Introduction to surveying

Lecture 1
 Contents
• Introduction
• Definition
• Purpose/aims
• History
• Classification
• Principles
• Locating relative position
• Operations in surveying
 Introduction
• Lecture 2 hrs 248/11 16:00 -18:00
• Lab/tutorial 3 hrs/1hr Field/248/9
– Lab report format (Moodle)
• Assessment
2 Quiz/Assignment 10 %
3 field labs 10% 40%
2 Tests 20%
Exam 60%
• Reading
– Elementary surveying; an intro to Geomatics
– Basic of Geomatics (e-book available from library)
– Course material will be uploaded in Moodle
• Field labs
– Familiarization with survey equipment and field
procedures
– Work in groups of 4
– Submit group report 2 weeks after field report
 Definition of surveying
What is Surveying?
The science and art of making measurements of positions of
natural and man-made features on, below or beneath the
Earth’s surface, and the presentation of this information
either graphically, numerically or in digital form.

“Surveying may be defined as the science of determining the

position, in three dimensions, of natural and man-made
features on or beneath the surface of the Earth. These features
may be represented in analogue form as a contoured map, plan
or chart, or in digital form such as a digital ground model
(DGM)” – W. Schofield
 Definition of surveying
Why is Geomatics? Change was necessitated by
“Geo” = earth technological developments.
The developments provided
“Matics” = infomatics surveyors with new tools for
collecting data, computing,
displaying, and
disseminating.
• Tribal Land Act
• Town and Regional
Planning Act
• Sectional titles Act
• Deeds Registry Act
• etc
 Measurements
• An observation made to determine an unknown
quantity. It involves using rules to assign numbers to
characteristics of objects or entities
• Measurement may be made directly or indirectly
– Direct
• physically comparing an object with a measuring instruments
• e.g. taping, measuring an angle with a protractor
– Indirectly
• Deducing a measurement from other observations
• e.g. volume, sonar distance measurements
 Measurements
• Making measurements
– Need to define the instrument used
– Need to define what is being
measured
– Need to define units of measurement
– Need to know the
uncertainty/reliability of
measurements

Distance Angle
Instruments Tape, EDM, GNSS, level(vert) Theodolite, compass
Units metres Degrees, radians, gons/grads
Uncertainty Depends on instrument and Depends on instrument and
observation technique observation technique
 Position & Presentation
The location of an
object relative to a Polar
Position reference point. coordinates
• Presented as an array of
numbers Geographic
– Relative position coordinates
• Distance and angle
• (10 km north east of A)
– Absolute position
• Cartesian
– Projected (E, N or x, y)
N
• Spherical
– Geographic (Latitude &
longitude)
– ECEF (XYZ)
Projected
1–D (Vertical – height only)
coordinates
2–D (Horizontal – x & Y)
3–D (x, y and h) E
 Position & Presentation

Presentation
• Graphical 1-D coordinate
– Maps and sections Spot height
(longitudinal and cross
sections)
• Numerical
– Distances and directions
– Areas, volumes,
gradients/slopes
– Spot heights elevations
• Digital form
– Electronic maps (GIS, CAD
drawings)
– Digital models (DTM, DEM)
 Importance and use of surveying
• Locate and map resources (surveying)
– The determination of the relative positions of natural
and artificial features, adjacent to, the surface of the
earth, so that they may be correctly represented
• to prepare plan, map or sections of surveyed area
• Digital Ground Model (DGM)
• Setting out design (reverse of surveying)
– To stake out reference points and markers that will
guide the construction of new structures.
– To enable a structure to be built in the correct location
to specified parameters
 Importance and use of surveying
• Acquire reliable data
– Collect field data for computation of areas, volumes,
slopes etc.
– Develop data banks of land use and natural resource
information
– Data acquisition either based on field measurements
or on measurements abstracted from maps, plan and
sections.
• Provide control
– Usually for locating resources and setting out
– Monitoring performance of environment and
structures after construction
History
Determination of the size of the earth

Erastothenes
250 BC
 Size of earth
Erastothenes Now
• Radius = 6 263 km • Semi – major axis = 6 378 km
• Semi – minor axis = 6 357 km
 Classification of Surveying
Classification according to the space involved or general divisions.
When using space it is important to mention shape of earth, the earth
is an oblate spheroid (ellipsoid flattened at the poles)
• Plane surveying
– mean surface of the earth is considered to be plane or flat. Or in which
the earth spheroidal shape (curvature) of the earth is ignored.
– Accurate in small areas of 250 km2, but could also be used up to 1000
km2
– Difference of cord 18.5 km on earth surface and chord is 10mm
• Geodetic surveying
– Takes into account the true shape of the earth
– They are of high precision and are generally used in large areas
– Used for establishing precise control points
– Accuracy is very high and instruments used are precise.
– The direction of plumb lines at various points are different.
• Fundamental assumptions of plane surveying
– A curved line is considered to be a straight line.
– The direction of the plumb line is the same at all
points within the limits of the survey;
– All angles (both horizontal and vertical) are plane
angles; spherical angle considered to be plane
– the standard of accuracy is lower than that of
geodetic surveying Plumb line : The direction of the lines of
force of earth's gravity field. In field
surveying, it is defined by the direction of
a freely suspended plumb-bob.
Classification by purpose/Function
– Cadastral/boundary
• To determine the boundaries and areas of parcels of land
and produce plans of the land parcels. Registration of land
ownership is based on this plan/diagram ( a legal
document). Also known as property survey, boundary
survey.
– Topographic survey
• Producing maps of medium and small scale. These maps
represent the topography, waterways, roads etc.
– Hydrographic survey
• Surveying of water bodies to map coastlines, control works
for sea exploration, etc
 Classification by purpose
– Mine Survey
• Controlling, locating and mapping underground and surface works
related to mining operations.
– Photogrammetry (based on instrument)
• Acquiring measurements from photographic images – typically aerial
images.
– Engineering surveying
• To collect requisite data for planning, design and execution of
engineering projects.
– Route/Alignment surveying
• To plan, design, and laying out of route such as highways, railways,
canals, pipelines, and other linear projects.
– Other classes
– Deformation survey, chain survey, as-built (as constructed) survey,
industrial survey
 Principles of surveying
The following principles should be followed in every
survey.
• Control
– Each survey should be provided with an accurate
control framework.
– work from whole to part.
• Establish precise control points (Primary control) in and
around area to be surveyed. Densify the network with
secondary control points. Close gaps with tertiary control
network.
– To localise the errors and
– Control the accumulation of errors
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
 Hierarchy of control networks

BenchMark

Trigonometric
Station

Reference Mark
Primary control
 Principles of surveying
• Economy of accuracy
– Standards of accuracy should be appropriate to the
needs of the particular task.
• Consistency
– Relative standards of accuracy of the various classes
of work should be consistent throughout a survey
task. Detail will be measured to a lower accuracy
than the control framework to which it is fitted.
• Independent check
– Every survey should either be self checking or be
provided with an independent check. Both in the
field and in reduction of field data.
 Principles of surveying
• Revision
– Surveys should be planned in such a way that
their revisions or extensions may be carried out
without the necessity of having to carry out a
complete new survey
• Safeguarding
– The result of the survey work (survey markers
field or office documents) should be kept intact
 Measuring position
• Establish a coordinate system for relative
measurements, i.e. baseline
• Need to define units for distances and angles
– Distance; metres
– Angles; DMS (i.e. 23˚45’30”)
• Presentation of information (mapping)
– Components of a map
– Use of scale
 Aims of field surveying
• Primary aims of field surveying are
– To measure the horizontal distance between objects
– To measure the vertical elevation between points
– to find out the Relative direction of lines by measuring
horizontal angles with reference to any arbitrary direction
and
– to find out Absolute direction by measuring horizontal
angles with reference to a fixed direction.
• These parameters are utilised to find out the relative or
absolute coordinates of a point / location.
• From the above its obvious to see that surveying is all
about measuring distances and angles
 Lets determine the position of a third, unknown point C.
One needs to find two points and measure the distance between them. Hence we can create a
coordinate system.
We have two unknowns: Xc, Yc
We need two measurements

Y
C
Two distances (Intersection)
• Surveying boundaries
l AB with long offsets
•
X
A
0,0
B
l AB ,0 Basis of chain surveying
•One distance and angle • referencing stations on
the completion of
Y
fieldwork
C

l AB
Y
C
Two angles
X
A
0,0
B
l AB ,0 (Intersection)
With this method a right (offset) or
arbitrary (polar) angle can be used. 
l AB 

• Setting out buildings and certain A

0,0
B
l AB ,0
X

engineering works • Used in locating inaccessible

• Method of locating details points and objects.
• Basis of traversing • Basis of triangulation
 Operations in surveying
• Planning/Reconnaissance • Office Work
– Selection of appropriate – Reduction/Computation of
method, instruments and coordinates, areas and
choosing survey station. volumes
Consulting existing data. – Creating maps and plans
– Familiarizing oneself with • Setting out Work
survey area
– Staking out a structure on
• Field Observation the ground.
– Collecting field data • Monitoring
(distance and angles) and
recording – Surveillance of structures
Application of surveying in projects

Concept and design stage Concept implementation After construction

Planning and Setting out on each Final (as-built)

data collection Phase plan or map

Observations Presenting
Field checks documentation
in the field
to the client

Processing the Providing data

Monitoring of
observations and services to
infrastructure
(office) the client

Drawing maps,
plans or providing
numerical data

Presenting
documentation
to the client
 Survey profession
• Fig definition

http://www.fig.net/about/general/definition/definition.pdf
 Survey profession
• Registration
– Land Survey Act
• Part II ss 6 – 10 specifies recognition, qualifications,
duties etc of a surveyor.
• Surveyors also governed by Land Survey regulations
7. Qualifications for registration as a land surveyor
(1) A person shall not qualify to be registered as a land surveyor in terms of section 6 unless he is-
(a) a Fellow or Professional Associate of the Royal Institute of Chartered Surveyors in subdivision V (Land Surveying); or
(b) the holder of a university degree in surveying, geomatics or mapping sciences.
(2) The person holding any of the qualifications in subsection (1) shall not be registered unless he-
(i) satisfies the Council that he has field experience of the types of survey required by this Act,
(ii) carries out a trial survey, to the satisfaction of the Council,
(iii) satisfies the Council that he is capable of conducting land surveys in accordance with the provisions of this Act, and
(iv) has passed, to the satisfaction of the Council, any prescribed examinations set by the Council
(3) A person may be exempted from the provisions of paragraph (i) if he holds such post-graduate qualifications as maybe
prescribed.
Professional Association
END
 Map
• model of the earth to scale
• Real world objects have been reduced by a
constant amount
• Representation to scale of features on the
surface of the earth.
• Concerned with locations and attributes and
attributes at locations
 Map
• Purpose of maps
i. Store geographic information
ii. Navigation purposes
iii. planning
 Map
– Types of maps
• General reference maps
– Depict the form and relief of the surface and/or general
features, such as buildings, roads and political boundaries
– Topographic maps
• Thematic maps
– Represent the spatial dimensions of a particular
phenomenon(theme)
– land use map
 Components of a map
– Scale
– Orientation (usually north sign)
– Title
– Map area
– Grid
– Graticule
Difference between map and plan

Map Plan
Scale Small large
Extent Large areas Small areas
Generalization Yes no
Projection Map projection orthographic
Feature Symbols To scale
representation
Detail Less More, proposed
alterations
 Map scale
• The ratio of a straight line on the map joining two points to
the corresponding distance on the ground. It tells us the
amount of reduction of real world objects on a map
• Large scale  small area more detail
• Small scale  large area less detail
• Representation of scale
• Verbal
– 1 mm to 20 metres
• Representative fraction
– 1:500
• Scale bar
Small scale  large area less detail

Large scale  small area more detail

 Map scale
• Classification of maps by scale
– Large 1:75000
– Medium 1:75000 to 1:600000
– Small 1:600000