sound wave.

Sound is a form of wave motion which is conveyed through an elastic

medium from a vibrating body to a listener. It is a longitudinal wave.
Sound has a number of sources including sound from animals, moving
aircraft, vehicles, vibrating turning fork, etc.

TRANSMISSION OF SOUND

Sound waves are produced from vibrating systems and travels as a

series of compressions and rarefactions as discussed earlier in waves.
Sound waves do not travel through a vacuum. It requires a material
medium, therefore can travel through gases, liquid, and solids. Speed
of sound varies from medium to medium because it depends on the
density, elasticity and temperature of the transmitting medium. For
example, the speed of sound in air is about 330m/s at 0°C. In water, it
is about 1500 m/s, in steel rods, it can be as high as 5000m/s. Wind
also affect the speed of sound in relation to a listener. A louder sound is
heard if the direction of travel of the wind is the same as the direction
of propagation of the sound. If the two directions are opposite, the
sound will decrease.

Experiment shows that, the velocity ‘v’ of sound is proportional to the

Young’s modulus (E) of elasticity and the density, ‘d’ according to the
equation:

𝑣 ∝ √(𝐸/𝑑). In gas, it is independent of pressure and proportional to the

absolute temperature of

the gas. 𝑣 ∝ √𝑇

some applications of sound waves.

1. Echoes: an echo is a sound heard after the reflection of sound

waves from a plane surface. Echo can be used to determine the
speed of sound in air.
2. Echo sounding devices: Sonar is an echo sounding device
which can be used on a ship to determine the depth of the sea.
When a sound wave is sent into the sea bed, it gets reflected
back in time ‘t’ seconds after striking the sea bed. The time of
 travel of the wave can be measured using a stop watch and since
the speed of sound in water is known, the depth of the sea can
thus be calculated using the equation:
speed (v) = distance (𝑥) /time (t).

since distance =2 𝑥,
𝑣=
2x
t

3. Exploration of natural resources (oil and gas): geophysicists

can use the principle of echo to detect the presence of mineral
resources in the ground. To do these, a small explosion is set off
on or just below the earth’s surface. The sound waves will be
reflected by different layers of underground rocks. The Geologists
can use the nature of each echo and the time it takes each echo
to reach the surface to detect the presence of some mineral
resources.
4. Reverberation: Reverberation is a phenomenon that occurs as a
result of multiple reflections of sound waves from walls, roof and
floor of a large hall. Some rooms and halls are padded to
minimized or control reverberation.
5. Beat: This is a phenomenon whereby two notes of nearly equal
frequency (pitch) are sounded together resulting to a rise and fall
of intensity of the sound. This happens ]8-as a result of
constructive interference of sound. The beat frequency is the
difference in the frequencies.
6. Doppler Effect: This is a change in frequency (pitch) of a source
when there is a relative motion between the source and the
observer. For example, if you are stationary, and an ambulance
with siren passes with speed, you will observe a sudden drop in
the pitch of the sound.

Examples:

1. A hunter at a distance x from a cliff fires a gun. He hears the echo

from the cliff after 2.4s. If the speed of the sound in air is 340m/s,
calculate x.
2. The sound from a source traveled to the bottom of the sea, and
the echo was heard 4s later. if the speed of sound in sea water is
1500m/s, calculate the depth of the sea.
characteristics of sound.

A musical note is a sound which originates from a source that is

vibrating at certain set frequencies. Noise is produced by sources
vibrating with no definite frequency. Musical notes are characterized by
pitch, quality and loudness.

Pitch: Pitch is the characteristic of a note which enables us to

differentiate a high note from a low one. Pitch depend on frequency.

Quality: The quality of a note is the characteristic that distinguishes it

from another note of the same pitch and loudness when played on
musical instruments. It depends on its overtone. The quality of the
note ‘C’ played on a piano is different from that of the middle ‘C’ played
on a violin. Musical instruments consist of sound of different
frequencies blended together. That is why they cannot give out pure
tones. The strongest audible frequency in the instrument is the
fundamental frequency ‘f0’ others are integral multiples of f 0 such as,
2f0, 3f0, 4f0. etc. These are called overtones or harmonics.

Intensity and loudness: The intensity of sound at a certain place is

the rate of flow of energy per unit area perpendicular to the direction of
the sound wave.

Loudness: is a sensation in the mind of an individual observer,

depending on the intensity of sound. It depends on the amplitude.

Note that not all sounds can be heard by the human ear. The human
ear can respond to sounds of frequencies ranging between 20Hz to
16000Hz. Sounds with frequencies much above these are called ultra
sounds

Resonance: This is a phenomenon whereby a vibrating body makes

another body to vibrate when its frequency of vibration is the same
with the natural frequency of the second body.

Exercise

1. A boy stands in front of a tall wall and produces a sound. If he

hears the echo 3s later, calculate his distance from the wall.
 (speed of sound in air = 330m/s).
2. Define echo.
3. Explain the characteristics of sound.

HOMEWORK

A sound note of frequency 250Hz and wavelength 1.3m is produced at

a point near a hill. If the echo of the sound is received one second later
at the point, how far away is the hill from the point.

FORCED VIBRATION

A vibration is said to be free if a body is disturbed in a short period of time and allowed to vibrate
with its own natural frequency. Examples are the vibration of a turning fork and a loaded test tube
oscillating in water. The vibration is said to be forced if the body is continually disturbed so that
it does not vibrate with its own natural frequency. Musical instruments such as flutes, drums, are
either open or closed pipes. A closed pipe is closed at one end only while an open pipe is open at
both ends. Experiments show that the frequency of vibration of air in these pipes increases as the

length of air column decreases. ie f ∝

1
l

Vibrations in a closed pipe: Forced vibration can be demonstrated using a tall tube filled with
water. The column or length of air can be varied by letting water out of it. A column of air in the
tube will have its own natural frequency of vibration. Suppose we have a turning fork of
frequency fo and we set it to vibrate over a column of air in the tube with length ‘l1’. If the length
of the air column is gradually increased by running off water, a large sound will be heard. (forced
vibration). When this happens it means the air column now vibrates with a frequency that is the
same with that of the turning fork. The incident wave will be reflected at the closed end of the
tube and the reflected wave will combine with the original wave to produce a standing wave. The
close end is a node since the air at that point cannot move. The open end is an antinode. This
resonance is the first one.

The wavelength λ is given as 𝑙 =λ/4 or λ = 4𝑙

Since 𝑣 = 𝑓 λ, The fundamental frequency fo is given as: 𝑓𝑜 =v/ λ = 𝑣/4𝑙

Where v is the speed of the sound in air. f0 is the fundamental frequency of the closed pipe. If
we further increase the air column by running off water from the tube, a point will be reached

wavelength at this point is 𝑙 = 3λ 4 or λ =. 4𝑙/3. The frequency 𝑓1 at this point is given as:
when another loud sound will be heard. In this position, a second node will be formed so that the
𝑓1 = 𝑣/λ

= (𝑓𝑜 λ )/ (4𝑙/3) = 3𝑓𝑜

This frequency 𝑓1 = 3 is called the third harmonic or first overtone of a closed pipe. A harmonic
is a note with frequency equal to an integral multiple of that of the fundamental note. The next
overtones are 5𝑓𝑜, 7𝑓𝑜, 9𝑓𝑜 and so on. Only odd harmonics are present.

If we consider the end correction ‘c’,

At first resonance, λ/4= 𝑙1 + 𝑐

At second resonance, 3λ/4= 𝑙2 + 𝑐. The end correction ‘c’ arises from the fact that the antinode at
the top does not exactly coincides with the top of the tube but projects slightly above it by a length
‘c’. if we subtract equation 1 from equation 2, the end correction will be eliminated so that

λ/2 = 𝑙2 – 𝑙1. Hence, λ = 2(𝑙2 – 𝑙1), but 𝑣 = 𝑓 λ

Therefore v = 2f(𝑙2 – 𝑙1). With this equation, the velocity of sound can be obtained from the values
of 𝑙2, 𝑙1 and the frequency ‘f’ of the turning fork.

Note the above set up is a resonance tube experiment which can be used to determine the velocity
of sound in air.

Example: A pipe of length 45cm is closed at one end. Calculate the fundamental frequency of the
sound wave generated in the pipe if the velocity of sound in air is 360m/s. Neglect end
corrections.

The first harmonic or the fundamental note has a mid-point as the node. Hence, 𝑙 = λ/2 or λ = 2𝑙.
Vibrations in an open pipe: In an open pipe, the two ends of the pipe must end in an antinode.

The fundamental frequency is given as: 𝑓o = 𝑣/2𝑙

The second harmonic has frequency: 𝑓1 =𝑣/λ = 𝑣/𝑙 =
2v
= 2𝑓o
2l

The third harmonic is 2 = 𝑣/λ = 3𝑣/2𝑙 = 3𝑓0. The next harmonics are: 4𝑓𝑜, 5𝑓𝑜, 6𝑓𝑜 and so
on. Thus, for open pipes all harmonics are possible.

Note: The velocity of sound wave in air using resonance tube is given as v = 2f(𝑙2 – 𝑙1 )

Where v= velocity of sound in air, f is frequency of the vibrating air column, 𝑙1 is first resonant
length. 𝑙2 is length of second resonant.

Stretched string: a stretched string has the same harmonics as an open pipe. In the first harmonic,
the string is vibrating in a fundamental mode. The nodes are at the end and in the center anti node
is present. A fully completed loop is formed.

𝑙 = λ/2 or λ = 2𝑙. The fundamental frequency is given as: 𝑓o = 𝑣/2𝑙

The second harmonic has frequency: 𝑓1 =𝑣/λ = 𝑣/𝑙 =

2v
= 2𝑓o
2l

The third harmonic is 2 = 𝑣/λ = 3𝑣/2𝑙 = 3𝑓0. The next harmonics are: 4𝑓𝑜, 5𝑓𝑜, 6𝑓𝑜 and so
on.

In a sonometer, it can be shown that the velocity of a wave propagated along a fixed wire or string
T
is given by: v = √ , where T is the tension in the string, and m is the mass per unit length of the
M
string.

The fundamental frequency can be written as:

1 T
f0 = √ . This means that the frequency of a vibrating string depends on its length, mass per
2l m
nit length and the tension.

f α √ T (if m and l are constant)

1
fα (if m and T are constant)
l

1
fα√ (if l and T are constant)
m

Example: A string of length 20cm fixed at both ends and set into vibration. If the velocity of
sound in air is 340m/s, calculate (a) the wave length (b) the fundamental frequency (c) the second
harmonic frequency.
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS

WIND INSTRUMENTS: Wind instruments are classified as aerophones. They produce sounds
when air is blown into them. Sound is produced in these instruments because the air column in
them vibrates. Whether the instrument is a closed pipe or an open pipe, the air column determines

the vibrating column and it is inversely proportional to it, ie f ∝ 1/𝑙, a short column of air will
the quality of the note produced. The frequency ‘f’ of the note depends mainly on the length ‘𝑙’ of

produce a high pitch while a long column of air will produce a high pitch. Typical examples of
wind instruments are, flutes, clarinets, saxophones, trumpets, mouth organ etc.

STRING INSTRUMENTS: String instruments are also called chordophones. They are

instruments that use stretched strings or chords and operates based on the equation: 𝑓 =
1
2l √
This means that the frequency is inversely proportional to the length ‘𝑙 ‘of the string, directly
T
M
.

proportional to the square root of the tension ‘T’ on the string and inversely proportional to the
square root of the mass ‘m’ per unit length of the string. For example, vibrating length of a thick
and loose guitar string will produce a low frequency note. But thin, short and taut strings will
produce high frequency notes. These instruments produce sound as a result of the vibrations of the
strings in them. The strings of these instruments can vibrate as a whole and also in loops so that
both fundamental and various harmonics are produced. The quality of the sound produced is upon
the combination of the fundamental harmonic and other harmonics. Typical examples of string
instruments are; sonometer, the guitar, the piano, violin, harps.

PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS: These are musical instruments that you can hit, strike, or
scrape. They produce sound when they vibrate. Instruments under this category include;
xylophone, talking drum, tambourine, bell, xylophone, etc.

Exercise

1. The shortest length of the air column in a resonance tube at resonance is 0.12m and the
next resonance length is 0.37m. Calculate the frequency of the vibration. (speed of sound
in air is 340m/s)
2. A string has a length of 80cm and a mass of 1.92 x 10 -3. What is the tension in the string,
if its fundamental frequency is 156.25Hz?