Logic!

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 Logic
• Crucial for mathematical reasoning
• Used for designing electronic circuitry

• Logic is a system based on propositions.

• A proposition is a statement that is either
true or false (not both).
• We say that the truth value of a proposition
is either true (T) or false (F).

• Corresponds to 1 and 0 in digital circuits

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 The Statement/Proposition Game

“Elephants are bigger than mice.”

Is this a statement? yes

Is this a proposition? yes

What is the truth value

of the proposition? true

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 The Statement/Proposition Game

“520 < 111”

Is this a statement? yes

Is this a proposition? yes

What is the truth value

of the proposition? false

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 The Statement/Proposition Game

“y > 5”

Is this a statement? yes

Is this a proposition? no

Its truth value depends on the value of y,

but this value is not specified.
We call this type of statement a
propositional function or open sentence.
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 The Statement/Proposition Game

“Today is January 1 and 99 < 5.”

Is this a statement? yes

Is this a proposition? yes

What is the truth value

of the proposition? false

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 The Statement/Proposition Game

“Please do not fall asleep.”

Is this a statement? no
It’s a request.

Is this a proposition? no

Only statements can be propositions.

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 The Statement/Proposition Game
“If elephants were red,
they could hide in cherry trees.”

Is this a statement? yes

Is this a proposition? yes

What is the truth value

of the proposition? probably false

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 The Statement/Proposition Game
“x < y if and only if y > x.”
Is this a statement? yes
Is this a proposition? yes
… because its truth value
does not depend on
specific values of x and y.
What is the truth value
of the proposition? true
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 Combining Propositions

As we have seen in the previous examples,

one or more propositions can be combined
to form a single compound proposition.

We formalize this by denoting propositions

with letters such as p, q, r, s, and
introducing several logical operators.

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 Logical Operators (Connectives)
We will examine the following logical operators:
• Negation (NOT)
• Conjunction (AND)
• Disjunction (OR)
• Exclusive or (XOR)
• Implication (if – then)
• Biconditional (if and only if)
Truth tables can be used to show how these
operators can combine propositions to
compound propositions.
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 Negation (NOT)

Unary Operator, Symbol: ¬

P ¬P
true (T) false (F)
false (F) true (T)

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 Conjunction (AND)
Binary Operator, Symbol: ∧
P Q P∧Q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

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 Disjunction (OR)
Binary Operator, Symbol: ∨

P Q P∨ Q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

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 Exclusive Or (XOR)
Binary Operator, Symbol: ⊕

P Q P⊕ Q
T T F
T F T
F T T
F F F

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 Implication (if - then)
Binary Operator, Symbol: →

P Q P→ Q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

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Biconditional (if and only if)
Binary Operator, Symbol: ↔

P Q P↔ Q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

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Statements and Operators
Statements and operators can be combined in any
way to form new statements.

P Q ¬P ¬Q (¬P)∨(¬Q)
T T F F F
T F F T T
F T T F T
F F T T T

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Statements and Operations
Statements and operators can be combined in any
way to form new statements.

P Q P∧Q ¬ (P∧Q) (¬P)∨(¬Q)

T T T F F
T F F T T
F T F T T
F F F T T

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 Equivalent Statements
¬(P∧Q)↔ (¬P)∨(¬Q
P Q ¬(P∧Q) (¬P)∨(¬Q)
)
T T F F T
T F T T T
F T T T T
F F T T T
The statements ¬(P∧Q) and (¬P) ∨ (¬Q) are logically
equivalent, since ¬(P∧Q) ↔ (¬P) ∨ (¬Q) is always true.

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 Tautologies and Contradictions

A tautology is a statement that is always true.

Examples:
• R∨(¬R)
• ¬(P∧Q)↔(¬P)∨(¬Q))

If S→ T is a tautology, we write S⇒T.

If S↔ T is a tautology, we write S⇔T.

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 Tautologies and Contradictions
A contradiction is a statement that is always
false.
Examples:
• R∧(¬R)
• ¬(¬(P∧Q)↔ (¬P)∨(¬Q))

The negation of any tautology is a contradiction,

and the negation of any contradiction is a
tautology.

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 Exercises
We already know the following tautology:
¬(P∧Q) ⇔ (¬P)∨(¬Q)
Nice home exercise:
Show that ¬(P∨Q) ⇔ (¬P)∧(¬Q).
These two tautologies are known as De
Morgan’s laws.

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 Propositional Functions
Propositional function (open sentence):
statement involving one or more variables,
e.g.: x-3 > 5.

Let us call this propositional function P(x), where

P is the predicate and x is the variable.

What is the truth value of P(2) ? false

What is the truth value of P(8) ? false
What is the truth value of P(9) ? true

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 Propositional Functions
Let us consider the propositional function
Q(x, y, z) defined as:
x + y = z.

Here, Q is the predicate and x, y, and z are the

variables.

What is the truth value of Q(2, 3, 5) ? true

What is the truth value of Q(0, 1, 2) ? false
What is the truth value of Q(9, -9, 0) ? true

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 Universal Quantification
Let P(x) be a propositional function.

Universally quantified sentence:

For all x in the universe of discourse P(x) is true.

Using the universal quantifier ∀:

∀x P(x) “for all x P(x)” or “for every x P(x)”

(Note: ∀x P(x) is either true or false, so it is a

proposition, not a propositional function.)

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 Universal Quantification
Example:
S(x): x is a Seneca student.
G(x): x is a genius.

What does ∀x (S(x) → G(x)) mean ?

“If x is a Seneca student, then x is a genius.”

or
“"All Seneca students are geniuses.”

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 Existential Quantification
Existentially quantified sentence:
There exists an x in the universe of discourse
for which P(x) is true.

Using the existential quantifier ∃:

∃x P(x) “There is an x such that P(x).”
“There is at least one x such that P(x).”

(Note: ∃x P(x) is either true or false, so it is a

proposition, but no propositional function.)

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 Existential Quantification
Example:
P (x): x is a Seneca professor.
G(x): x is a genius.

What does ∃x (P(x) ∧ G(x)) mean ?

“There is an x such that x is a Seneca
professor and x is a genius.”
or
“At least one Seneca professor is a genius.”

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 Quantification
Another example:
Let the universe of discourse be the real numbers.

What does ∀x∃y (x + y = 320) mean ?

“For every x there exists a y so that x + y = 320.”

Is it true? yes

Is it true for the natural numbers? no

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 Disproof by Counterexample
A counterexample to ∀x P(x) is an object c so
that P(c) is false.

Statements such as ∀x (P(x) → Q(x)) can be

disproved by simply providing a counterexample.

Statement: “All birds can fly.”

Disproved by counterexample: Penguin.

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 Negation

¬(∀x P(x)) is logically equivalent to ∃x (¬P(x)).

¬(∃x P(x)) is logically equivalent to ∀x (¬P(x)).

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