INTRODUCTION AND BRIEF

HISTORY OF GEOPOLITICS
GEOGRAPHY
Geography is the study of "what is where, why there, and
why care?
Refers to the various physical and human features of
Earth's surface, including their conditions, interactions,
spatial distributions, and patterns."
Source: Gritzner, Charles F. 2002. Defining geography: What is where, why there, and why care? Journal of
Geography 101 (1): 38-40.
Source: Google Images Source: Google Images
GEOGRAPHIC PERSPECTIVE
Refers to the way we approach the study of the world
around us, considering its physical and human aspects, their
interrelationships, and how they shape our lives.
Throughout history, geographers have debated what the
"correct" perspective should be, leading to different dominant
views over time.
GEOGRAPHIC PERSPECTIVE
Mid-20th century - emphasis upon geography as a description and
synthesis of the physical and social aspects of a region e.g. landforms,
flora and fauna, population, and culture)
Late-20th century- Rise of spatial analysis- many geographers adopted
a mathematical understanding of spatial relationships, such as the
geographic location of cities and their interaction, and spatial patterns and
trends.
Contemporary period- human geography is not dominated by one
particular vision but by many theoretical perspectives, from neo-classical
economics through Marxism, feminism, and into post-colonialism and
different forms of postmodernism.
GEOGRAPHIC PERSPECTIVE
Marxism: Emphasizes the role of economic structures, class
struggle, and power dynamics in shaping geographical landscapes.
Feminism: Examines gender roles, inequalities, and power relations
in spatial contexts, highlighting the intersection of gender and
geography.
Post-colonialism: Critically analyzes the legacies of colonialism,
imperialism, and power imbalances in shaping geographical spaces
and identities.
 Black Lives Matter

The common theme of the Democracy protestors in

geographic perspective is countries such as Belarus and
Thailand
that geography and society
are mutually constructed. nationalist movements want to
change the boundaries

movement for Scottish

national independence
GEOPOLITICS VS POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY
Political geography was originally about
domestic politics – such as elections or
strikes. wars between states, border
Geopolitics was about competition and conflicts, and the construction of
empires
conflict between states and could be
seen as a sub-set of political
geography.
Contemporary approaches have made the cyberspace as governments and
hacker groups see national space
picture much more complicated as as irrelevant
geopolitics is recognized to involve more
actors than just states. movements and terrorist groups
as performing geopolitics
WHAT ATTRACTS PEOPLE TO STUDY
GEOPOLITICS?
Simplifying Complexity: easy-to-understand explanations
for a complex, and sometimes scary, world.
Reassurance through Understanding: simplified
explanations provide a sense of understanding and control.
The Promise of Prediction: Geopolitics often claims the
ability to predict the future, telling us where future threats
might come from.
• Required Reading Reminder
Please begin by reading the Prologue and Chapter 1 of Flint, C.
(2016). Introduction to Geopolitics (3rd ed.). London: Routledge.
Geopolitics
The Study of the earth’s geography (both human and physical) on
politics and international relations
“The geographical dimensions of power” (Storey, 2009)
“The struggle over the control of geographical entities with an
international and global dimension, and the use of such
geographical entities for political advantage” (Flint, 2016)
Study of the relationships between demography, economics,
environment, geography, and politics and how they influence
countries foreign and national security policies.
Geopolitical Schools of thought:
CLASSICAL GEOPOLITICS
• Methodologically traditionalist interpretation of the roles played by
geography, natural resources, and transportation in formulating and
implementing national and international political, economic,
diplomatic, and military strategies.
• Geopolitics (thought and practice) is linked to establishment of states
and nation-states as the dominant political institutions.
• Geopolitics is connected to the end of the nineteenth century – a
period of increasing competition between the most powerful states –
and it is the theories generated at this time that is labelled as
classical geopolitics.
Geopolitical Schools of thought:
CLASSICAL GEOPOLITICS

see Hepple 1986

Geopolitical Schools of thought:
CRITICAL GEOPOLTICS
Political and methodological approach heavily influenced by
deconstructionist and postmodern political theories. Seeks to
expose what it claims are deterministic, exceptionalist, geographic,
ideological, and other flaws it claims exist in traditional politics.
Challenging the assumptions and language of classical geopolitics
The practice of identifying the power relationships within geopolitical
statements. (p. 35)
Geopolitical Schools of thought:
Feminism - Examines gender roles, inequalities, and power
relations in spatial contexts, highlighting the intersection of
gender and geography.
Two important overarching ideas will be
conveyed in this lesson:
Contestation: places, regions, and territories are always
contested. The very nature of their socially constructed
existence is based upon political frameworks that
determine who belongs (or is included) and who does not
belong (or is excluded) from a particular place.
A mural of Saddam Hussein found in a small café in Ortum, North
West Kenya. Source: Klaus, D., 2005
Two important overarching ideas will be
conveyed in this lesson:
Context: simply put, context matters. Political events occur in a particular
location with specific socio-cultural, economic, linguistic, ecological,
physical, geographic, and historical settings. These factors at least partially
define what happens and what possibilities for peace and resolution are
available within a geopolitical context.
BRIEF HISTORY OF GEOPOLITICS
Geopolitics and Classical Geopolitical Theories

• Geopolitics Emergence: Geopolitics, as a field of thought and practice, is

intricately linked to the establishment of states and nation-states as
dominant political entities.
• Classical Geopolitics: The theories that emerged during this era are
often referred to as classical geopolitics.
• Inter-State Conflict: Initially, geopolitics was primarily viewed as the
domain of inter-state conflict, focusing on the dynamics between powerful
Western countries
• Separation from Imperialism: A key aspect of classical geopolitics was
the attempt to differentiate geopolitics from imperialism. While imperialism
entailed the dominance of powerful nations over weaker states, geopolitics
aimed to analyze the strategic interactions and power dynamics between
states without the overt influence of imperialistic agendas.
SIR HALFORD MACKINDER 1861-1947
Background Political Context
• Concerned about Britain's declining
• Pre-eminent British geopolitician global power
• His theories influenced policy • Opposed the social changes brought
decisions, including during the by industrialization in Britain
Reagan era • Aimed to preserve British power and
• Founded the Oxford School of aristocratic society
Geography; directed the London
School of Economics. Technological Influence
• Served as Member of Parliament,
demonstrating crossover between • Saw railways as shifting the balance of
academic theories and real-world power towards land powers
politics. • Believed in the strategic potential of
dominating the "Heartland" with rail
connectivity
GOALS & INFLUENCE OF SIR HALFORD
MACKINDER
Strategic Goals e.
• To maintain British global preeminence against
German influence in Eastern Europe. Geopolitics Legacy
• To uphold British societal structures against
change. • Mackinder's approach exemplifies Western-
Strategic Alliances centric perspectives shaping state policy.
• Initially overlooked the United States' role. • Coined influential terms and concepts
• By 1943, advocated for a Midland Ocean affecting international relations.
Alliance with the U.S. to balance German- • Believed Russia’s geographic position made it
Soviet power. possible for it to expand its power and saw
Cold War Impact China and Japan as future challengers to
• Intellectual foundation for Cold War strategy Russia.
and NATO formation.
• Heartland theory applied to understanding and
countering Soviet influenc
THE HEARTLAND (“The Geographical Pivot
of History”)

• Who rules East Europe

commands the Heartland
• Who rules the Heartland
commands the World-Island
• Who rules the World-Island
commands the World

Introduced the concept of the "Pivot Area" in 1904, later called the "Heartland" in 1919
STRATEGIC IMPORTANCE OF THE
HEARTLAND:
The "Heartland" (central Eurasia) is considered strategically
significant for several reasons:
• Hard to Invade:
• Land Armies Superior
• Central Location Advantage
• Abundance of Resources
• Global Dominance Potential
ALFRED THAYER MAHAN (1840-1914)
• Admiral in the U.S. Navy
• Professor at U.S. Naval War College whose work continues
influencing the U.S. and other navies.
• Seminal work is The Influence of Sea Power Upon History,
1660-1783 (1890)
• This work asserted naval and merchant marine assets were
the key reasons England, France, Holland, and Spain won
wars enabling them to seize overseas colonies, eliminate
enemy access to these colonies, and exploit their natural
resources.
MAHAN-INFLUENCE OF SEAPOWER
• Its publication came at a time of European and Japanese expansion in
Africa and Asia. They soon would be joined by the U.S.
• Influenced Presidents McKinley and Roosevelt, and Kaiser Wilhelm II
• Influenced pro-expansionist Americans such as Secretary of State John
Hay; Senator Henry Cabot Lodge; and Theodore Roosevelt.
• Mahan advocated a larger navy to patrol and defend the Gulf and
Caribbean coasts; believed there would be a Central American canal;
and favored establishing an eastern Pacific naval perimeter to keep
Japan and any other country from getting within 3,000 miles of San
Francisco.
 SIX ELEMENTS THAT
DETERMINE THE “SEA POWER”
OF A NATION.
“if a country had a good strategic
Real Sea
“ location, useful coastline features, a
large area with resources, a big
Power isn't just population to support a navy, people who
about having the biggest are willing to engage in maritime
or most advanced military activities, and a government that
ships. supports building a strong naval force,
then that country would be better able to
use its navy to become powerful and
influential on the world stage.”
KJELLÉN CONTRIBUTIONS
• Influenced by German idealist philosophy, social Darwinism, and
prevailing imperialist views
• Believed nation-states were more important than individuals
• Asserted states should be studied as geographical organisms or
spatial phenomena with particular emphasis on a state’s location to
other states in its territorial form or size.
• that states were dynamic entities that “naturally” grew with greater
strength, with culture as an engine for growth
• The more vigorous and “advanced” the culture, the more right it had to
expand its “domain” or control more territory
• Given the existing idea that cultures were contained within countries
or states, this meant that borders were moveable or expandable.
FRIEDRICH RATZEL (1844-1904)
• German regarded as founder of modern human and political geography
• Political Geography (1897) credited with establishing the foundations
of geopolitics and saw him introduce lebensraum to German political
rhetoric.
• Ratzel’s Lebensraum, or living space, meaning that “superior” (in the
eye of the beholder) cultures deserved more territory as they would
use the land in a better way.
• Believed state space increases with territorial growth; that states grow
by absorbing other smaller units; and that frontiers are peripheral state
organs reflecting a states strength and growth and aren’t permanent.
• The Sea as the Source of the Greatness of a People (1900) stressed
German commitment to Weltpolitik and maritime expansion .
HAUSHOFER'S GEOPOLITICAL VISION
• Haushofer's concept of pan-regions: large, multi-
latitude regions dominated by a single core power.
• Germany as the core power of Eurasia.
• This vision allowed for both territorial expansion in
Eastern Europe and colonial acquisition elsewhere.
• Avoided conflict with Britain by giving them control of
Africa.
HAUSHOFER AND THE RISE OF HITLER
• Haushofer's ideas resonated with Hitler's expansionist goals.
• Haushofer used Hitler's popularity to advance his own career.
• He was not Hitler's "philosopher of Nazism," as some have claimed.
• Their views differed significantly, with Haushofer focusing on geography
and Hitler on race.
• Haushofer's association with the Nazis tarnished geopolitics.
• The field of political geography declined after World War II.
GEODETERMINISM
“Geopolitics is the science of the conditioning of political processes by the
earth. It is based on the broad foundation of geography, especially political
geography, as the science of political space organisms and their structure.
The essence of regions as comprehended from the geographical point of view
provides the framework for geopolitics within which the course of political
processes must proceed if they are to succeed in the long term. Though political
leadership will occasionally reach beyond this frame, the earth dependency
will always eventually exert its determining influence.”
(Haushofer et al., 1928, p. 27, quoted in
O’Loughlin, 1994, pp. 112–113)
RUSSIA’S GEODETERMINED ROLE AS A “CONTINENTAL POWER”
Post-World War II there existed an interesting irony:
The vilification of “geopolitics” as a Nazi enterprise
resulted in its virtual disappearance from the
academic scene. On the other hand, as the United
States began to develop its role as post-war world
power it generated geopolitical strategic views that
guided and justified its actions.
Nicholas Spykman (1893–1943)
• Professor of International Relations at Yale University
• United States’ rise to power an argued that it now needed to practice
balance of power diplomacy
• Similar to past geopoliticians, Spykman divided the world into two
spheres:
1. The Old World: Encompassing Eurasia, Africa, and Australia.
2. The New World: Consisting of the Americas
• , The fragmented Old World, if united, could challenge US dominance.
• Spykman advocated for an active US foreign policy to prevent such a
scenario.
THE RIMLAND: KEY GEOPOLITICAL ARENA
• Spykman identified the "Rimland," similar to Mackinder's "inner
crescent," as the crucial geopolitical zone.
• This Rimland encompassed areas surrounding the Eurasian landmass,
including Europe, the Middle East, and East Asia.
• Controlling the Rimland was essential to preventing any single power
from dominating the Eurasian heartland.
• Spykman identified the Rimland as the battleground for global power.
By exerting influence in this crucial region, the US could prevent a
single power from controlling the vast resources of Eurasia.
THE RIMLAND: KEY GEOPOLITICAL ARENA
GEOSTRATEGIC POLICY STATEMENTS VS
THEORIES
• Traditionally, US geopolitical views came from government policy
statements, not academic research.
• These statements, like the Containment Policy and the Domino Theory,
gained undue weight as "truths."
• Limited academic engagement led to a narrow perspective, with
thinkers like Kennan focusing on a "maritime West" vs. a "despotic
East" divide.
• This lack of academic involvement opened the door for critical
geopolitical studies.
GEOSTRATEGIC POLICY STATEMENTS VS
THEORIES
• George Kennan, for example, is identified as a “man of the
North [of the globe]” who identified the Third World as “a
foreign space, wholly lacking in allure and best left to its own,
no Doubt, tragic fate.”
• NSC-68 Domino Theory- his was a 1950 US National Security
Council report outlining a strategy to counter the Soviet threat.
It used a broad, "blanket" approach, treating the entire
communist world as one big enemy.
THE RISE OF CRITICAL GEOPOLITICS
• Saul Cohen's Contribution (1963):
• Saul Cohen, a geographer, saw the limitations of NSC-68's one-size-
fits-all approach.
• He proposed a more informed regionalization of the world. This
means dividing the world into regions based on geographical and
cultural factors, rather than just a simple communist vs. non-
communist split.
• His approach aimed for a more nuanced understanding of global
politics.
THE RISE OF CRITICAL GEOPOLITICS
György Konrád’s Antipolitics (1984)
• Before Konrád: Geopolitical theories mainly came from government policy
statements, not critical academic analysis.
• Konrád's Impact: His book, Antipolitics (published in 1984), challenged the
established Cold War order dominated by superpowers. This, along with:
• Social Science Trends: New ways of thinking in social sciences that
questioned traditional power structures.
• Public Dissent: Growing opposition to the nuclear policies of US President
Ronald Reagan, which many saw as dangerous and aggressive.
• All these factors combined gave rise to a new field of study called critical
geopolitics. This approach critically analyzes government policies and power
structures in international relations, rather than simply accepting them.
WESTERN-CENTRISM AND “GEOPOLITICAL
TRADITIONS”

• Western Dominance: Traditionally, the history of geopolitics has focused on

European and American scholars, neglecting non-Western perspectives.
• Non-Western Examples: Japan, for instance, developed its own geopolitical ideas
to justify its expansion in Asia.
• "Geopolitical Traditions": This concept acknowledges that there are common
themes in geopolitics but also variations shaped by specific regional contexts.
• Moving Beyond Western Bias: Efforts are underway to recognize and explore
geopolitical thinking from non-Western countries, like India, Brazil, and South
Africa.
• A More Balanced Approach: While the founding figures might still give a Western
slant to the study of geopolitics, there's a growing recognition of the importance
of including non-Western perspectives.
• The Future: The importance of geopolitics in Asia, Africa, and the Middle East will
likely lead to a more global understanding of the field in the future.
SHIFTING VIEWS IN GEOPOLITICS:

• The study of geopolitics is moving away from a state-centric approach

that focused on the actions of individual countries.
• Geopolitical knowledge is now seen as "situated knowledge,"
meaning it's influenced by the context and perspective of the
observer.
• This approach recognizes the importance of non-state actors like
corporations, NGOs, and social movements in global politics, not just
government
Selected Countries & Geopolitical
Interests/Practices
• Australia: Maintaining close security ties with the U.S., concerned
with access to Persian Gulf; desires unfettered access to
Antarctica; has growing trade relationships with China and other
East Asian countries; concerned with political and security
developments in Indonesian archipelago; has intervened militarily
in Iraq, Afghanistan, East Timor, Papua New Guinea, and Solomon
Islands.
Canada
• Cooperates with U.S. to prevent ballistic missile attacks against
North America; has military forces in Afghanistan; seeks to protect
national sovereignty in Arctic region though it hasn’t put significant
military forces in that region until the current Stephen Harper
Conservative Government; concerned with how climate change
may affect Arctic populations and how this may increase
international shipping traffic and natural resources competition
(oil and natural gas) with nations such as Russia, the U.S. et. al.
China
• Seeks to reclaim Taiwan; increasing the size of its conventional
and nuclear military forces; seeks to provide maritime security for
its growing demand for natural resources from as far away as Latin
America and Africa; interested in South China Sea natural
resources and has disputes with countries such as Japan; has
close ties with Pakistan and may compete with India for Indian
Ocean control; seeks to challenge U.S. Western Pacific naval
preeminence.
India
• Developing military capability to enable it to expand beyond the
South Asian subcontinent; its population is expected to surpass
China’s around 2025; has nuclear weapons and a nuclear
agreement with the U.S. giving it access to nuclear fuel and
technology; has challenging relationship with Pakistan including
their dispute over Kashmir; hydropolitics challenges with
neighboring countries over the Ganges and Indus rivers; will
increase security cooperation with the U.S. to hedge against
China; may adopt an Indian Ocean Monroe Doctrine to ensure no
power(s) can restrict its access to the Indian Ocean or natural
resources
United States
• Remains world’s preeminent military power though facing acute
financial challenges such as $14 trillion national debt; concerned
with maintaining freedom of the seas; working collaboratively with
other nations but taking preemptive military action if needed;
concerned with Chinese challenges in the Western Pacific, Indian
Ocean, Africa etc.; competition for natural resources and reducing
dependency on foreign imports; Islamist terrorism (Afghanistan,
Iraq); Iran’s and North Korea’s nuclear weapons aspirations.
Current and Emerging Geopolitical “Hot
Spots”
• Afghanistan/Pakistan
• Arctic Natural Resources esp. oil/natural gas-Russia flag planting North Pole 2007-
Denmark expects to claim North Pole seabed by 2014
• China in Africa
• China’s “String of Pearls Basing Strategy” and Future Military Objectives-Has
support facilities in Bangladesh, Myanmar, Pakistan-participates in antipiracy
efforts in Indian Ocean
• Climate Change
• Cyberwarfare
• Energy Policy and Competition (e.g. European dependence on Russia for oil and
natural gas-Dec. 2005 Russia cuts off natural gas supplies to Ukraine-affects EU)
• Ukraine-Russia Conflict
Geopolitical Hot Spots
• Failed States e.g. Somalia
• Global Immigration/Migration incl. U.S./Mexico border
• Global Pandemics
• Iran-nuclear weapons program
• Islamic Integration in Europe (Current population estimated 15-18
million; estimated to reach 10% of Europe’s population by 2020)
• Israel/Palestine
• Latin American Geopolitics (Drug wars; Iran’s desire to use Hezbollah;
Hugo Chavez, Charcas Triangle-resource rich region involving
surrounding countries Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay)
Geopolitical Hot Spots
• Maritime Piracy
• Mexican Drug Wars and Central American Gangs
• Nigeria’s Delta Region
• Russian Foreign Policy toward “Near Abroad” Countries (e.g.)
2008 war with Georgia
• South China Sea/Strait of Malacca
• Sovereign Debt e.g. Greece, Ireland, Portugal, potentially U.S i.e
high borrowing from China et. al.
• Terrorism, Turkey, Yemen & Bab el Mandeb Strait
Conclusions
• Understanding geography is critical for understanding and
analyzing domestic and international economic, environmental,
diplomatic, political, and security developments.
• We need to be able to read and understand political, geographic,
topographic, and other kinds of maps.
• Need to understand the critical importance of strategic
chokepoints such as the WPS
Conclusions
• Recognize how geography has always affected and will always
affect international economic, political, and security
relationships.
• Recognize how international political power always has been and
always will be characterized by conflict, including military conflict,
and access to resources and economic markets.
• Geopolitics is the ultimate interdisciplinary subject with unlimited
research possibilities