm circuit, indication circuit, and interlock circuit.

Mastering switchgear control circuits: trip, BCPU and alarm, indication, and interlock
circuits

7
Fortunately, the main principles are the same, meaning that the tools used in the last
article are good for this article, too. These principles are related to the contact default
status, drawing reading basics, etc.

One of the main concepts is the breaker default position, which is charged spring, test
position, open status.

Table of Contents:
1. Switchgear Auxiliary Switches
2. Circuit Breaker Tripping Circuit
1. Circuit Breaker Failure
2. Trip Circuit Supervising
3. Bay Control-Protection Unit (BCPU) and Alarm Circuit
4. Indication Circuit
5. Mechanical Interlocking Circuit

1. Switchgear Auxiliary Switches

Some might ask how the breaker statues are signaled into the control circuits. Well,
different types of auxiliary switches signify the breaker position and provide electrical
interlocks. These auxiliary switches are known as mechanism operated (MOC
switches) and truck operated (TOC switches) auxiliary switches.
MOC switches are mounted on the breaker, but often they are mounted on the cubicle
with a mechanical link to the breaker. The MOC switches often are used to signal the
breaker open/close status quo and any update in its operating mechanism.
The TOC switches, also, are mounted on the cell and they operate when the breaker is
moved to the operating position. That is, the switches change their states when the
breaker moves from test position to service position.

They are used for interlocking and remote position indication.

8
MOC switch and MOC operating pantograph

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indication-interlock
The goods & bad of digital substations
Here at EEP, we have already covered multiple aspects of digital substations,
ranging from design, upgradations, and whatnot. We may continue writing till
eternity and still be left playing catchups with the latest addition to advancements
in power systems design and operation. Nevertheless, in this article, our focus
shall be on the possible contingencies and turn of events when the coveted
connectivity of modern digital substations goes haywire.

9
What will happen to digital substations once the internet drops dead? Massive
blackouts?
Or, how to cope if the internet or ethernet is down in digital substations?
Normally, a fully automated digital substation in a power grid is connected to a
remote server through the internet over an optical channel.

Remote communication or the internet we know of today is associated with

many functionalities in a digital substation, and its disruption is never a desirable
situation for substation engineers.

Table of Contents:
1. Demarcation of digital substations
2. Emergence of ethernet and internet in digital substations
3. What if no ethernet?
4. Internet in digital substations
1. Remote supervision and control
2. Teleprotection
3. Remote maintenance
5. Conclusion and frequent queries
1. Do digital substations fail to operate when the internet is
down?
2. Are digital substations ready for offline or analog operation?

10
 3. What could engineers do in that situation to maintain the
power supply?
4. Bracing against the internet failure: “Redundancy, contingency
plans, and skilled technicians.”

1. Demarcation of digital substations

Substation automation, time synchronization, data acquisition, monitoring, and
alarming are some of the primary functions either facilitated or enhanced by
digital substations, having already existed in different forms and phases. The
availability of a modern communication backbone has been instrumental in
transforming the way substations are designed and operated.

That is what demarks the operational territory of a digital substation – IEC

68150 compliant communication and interoperability between the process and
station level equipment, all channeled through ethernet or optical link.
The primary substation appliances like circuit breakers, power transformers,
lightning arrestors, switches, etc. have remained almost the same over the years,
irrespective of the communication modes adopted. So, it is fair to say that the
concept of digital substations marks its territory starting from the selection of
protective equipment (conventional versus IEDs – Intelligent Electronic Devices)
and their mode of communication with sensors/ actuators and control centers.
Breach or abnormalities in this territory could trigger a catastrophe in
substations.
Figure 1 – A concept diagram of a digital substation

11
Figure 1 – A concept diagram of a digital substation

2. Emergence of ethernet and

internet in digital substations
The introduction of microprocessor-based relays in the early 1970s in substations
laid the foundation for the current sophisticated version of Substation
Automation Systems, aided by first-generation digital serial communication
options- RS 232 and RS 485.

Although very capable, they had their limitation in data transfer rate and
coverage, which eventually pushed for the inception of ethernet, a more
advanced serial data communication standard.

Initial forms of serial communications and respective ports primarily

facilitated debugging of equipment and data acquisition. For instance, RS 232

12
was a suitable option for relaying information to SCADA systems and not for
automation systems due to their point-to-point connectivity, low data transfer
rate, and transmission coverage.
RS 485 was a clear upgrade over RS 232 due to its fast data transmission rate
and differential mode of operation that allows multidrop connections suitable for
automation systems.
Still, the substation automation systems were never at full potential until the
introduction of ethernet as the ultimate serial communication option for
digital substations. Their fast data transfer rate, connection flexibility via cable
or fiber, and support for redundant connection topologies made them stand out
from the rest.
As the substations now depend on ethernet connectivity more than ever, IEC
61850, an international standard defining communication protocols for
intelligent devices at electrical substations, has readily succeeded the MODBUS,
DNP3, and IEC 60870-5-103 communication protocols.

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Rogowski coil and IED

Rogowski Coils can easily replace conventional current transformers in
protection, metering, and control applications. They can be applied at all voltage
levels (low, medium, and high voltage). However, unlike CTs that produce
secondary current proportional to the primary current, Rogowski Coils produce
output voltage that is a scaled time derivative di(t)/dt of the primary current.

13
Rogowski Coils in protective relaying in electric power systems (on diagram: Relay
protection zones and RC locations)
Signal processing is required to extract the power frequency signal for
applications in phasor-based protective relays and microprocessor-based
equipment must be designed to accept these types of signals.

Figure 1a shows protective relaying principles using a Rogowski Coil directly

interfaced to an Intelligent Electronic Device (IED) , and Figure 1b shows
solutions described in Standard IEC 60044-8 for Electronic Current
Transformers (ECT).
The primary converter module represents signal processing circuitry which may
be placed in the immediate vicinity of the Rogowski Coil, and used to amplify,
convert, or encode low level signals prior to transmission.
Depending on the design, the primary converter may be located at the high
voltage (line) potential, and may use optical fibers for signal transmission and
HV insulation. The primary Converter Power Supply from Figure 1 may need to
be floated at the HV potential (along with the primary converter). The actual
point-of-use of the Rogowski Coil signal may be at or after the secondary
converter module.
The link between the primary and the secondary converter may be proprietary.

14
Figure 1 – Application of Rogowski Coils used for Protective Relaying Purposes

Current transformers require heavy gauge secondary wires for interconnection to

relays and other metering and control equipment (Figure 2). For example, Figure
2 shows a 2000/5 A, C800 class CT connected to a relay. The wire resistance
adds to the CT burden and negatively impacts the CT transient response and may
cause CT saturation at high fault currents.
In addition, terminal blocks are required so the CT secondary can be
shorted. Hazardous voltages can be generated when the CT secondary circuit
is opened while load current is flowing.
This CT has the core and winding height of 10 cm and weighs 90 kg.

Figure 2 – Current Transformer Connections to Relays

15
Rogowski Coils may be connected to relays via twisted pair shielded cables with
connectors (Figure 3). Terminal blocks are not required since the coil output
signal is a minimal voltage from the safety aspect, and this voltage does not
increase when the secondary circuit is open.
Figure 3 shows Rogowski Coil width and weight are much smaller than that of a
CT. This coil has the same size window as the CT from Figure 2, but can be
applied to a significantly larger current range than the CT.

Figure 3 – Rogowski Coil Connections to Relays

Cable Shielding. Rogowski coils and cabling should be shielded to prevent

capacitive coupling to the high-voltage primary conductors and to minimize the
influence of high-frequency electromagnetic fields (EMC environment). Cable
shielding methods are provided in [2].
Length of secondary cables that can be used for interface of Rogowski Coils
with relays depends on the measured signal levels, cable shielding, and
environmental conditions. Reported distances used in actual projects are up to
300 meters to transport Rogowski Coil analog signals without amplification.
Voltages in secondary cables are small (even for fault conditions), so any
number of cables can be installed in the same conduit without impact from each
other.

16
Figure 4 – Volt/Current Sensor Interface to Relays

Figure 4 shows an example of a system configuration using electronic

instrument transformers (EITs). The electronic current transformers are based
on the principle of a Rogowski Coil. The electronic voltage transformers are
capacitive voltage dividers. Sensing Units (SUs) are arranged near the Rogowski
Coils and capacitive voltage dividers on each bay. One Merging Unit (MU) is
provided. Each SU is connected to the MU by optical fiber.
The merging unit is connected to the process bus by optical fiber. To ensure high
reliability, the system included duplicated Rogowski Coils, SUs, MUs, and
process bus. Only capacitive voltage dividers were not duplicated.

The EITs were designed based on IEC 60044-7 and IEC 60044-8.

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rogowski-coil-cts

17
Substation degital communication
Typically, substations comprise power elements like power transformers, switches,
busbars, etc. and control elements like protection units, metering units, RTUs, SCADA,
etc. While the power elements are mandatory requirements, the control elements vary
as per the function of a substation and the capital investment available.

How to convert an old substation into a digital substation?

In between all these, digital communication, data acquisition, automation, intuitive
features and, information sharing via Ethernet or any other modern communication
protocol separates a conventional substation with a modern digital substation. During
the initial days of power system development, substations served the sole purpose of
power distribution with few automation and digital data acquisition provisions.

Advanced communication protocols were not ready to be used in the power sector back
then. To bring it in perspective, IEC 61850, an international standard that defines the
modern communication protocol for digital electronic devices within substations, was
introduced only in 2003.

The use of integrated Intelligent Electronic Devices (IEDs) to enable real-time

monitoring and remote management has risen exponentially ever since.

18
This article will discuss the fundamentals of the up-gradation of old substations into
digital substations capable of full automation, real-time data acquisition, and
monitoring, along with lots of additional features.

Figure 1 – Relay panels in an old 132 kV substation

Table of contents:
1. Typical operation and communication mechanism of old substations
2. Digital substation and communication protocol in a nutshell
3. Why convert old substations into digital?
4. Architecture and essentials of conversion
1. Equipment selection
1. Primary sensing elements and interfacing devices
2. Integrating existing digital devices and new IEDs
3. Provision for synchronization and switches
4. SCADA and HMI
2. Selecting bus architecture
3. Final integration with the existing components

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19
Introduction
The Digital Substation is a term applied to electrical substations where operation
is managed between distributed intelligent electronic devices (IEDs)
interconnected by communications networks. It became possible by using
computing technology in the substation environment.

What is the Digital Substation?

Microprocessors were introduced into substation products such as protection
devices to improve the performance of the main product functions. Features such
as improved accuracy and stability were delivered.
Communications ports were also incorporated, but these were more like a
developer’s debug tool than the sophisticated ones we might recognise today.

Communication facilities developed, however. They were refined to provide

connection to SCADA equipment to reduce hardwiring. Communications could

20
provide operators with informative interfaces using software packages running
on personal computers.
Significantly they developed to enable the transmission of data between the
different substation devices. As computing power became greater and cheaper,
it became possible to integrate multiple functionalities into single devices,
resulting in fewer devices being required to implement the same traditional
functionality.
The digital substation brings major benefits in terms of design and engineering,
installation, and operation. Off-the-shelf solutions can be offered, modifications
can be easily accommodated, cabling (and hence costs), are reduced, and
embedded diagnostics assure system integrity.

This article takes a tour through the enablers of the digital substation, looking at
communications (and how to ensure that they are sufficiently secure, reliable,
and dependable) concluding with an introduction to the standard IEC 61850.

Contents:
1. Communications
1. The OSI Model for Computer Communications
2. Communications Between IEDs
1. Physical Connection to IEDs for Substation Control
and Automation
1. EIA 232
2. EIA 485
3. Ethernet
2. Network Topologies
3. Serial Communications
1. Serial Communications Protocols
1. Modbus
2. IEC 60870-5-103
3. DNP3
4. Ethernet Communications
3. IEC 61850
1. IEC61850-9.2
4. Concluson

21
Communications
Communication is the conveyance of information from a source to a destination.
In 1949 C. E. Shannon and W. Weaver produced a mathematical model for
communications as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 – The Shannon Weaver mathematical model for communication

The model shows that for the information to transfer from the source to the
destination, a transmitter (encoder) and a receiver (decoder), both connected by a
channel are required.

It also demonstrates that sources of noise can interfere with the process.
Considering communication between two people, the source is the brain of the
person who wants to get the message across, the transmitter could be that
person’s voice and the channel is the atmosphere.
At the receiving end, the receiver would be the other person’s ears and the
destination that person’s brain. Audible noise could drown out the message
causing it not to be received and this is a possible cause of communication
breakdown, but it is not the only one.
If the source is speaking but the destination is not listening (i.e. they are not
synchronised), communication won’t be successful.
Similarly, if the two people talking don’t share a common language, and/or if
certain protocols are not observed (e.g. not both speaking at the same time),
failure is inevitable. Successful communication requires common understanding
between source and destination.

22
1. The OSI Model for Computer Communications
In the context of substation automation, communication is the transfer of
information from one computing device to another but, as with the example
above, problems with synchronisation, language, and protocol can all cause
communication failure.

The substation communication might be in the form of a dedicated link between

two devices, or it may be over some form of communications network.

The International Standards Organisation (ISO) recognised the need for a

framework for inter-device data communications, and in 1984 introduced
the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model.
The OSI model divides the data communication process into seven distinct
layers. Each of the seven layers defines how the data is handled during the
different stages of transmission. Each layer provides a service for the layer
immediately above it.
A model representing the seven layers is shown in Figure 2 with the purpose of
the different layers being described below.

Figure 2 – The OSI seven layer model

23
1.1 OSI Layer 1 – The Physical Layer
Every data message is transmitted on some medium. This medium usually takes
the form of cables, wires, or optical fibres, but it could just as well be wireless,
with the data being carried on electromagnetic waves.

The physical layer specifies the type of medium to be used between one end of
the data exchange and the other, the type of connectors to be used and the
voltage and current levels, and if applicable, optical characteristics defining the
state of the data bits.
A very common medium, particularly in Ethernet systems started with the CAT
5 UTP cable (Category 5 Unshielded Twisted Pair), which consists of four
colour-coded twisted pairs of wires terminated with RJ45 connectors. As the
name implies, this type of cable is not shielded against electromagnetic
interference.
There is also a version of this cable called CAT 5 STP (Category 5 Shielded
Twisted Pair) that has a metallic outer sheath, providing electromagnetic
shielding. This type of cable is often used in noisy environments like the
substation.
CAT 5, has more recently evolved into new standards such as CAT 6 and CAT 7,
which offer even more robust shielding, fire protection etc.

Figure – OSI Layer 1 – The Physical Layer

1.2 OSI Layer 2 – The Data Link Layer

24
The physical layer provides the Data Link layer with bits. The Data Link layer
now provides some intelligence to this sequence of bits by defining Data Frames.
These Data Frames are packets of data containing the data to be transmitted and
some control information governing the transmission.

The control information comprises flags to indicate the start and end of the
message. The standards used at this layer must ensure that the control flags
are not mistaken for data and that the data frames are checked for errors.
An example is given in Figure 3 below.

Fig
ure 3 – Example of a data frame

A commonly used Data Link protocol is Ethernet. Examples of equipment that

work at this layer are Ethernet switches and bridges.

1.3 OSI Layer 3 – The Network Layer

The network layer is concerned with packet delivery. Logical paths are
established between the sending and receiving equipment by adding
information onto the data frame which defines where the packet has come
from, and where the packet is going to.
This takes the form of a logical source and destination address for each packet of
information. A commonly used Network protocol is IP (Internet Protocol).

An example of equipment that operates at the network layer is a router.

25
1.4 OSI Layer 4 – The Transport Layer
The transport layer is the first layer that is not concerned with the mechanics of
the data transfer. It is concerned with managing and sequencing the packets once
they have arrived.

There is an array of transport layer protocols ranging from the very simple,
which simply accepts the data as it comes in, not caring about whether the
packets have errors nor even if they are in the right order, through to quite
complex protocols which check the data for errors, send out an
acknowledgement to the sending equipment, order the packets into the correct
sequence and present the data to the next layer guaranteed error-free and
correctly sequenced.
An example of a simple protocol is UDP (User Datagram Protocol). A more
sophisticated widely used transport layer protocol used is TCP (Transmission
Control Protocol).
Layer 4 functionality is achieved by the devices at either end of the transmission path,

which is usually a computer. In the context of substation protection, this would be

the IED.

1.5 OSI Layer 5 – The Session Layer

The first four layers establish a means of reliable communication between two
IEDs (computers), but they do not deal with intelligent management of the
communication.
This is performed at the session layer. It is the first layer that has user
interaction. Each communication session is governed by criteria pertinent to the
session. One communication session may be downloading a file from a web site,
whilst another may be working on a file situated on a remote server.
Session layer software can implement password control, monitor system usage, and

allow a user interaction with the communication.

1.6 OSI Layer 6 – The Presentation Layer

26
As the name implies, the presentation layer concerns itself with how the data is
presented. A good example of this is ASCII (American Standard Code for
Information Interchange).
An ASCII code is an 8-bit binary code, which defines the familiar character
set used to produce text. For example the character ‘A’ is defined by the binary
code 01000001, which is 41 hexadecimal or 65 decimal.
The presentation layer, if compliant with the ASCII format, can interpret this.

1.7 OSI Layer 7 – The Application Layer

The application layer is the layer that interacts with the user. This is in the
main software that allows the user to define the communication.
Examples of application level protocols would be file transfer protocol ( FTP),
hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP), post-office protocol 3 (POP3), or simple
mail transfer protocol (SMTP).

2. Communications Between IEDs

The OSI model outlines the need for compatibility between all
communication layers between computers (which are generally in the form of
IEDs in the substation).
This section explores the lowest two layers: the physical and data link layers.

2.1 Physical Connection to IEDs for Substation

Control and Automation In substation control and automation systems,
connection to IED communications ports at the physical layer (OSI layer 1) is
generally to one of three standards:

 EIA 232
 EIA 485
 Ethernet
EIA (Electronic Industries Association) is a set of standards defined for
connecting electronic devices together. They were formerly known as the
recommended standards (RS) and often people will still refer to them as RS 232
and RS 485.
NOTE! Although, traditionally the standards were designed with metallic connections

between devices, more recent times have seen an increase in optical fibre as the

27
medium connecting networks and devices . Any of the physical layer and data link layer

protocols have now been modified to work over optical fibre as well.

2.1.1 EIA 232 (ex RS 232)

EIA 232 is an electrical connection allowing full duplex communication
between two devices. Prior to the development of the USB port, it was the
typical serial port found on most computers and is characterised by Table 24.1
Table 1 – EIA(RS)232 characteristics
Item Details
Max. number of transmitters 1
Max. number of receivers 1
Connection type 25 core shielded
Mode of operation DC coupling
Maximum distance of transmission 15m
Maximum data rate 20kbits/s
Transmitter voltage 5V min, 15V max
Receiver intensity 3V
Driver slew rate 30V/μs

EIA 232 was designed to allow computers to connect using Modems and is
suitable only for point-to-point connection. It uses switched single-sided 12V
(nominal) signals for data transmission as well as handshake signals to control
the communication.

Due to Modem limitations, it is not generally used at speeds in excess of 9,600

bits per second. No isolation is specified and so it is only suitable for
connection over very short distances.
For permanent connection in a substation environment, the use of optical
isolating units should be considered to avoid damage caused by induced
transients.

If transmission over longer distances is required, some form of EIA 232 to fibre-
optic converter and a fibre-optic communications link should be used.

28
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Since EIA 232 provides only point to point connectivity it is not used in automation

systems, rather it is limited to relaying information to a SCADA system.

2.1.2 EIA 485

EIA 485 is an electrical connection characterised by Table 2 below.

Table 2 – EIA(RS)485 characteristics

Item Details
Max. number of transmitters 32
Max. number of receivers 32
Connection type Shielded twisted pair
Mode of operation Differential
Maximum distance of transmission 1200m
Maximum data rate 10Mbits/s
Transmitter voltage 1.5V min
Receiver intensity 300mV

EIA 485 provides a two-wire half-duplex connection designed for multi-drop

connections as shown in Figure 4 which makes it more suitable than EIA 232 for use in
automation schemes.

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Figure 4 – Multi-drop connection of RS485 devices

EIA 485 uses differential signalling on twisted pairs and can be isolated. The multi-
drop connection (sometimes called daisy-chaining) generally has a limit of 1km, and
although in theory the number of devices connected (nodes) is not limited, a practical
limit is normally 32 per bus, with repeaters being
used if further expansion is required.
Communication speeds of 64kbits per second (kbps) can be reliably achieved. EIA 485
allows relatively simple networks to be constructed very efficiently and cost
effectively.

2.1.3 Ethernet
Ethernet is a standard, which defines the connection of computing devices to local
area networks (LANs). As per IEEE 802.3, standard signalling speeds are 10Mbps,
100Mbps or 1Gbps. It is the most widespread LAN technology.
The specification allows connection to be made either electrically using an RJ45
connector, or by direct fibre-optic connection.

Ethernet over fibre-optic cables provide a mechanism for extremely high speed and
noise resistant communication, making it the ideal communication medium for the

substation.

2.2 Network Topologies

When linking multiple products together to form a computer network, in addition to the
physical connection of the device, it is also necessary to consider the network
topology as well as the protocol or language by which information is exchanged.
For automation systems to be effective, information must be communicated reliably
between different devices in the system.
In early centralised systems, a hierarchical series of connections is required for devices
at the acquisition and process levels to communicate data upwards and to receive

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commands in return. This tree-type structure typifies the kind of connection that the
point-to-point EIA 232 communications can bring.

The multi-drop capabilities of EIA 485 do more to encourage distribution of control

since the EIA 485 network will have devices connected on the same multi-drop bus,
with a master connected to many slaves.

Systems based on Ethernet technology provide more scope for different topologies by

virtue of equipment such as switches, hubs, bridges and routers.

2.3 Serial Communications

This is a form of communication whereby bits of data are exchanged serially through
the signalling channel. With parallel communications multiple bits of data are
exchanged in parallel.

An example of parallel communication is the LPT printer port that used to feature on
computers, printers, and office equipment before the widespread deployment
of Ethernet in the working environment.

EIA 232, EIA 485, and Ethernet are all forms of serial communication. The much
higher speed of Ethernet sets it apart from the others. As a consequence, in the
domain of substation automation, communications based on EIA 232 and EIA 485 tend
to be referred to as “serial” communications, with Ethernet being singled out for
separate attention.
This article adheres to that convention and continues with a discussion on “serial”
communications based on EIA 232 and EIA 485, later followed by Ethernet
communication.

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2.3.1 Serial Communications Protocols

A communications protocol is a set of standard rules for data representation, signalling,
authentication and error detection, which defines the transfer of information over
a communication channel.

Put another way, for devices to be able to speak to each other, they need to share a
common language and rules of engagement.

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When digital communication facilities were first added to computer based protection
devices, no standard protocol existed for this communication. Manufacturers developed
their own proprietary solutions to exploit the benefits of the communication interfaces.
An example of a proprietary protocol is the Courier protocol that was developed by
the former GEC Measurements (ex Alstom and now GE). A substation control system
is required to communicate with all the distributed functionality in the system. If
devices from different vendors are to be included in the system, then the different
protocols will need to be supported. This increases the system engineering work and
consequently the cost.
Consider a relatively simple system, with a bay controller connected to IEDs from
different manufacturers A, B, and C as depicted in Figure 5.

Figure 5 – Multi-protocol system

If the three products all contain key elements to implement the control system, then
either the bay controller would need to support three communications protocols (as
shown in the figure), or some form of protocol converter devices would need to be
included.
Either way, it can be seen that the use of different protocols increases the engineering
time, and the component costs associated with implementing the system. From the
systems’ engineering perspective, as well as the utilities’ perspective, the adoption of a
standard protocol by the manufacturers brings clear benefits.
Efforts were made to develop a standard solution and from the protocols
available, three open standards for IED serial communications emerged:
1. MODBUS
2. IEC 60870-5-103

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 3. DNP3

Modbus
Modbus was published in 1979 by Modicon. Originally designed for programmable
logic controllers of the time, it is a master-slave protocol that allows a master
to read or write bits in registers of the slave devices.
It can be implemented on simple serial connections (EIA 485), but has also been
migrated to Ethernet.

IEC 60870-5-103
IEC 60870-5-103 was developed by Technical Committee 57 of the International
Electro-technical Committee (IEC TC57). It is based on, and is a superset of, the
German VDEW communications standard.

Primarily serving European clients, it defines the standards for communication

between protection equipment and the devices of the control system.
As well as simple electrical connection, the standard also defines a direct
communication interface implemented over optical fibre.

DNP3
DNP3 was developed by Harris in the 1990s. It drew on early work of TC57 on the IEC
60870-5 (before it was standardised) to develop something with a specific focus on the
North American market that could be quickly implemented.

Like Modbus, it is also supported on Ethernet as well as simple serial connection.

Although originally targeted at the North American market, it has been deployed
elsewhere. The use of these open communications standards simplified the system
engineering, making future upgrading and expansion easier, hence reducing overall life-
cycle costs.

In general, the open standards of Modbus, IEC60870-5-103 and DNP3 cover layers 1-4
of the OSI model. They allow automation systems engineers to mix and match IEDs
from different manufacturers with the same protocol, satisfying the clients’ needs for
protection and control better than if a mix of proprietary protocols were used.

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Figure – Example of Secure Authentication Challenge Reply Sequence DNP3 SA
Challenge Reply Sequence
Each of the protocols has particular advantages, but they all suffer disadvantages
too:
1. Although they are standard protocols, all have ambiguities that result in
different implementations in different IEDs.
2. The IED data model (i.e. the way the data representing the IED is structured
and presented over the communications link) varies between vendors, and
can sometimes vary between different versions of the same IED from the
same vendor.
3. Different functionalities are supported by the different protocols, and
different IED vendors may support different levels of those functionalities.
4. The provision of private codes in the IEC 60870-5-103 protocol permits
much greater functionality, but at the same time hinders interoperability of
equipment from different vendors because there is no need for the format of
such messages to be made public. In effect, the use of ‘private’ messages by
vendors of devices essentially turns the standard into several
proprietary ones.
Due to continuing developments in the fields of computing and communications, there
is a need for a truly open communications architecture allowing ‘plug-and-
play’ connectivity between devices from different manufacturers for effective, efficient
substation automation.

The IEC61850, standard, based on Ethernet satisfies that need.

2.4 Ethernet Communications

Ethernet defines the connection of computing devices to local area networks (LANs). It
is the most widespread LAN technology.

Standardised in IEEE 802.3, it describes the requirements for network connection

according to layer 1 (the physical layer) and layer 2 (the data link layer) of the
OSI model.

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At the physical layer the specification allows connection to be made either electrically
using an RJ45 connector, or by direct fibre-optic connection using LC or ST
(otherwise known as BFOC2.5) type connectors.
Standard signalling speeds for Ethernet communications are 10Mbps, 100Mbps,
1Gbps and 10Gbps.
At the data link layer (layer 2 of the OSI model), MAC (Media Access Control)
addresses take care of the physical addressing of devices on a network. These physical
addresses are set in the manufacturing process. MAC uses a 48 bit addressing scheme
allowing a unique address for every piece of equipment manufactured.
The most commonly used network protocol (layer 3 of the OSI model) is the Internet
Protocol (IP), and the most commonly used transport layer mechanism (OSI layer 4) is
the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). Often these are put together as ‘TCP/IP’
and are synonymous with Ethernet and the internet.
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At the network layer, IP is used to transfer packets of data on the network and across
network boundaries from the source to the destination.

To do this, devices are assigned IP addresses and these addresses have two
purposes:
The first is to identify the host network (which may be subdivided into subnetworks),
whilst the second is to identify the device on the network or sub-network (subnet). The
IP address is a 32 bit binary number, which can be written in the
form nnn.nnn.nnn.nnn, where nnn represents a binary octet, and is an integer value
between 0 and 255.
A typical IP address is, therefore, 192.168.0.2. Each device on the network will have an
IP address that is unique and may be configured by a network server, a system
administrator, or by an address auto-configuration.

The most significant bits of the address are used for network identification and are
known as the routing prefix. The least significant bits are known as the rest
field and provide unique identification of the device on the local network to which it is
connected.
Typically the two most significant octets identify the network. The two least significant
octets are used for device identification, but can also be used to create subnets. A so
called subnet mask is then used to identify the subnet address.

For example if the third octet were used as a subnet identifier, then performing a logical
AND between the IP address and 255.255.255.0 (the subnet mask) would identify that,
in the case above, the subnet address is 192.168.0.0 and the device is at address 2 on
that subnet. When a packet of data is placed on the IP network, it is sent to its
destination network by means of routers, switches and hubs.

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4.5 IEC 61850
In the early 1990s the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) in the US started work
on a Utility Communications Architecture (UCA). The goal was to produce industry
consensus regarding substation integrated control, protection, and data acquisition, to
allow interoperability of substation devices from different manufacturers.

The work developed to produce UCA2 which showed that true interoperability
was possible. UCA2 was taken forward by IEC TC57 to produce the standard
IEC61850 that revolutionises substation automation.

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4.5.1 Benefits of IEC 61850

IEC 61850 is the international standard for Ethernet-based communication in
substations. It enables integration of all protection, control, measurement and
monitoring functions within a substation, and additionally provides the means
for interlocking and inter-tripping.

IEC 61850 is more than a protocol, or even a collection of protocols. It is a

comprehensive standard, which was designed from the ground up to operate over
modern networking technologies. It delivers functionality that is not available
from legacy communications protocols. These unique characteristics of IEC 61850 can
significantly reduce costs associated with designing, installing, commissioning and
operating power systems.
Some of the key features and capabilities of IEC 61850 are as follows:
1. Use of a virtualised model: In addition to the protocols that define how the
data is transmitted over the network, the virtualised model also allows
definition of data, services, and device behaviour.
2. Use of names for data: Every element of IEC 61850 data is named using
descriptive strings.
3. Object names are standardised: Names are not dictated by the device
vendor nor configured by the user. They are defined in the standard and
provided in a power system context, which allows the engineer
to immediately identify the meaning of the data.
4. Devices are self-describing: Client applications can download the
description of all the data, without any manual configuration of data objects
or names.
5. High-Level Services: IEC61850’s abstract communications service
interface supports a wide variety of services, such as generic object-oriented
substation events (GOOSE), sampled measured values (SMV), logs, etc.

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 6. Standardised substation configuration language (SCL): SCL enables the
configuration of a device and its role in the power system to be precisely
defined using extensible mark-up language (XML) files.
The major benefits of the standard are as follows:
1. Eliminates procurement ambiguity: As well as for configuration purposes,
SCL can be used to precisely define user requirements for substations and
devices.
2. Lower installation cost: IEC 61850 enables devices to exchange data using
GOOSE over the station LAN without having to wire separate links for each
IED.

By using the station LAN to exchange these signals, this reduces

infrastructure costs associated with wiring, trenching and ducting.

3. Lower transducer costs: A single merging unit can deliver measurement
signals to many devices using a single transducer. This reduces transducer,
wiring, calibration, and maintenance costs.
4. Lower commissioning costs: IEC 61850-compatible devices do not require
much manual configuration. Also, client applications do not need to be
manually configured for each point they need to access, because they can
retrieve this information directly from the device or import it via an SCL
file.
Many applications require nothing more than the setting up of a
network address. Most manual configuration is therefore eliminated,
drastically reducing errors, rework, and therefore costs.
5. Lower equipment migration costs: The cost associated with equipment
migrations is reduced due to the standardised naming conventions and
device behaviour.
6. Lower extension costs: Adding devices and applications into an existing
IEC 61850-based network can be done with little impact on existing
equipment.
7. Lower integration costs: IEC 61850 networks are capable of delivering
data without separate communication front-ends or reconfiguring
devices. This means that the cost associated with integrating substation data
is substantially reduced.
8. Implement new capabilities: IEC61850 enables new and innovative
applications that would be too costly to produce otherwise.
This is because all data associated with a substation is available on its LAN
in a standard format and accessible using standard protocols.
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4.5.6 IEC61850-9.2
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In IEC61850-9.2, the wiring that traditionally connected transformers and switchgear to
protection control and monitoring devices is replaced by a process bus, where
the process bus is a high-speed Ethernet communications network.
Merging units form the data acquisition layer in the network and present sampled
measured values to IEDs via the process bus.

The interface of the merging unit with the primary plant may either be in the form of
conventional transformers, or with non-conventional instrument transformers (NCIT),
but the output is the same: time-stamped sampled measured values.

The use of the IEC 61850-9.2 process bus introduces a number of opportunities for
lifecycle cost reduction. This lifecycle cost comprises configuration, installation
and commissioning costs, plus costs beyond commissioning.
These later-life costs include any need for extension, upgrade or retrofitting, and also
any periodic maintenance.

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4.6 Conclusion
IEC61850-9.2, and IEC61850 in general are at the heart of the digital
substation. Together they have revolutionised substation engineering.
This article has aimed to equip engineers with an understanding of the terminology
and concepts in order to be able to function in this new world focused on Ethernet
communication technology.

Reference // Network protection and and automation guide by Alstom Grid

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