PHA-073: Pharmacy Research Methods with Pharmaceutical Statistics

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Lesson title: Understanding Research Process and Conceptualizing Materials:

a Research Study Pen, SAS

Lesson Objectives: References:

At the end of the module, you should be able to: • Research and Thesis
1. Explain the characteristics of research. Writing with Statistics
2. Determine different types of research based on its purpose, Computer Application
application and mode of enquiry Revised ed. (Paler-
3. Conceptualize a research study by formulating a research title. Calmorin, 2016)
• Research Fundamentals
(Almeida et al., 2016)

Productivity Tip:
Create an action plan! Start studying early and plan your study time in advance. Use a calendar and write
down what you are planning to do each day.

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW

Introduction (2 mins)

Research is defined as the scientific investigation of phenomena, which includes the collection,
presentation, analysis, and interpretation of data or facts that link man’s speculation of reality. It is the systematic
study directed toward fuller scientific knowledge or understanding of the subject studies. Scientific research
refers to a systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigation guided by theory and hypothesis about
presumed relationships among certain variables or phenomena. One of the most difficult aspects of research is
how to develop the idea for the research project because research is always based on reliable data and the
methods used to capture this data. Research is a process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting information to
answer questions.

Activity 1: What I Know Chart, Part 1 (5 mins)

Instructions: “In this chart, reflect on what you know now. Do not worry if you are sure or not sure of your
answers. This activity simply serves to get you started on thinking about our topic. Answer only the first column,
“What I know”. Leave the third column “What I learned” blank at this time.

What I Know Questions: What I Learned (Activity 4)

1. What are the characteristics of
research?

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2. How research can be

classified?

3. How to develop a research

topic or title?

B. MAIN LESSON

Activity 2: Content Notes (60 mins)

Instructions: Please take note, highlight, or outline some important and striking information.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A RESEARCH
To qualify as research, the process must have certain characteristics:
1. Controlled CC-VERS
There are many factors that affect an outcome. A particular event is seldom the result of a one-
to-one relationship. Some relationships are more complex than others. Most outcomes are a sequel to
the interplay of a multiplicity of relationships and interacting factors. In a study of cause-and-effect
relationships it is important to be able to link the effect(s) with the cause(s) and vice versa.
Control implies that, in exploring causality in relation to two variables, the study is set-up in a way
that minimizes the effects of other factors affecting the relationship. This can be achieved in the physical
sciences, as most of the research is done in a laboratory. However, in social sciences, as most of the
research is done in a laboratory. However, in social sciences it is difficult as research is carried out on
issues relating to human beings living in society where such controls are impossible.
2. Rigorous
This characteristic ensures that procedures followed to find answer to questions are relevant,
appropriate, and justified. The degree of rigor varies between the physical and social sciences and within
social sciences.
3. Systematic
The procedures adopted to undertake an investigation follow a certain logical sequence. The
different steps cannot be taken in a random manner.
4. Valid and Verifiable
This implies that whatever once can conclude on the basis of the findings is correct and can be
verified by others too.
5. Empirical
Any conclusion drawn is based upon hard evidence gathered from information collected from real
life experience or observation.
6. Critical
Critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods employed is important to a research
inquiry. The process of investigation must be free from any drawbacks. The process and the procedures
used must be able to withstand critical scrutiny.

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Research is a systematic process since it follows certain steps that are in logical order:
1. Understanding the nature of problem to be studied and identifying the related area of knowledge.
URCAD 2. Reviewing literature to understand how others have approached the problem.
3. Collecting data in an organized and controlled manner so as to arrive at valid decisions.
4. Analyzing data through methods appropriate for the problem
5. Drawing appropriate conclusions and making generalizations.

TYPES OF RESEARCH
Types of research can be looked at from three different perspectives or viewpoint (see Figure 1).
1. Purpose of Research
Objectives of the study.
2. Use of Research
Applications of the findings of the research study.
3. Classification of Research
Mode of enquiry used in conducting the study.

Ethnography Case Study

Phenomenonlogy Historical

Correlational

Survey

Causal-
Comparative
Expermental

Formative
Figure 1. Types of Research.
Action Evaluation
Purpose of Research Impact Assessment Summative
The purpose of research is stated clearly and explicitly in a format appropriate for the style of
investigation. The purpose of research indicates the focus and direction of the research. The purpose of
research may be organized into four groups based on what the research is trying to accomplish, explain
a new topic, describe a social phenomenon, or explain why something occurs. Study may have multiple
purpose (e.g. both to explore and to describe) but one purpose casually dominates.
1. Descriptive Research
This research presents a picture of the specific details of a situation, social setting or
relationship. The major purpose of descriptive research is to describe characteristics of a
population or phenomenon. It seeks to determine to answer to who, what, where, and how
questions.

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Example:

2. Exploratory/Formulative Research
The researcher’s goal is to formulate more precise questions that future research can
answer. Exploratory research helps ensure that a more rigorous, more conclusive future study
will not begin with an inadequate understanding of the nature of the problem.

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3. Explanatory Research
To desire to know “why” to explain, is the purpose of exploratory research. It builds an
exploratory and descriptive research and goes on to identify the reasons for something that
occurs. Exploratory research looks for causes and reasons.
Example:

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The Use of Research

Some researchers focus on using research to advance general knowledge, whereas others use
it to solve specific problems.
1. Basic Research / Fundamental / Pure
Basic research is also called fundamental research or pure research. It aims to
discover basic truths or principles and advances fundamental knowledge about the human
world. It is intended to add to the body of scientific-knowledge by exploring the unknown to
extend the boundaries of knowledge as well as to discover new facts and learn more
accurately the characteristics of known facts without any particular thought of immediate
practical utility. It focuses on refuting or supporting theories that explain how this world
operates, what make things to happen, why social relations are a certain way and why society
change. In other words, the result of basic research is theoretical knowledge. It has no
immediate usefulness or value to man. Examples of basic research are as follows:
• Hooke’s law. Robert Hooke’s law states, “Within the limit of perfect elasticity, strain is
directly proportional to stress”.
• Newton’s law. Isaac Newton conducted pure research known as Newton’s Law of Motion.
It states, “A body a rest remains at rest and a body in motion will continue to move with
the same velocity in a straight line unless acted upon by an external force.”

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• Boyle’s law. Robert Boyle’s law states, “If the temperature remains constant, the volume
of confined gas is inversely proportional to the pressure”.
• Archimedes’ Principle. Archimedes discovered the Archimedes’ Law of Buoyancy. He
stated than “an object in a liquid will experience a buoyant force just enough to the weight
of the liquid displaced”. Archimedes extended his principle further as “an object will float if
the buoyant fore of a liquid is greater than the weight or gravitational pull of the earth for
the object.”
• Charles’ Law. Jacques Charles’ Law states “The volume of a dry gas is directly
proportional to the Kelvin temperature, provided the temperature remains constant”.
2. Applied Research
Applied research is seeking new application of scientific knowledge of developing a
new system or procedure, a new device, and a new method in order to solve a problem.
Applied researchers try to solve problems or help practitioners accomplish tasks. In this type
of research, the problem is identified and a new system or new method is applied in order to
solve the problem. In other words, applied research produces knowledge of practical use to
man.
Type of Applied Research
a. Action Research
Action research is a disciplined process of inquiry conducted by and for those
taking the action. The primary reason for engaging in action research is to assist the
“action” in improving and/or refining his/her actions. Practitioners who engage in action
research find it to be an empowering experience. Action research has this positive
effect for many reasons. The most important is that action research is always relevant
to the participants. Relevance is guaranteed because the focus of each research
project is determined by the researchers, who are also the primary consumers of the
findings.
Example:

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b. Impact Assessment Research

To estimate the consequence of a planned change. Such assessment is used
for planning and making choices among alternative policies to make an impact
assessment.
Example:

c. Evaluation Research
The process of establishing value judgement based on evidence about the
achievement of the goals at a proper time. Evaluation research measures the
effectiveness of a program, policy or way of doing something. Two types of evaluation
research are:
❖ Formative evaluation research
Built-in monitoring or continuous feedback on a program used for program
management.
Example:

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❖ Summative evaluation research

Looks at final program outcomes.
Example:

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3. Developmental Research
Developmental research is decision-oriented research involve the application of
scientific methods in response to an immediate need to improve existing practices. This
process involves the study of certain problem in vivo and drawing decisions for development
and improvement of the study. In other words, if the researcher finds practical applications of
the theoretical knowledge and used this to produce useful products, it is called developmental
research. Research and Development (R & D) often refers to activities performed or
sponsored by a funding agency, for example, Department of Science and Technology
(DOST).
Example:

Classification of Research
According to design and methodology, research can be qualitative or quantitative in nature. The
first aims to describe, predict and explain. The second aims to explore and describe. There is also a third
type called the mixed-method research.
1. Qualitative Research
Qualitative research deals with understanding human behavior in a natural setting. It
is naturalistic in nature because it studies human behavior and the reasons that govern it. The
emphasis is on the complexity of humans and their ability to shape and create their own
experience. Naturalistic investigations place heavy emphasis on understanding the human
experience as if is lived, usually through collections and analysis of data that are narrative and
subjective. Qualitative research focuses on:
- Gaining insights on and an understanding of the individual’s perception of
events.
- Concerned with in-depth descriptions of people on events and their
interpretation of experiences.

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- Data are collected through unstructured interviews and participants

observation.
- The research is to synthesize the patterns and the theories in the data.
- Not limited by existing theories but must be open to new ideas and theories.

Qualitative research emphasizes the dynamic, holistic, and individual aspects of

human experience within the context of those who are experiencing them. The collection and
analysis of information progresses as the researcher sift through the information. Insights are
gained, new questions emerge and further evidence is sought to confirm the insights. The
limitations of this model are:
- It is reductionist, it reduced human experience to just a few concepts under
investigation.
- The subjective nature of naturalistic inquiry, which sometimes causes concerns
about the nature of conclusions, and
- Most naturalistic studies involve a relatively small group of people.

Qualitative research is designed to reveal a target audience’s range of behavior and

the perceptions that drive it with reference to specific topics or issues. It uses in-depth studies
of small groups of people to guide and support the construction of hypotheses. The result of
qualitative research is descriptive rather than predictive. Qualitative research aims to gain
insight, explore the depth, riches and complexity inherent in the phenomenon. Specific
qualitative approaches are:
a. Phenomenology
The purpose is to describe experiences as they are lived. It examines uniqueness
of individual’s lived situations. Each person has its own reality, reality is subjective. It
has no clearly defined steps to avoid limiting creativity of researchers.
Example:

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b. Ethnography
The purpose is to describe a culture’s characteristics. It identifies culture, variables
for study, and review literature. In data collection, the researcher gains entrance to
culture, immerse self in culture, acquire informants, gather data through direct
observation and interaction with subject. It involves the collection and analysis of data
about cultural groups or minorities. The researcher frequently lives with the people and
becomes a part of their culture. During the immersion process, the researcher, must
talk to the key persons and personalities call the key informants who can provide
important data.
Example:

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c. Historical
The purpose of historical study is to describe and examine events of the past to
understand the present and anticipate potential further effects. The method includes
formatting idea, develop research outline to organize, investigate, and collect data. It
concerns with the identification, location, evaluation, and synthesis of data from the
past. It is locating facts and relating them to the present and to the future. The data
are usually found in documents or in relics and artifacts. Data can also be obtained
through oral reports. These materials can be found in various sources like libraries,
archives, and personal directions. Sources are:
❖ Primary sources
Once histories, written records, diaries, eyewitnesses’ accounts, pictures,
videos, and other physical evidences.
❖ Secondary sources
Secondhand information, i.e., a person narrates information heard from the original
sources, or a material written as an abstract of the diaries and other original

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materials.

Any source to be used for historical research must be pass the hall marks of:
▪ Internal criticism
Involves establishing the authenticity or originality of the materials
by looking at the consistency of information.
▪ External criticism
Based on the analysis of the printed materials; the ink and the type
of paper used; the layout and physical appearance; and age and texture.

Example:

d. Case Study
The purpose of case study is to describe-in-depth experience of one person,
family, group, community or institution. It is a direct observation and interaction with
the subject. Data collection includes interview with audiotape and videotape, direct,
has participant’s observations, field noted, journals, and logs. The purposes are:
- To gain insights a little-known problem.

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- Provide background data for broader studies.

- Explain socio-psychological and socio-cultural processes.

A case study involves a comprehensive and extensive examinations of a

particular individual, group or situation over a period of time. It provides information on
where to draw conclusion, and about the impact of a significant event on a person’s
life.
Example:

Phases in a Qualitative Study

o Orientation and Overview
The first phase is to determine what is salient about the phenomenon or culture of interest.
o Focused Exploration
It involves focused scrutiny and in-depth exploration of the aspects of the phenomenon
judged to be salient. The questions asked and the type of people invited are shaped based
on the outcome of the first phase.
o Confirmation and Closure
The researcher undertakes efforts to prove that her/his findings are trustworthy, often
going back to the study and discussing her/his understanding of it with the participants.

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2. Quantitative Research
Quantitative research is a traditional, positivist, scientific method which refers to
general set order by disciplined procedures to acquire information. It utilizes deductive
reasoning to generate predictions that are tested in the real world. It is “systematic”. It means
that the researcher progresses logically through a series of steps according to a pre-specified
plan of action. Quantitative researchers gather empirical evidence-evidence that is rooted in
objective reality and gathered directly or indirectly through the senses. The evidence for a
study is gathered according to the established plan through structured instruments. Usually
the information gathered in such study is quantitative, i.e., numeric information that results
from some type of formal measurement, and is analyzed with statistical procedures. To assess
the quality of quantitative studies, the commonly used is the degree which research findings
can be generalized to individuals other than those who participated in the study. It is based
on the concepts of manipulation and control of phenomena and the verification of results
validating empirical data. It frequently uses deductive or theory-testing approach.

Quantitative research is a type of empirical investigation. It means that the

research focuses on verifiable observation. Most often this type of research is expressed in
numbers. Research will represent and manipulate certain observation that they are studying.
There are four basic types of quantitative research, these are:

a. Survey Research
Survey research uses interviews, questionnaires, and sampling to get a sense of
behavior with intense precision. It allows researchers to judge behavior and then
present the findings in an accurate way. Survey research can be conducted around
one group specifically or used to compare several groups.
Example:

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b. Correlational Research
Tests for the relationship between two variables. Performing correlational research
is done to establish what the effect of one on the other might be and how that affects
the relationship. The purpose is to use two or more variables to better understand that
conditions of events that we encounter, to predict future conditions and events and
correlation does no always mean causation.
Example:

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c. Causal-Comparative Research
It looks to uncover a cause-and-effect relationship. This research is not conducted
between the two groups on each other. They look solely for a statistical relationship
between the two variables it tries to identify, specifically, how the different groups are
affected by the same circumstance. Causal-comparative research involves
comparison. The study of two or more groups is done without focusing on their
relations. The use of statistical analysis is engaged to synthesize the data.
Example:

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d. Experimental Research
Experimental research is guided specifically by a hypothesis. Sometimes it can
have several hypotheses. A hypothesis is a statement to be proven or disproved.
Example:

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3. Mixed-Method Research Design

Class of research where the researcher mixes or combines quantitative and qualitative
research techniques. Researchers must know the characteristics of quantitative and
qualitative research techniques. It includes the used of induction (discovery of the problems),
deduction (testing of theories and hypothesis) and abduction (uncovering and relying on the
best of a set of explanations for understanding one’s results. The two common types of mixed
research design are:
a. Mixed method research
The researcher uses the qualitative paradigm for one phase of the study and the
quantitative paradigm for another phase of the study.

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b. Mixed model research

The researcher mixes both qualitative and quantitative research approaches within
a stage of the study or across the stages of the research process.

Five Major Purposes or Rationales for Conducting Mixed Methods

▪ Triangulation
Triangulation is seeking convergencies and corroboration of results from different methods
and designs studying the same phenomenon.
▪ Complementarity
Seeking collaboration, enhancement, illustration, and clarification of the results from one
method with results from the other method.
▪ Initiation
Discovering paradoxes and contradictions that lead to a re-framing of the research
question.

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▪ Development
Using the findings from one method to help inform the other method.
▪ Expansion
Seeking to expand the breadth and range of research by using different methods for
different inquiry components.

SETTING OF THE RESEARCH

It is the physical, social, or experimental context within which research is conducted.
1. Library Research
Library research is ideal for descriptive research, the study of the present, and historical
research (the study of the past). Answers to specific questions or problems can be found in
the library because it carries primary and secondary sources of information relevant to any
research subject.
Example:

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2. Field Research
Field research is conducted in a natural environment. No changes are made in the
environment. Field research is applicable to both descriptive and experimental researches,
provided that the study is conducted in its usual surroundings.
Example:

3. Laboratory Research
Laboratory research is conducted in artificial and controlled conditions by isolating or
separating the study in a specified thoroughly operationalized area. The purposes are to: (a)
test the hypothesis derived from theory; (b) control variance under research conditions; and
(c) discover the relations between the dependent and independent variables.
Example:

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TIME DIMENSION IN RESEARCH

Treatment of time is another dimension in research. Some studies give us a snapshot of a single, fixed
time point and allow us to analyze in detail. The two brand types are:
1. Cross-sectional Research
Researchers observe at one point in time. It is usually the simplest and least costly
alternative. Its disadvantage is that it cannot capture the change process. It can be
exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory, but is most consistent in the descriptive approach.
Example:

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2. Longitudinal Research
This research captures features of people or another unit at a more than one time. It is usually
more complex and costly than cross-sectional research but is also more powerful, especially
when the researchers such as answer to questions about change. Three types of longitudinal
research are time series, panel, and cohort.
a. Time-series analysis
Single subjects or research units that are measured repeatedly at regular intervals
over time.
Example:

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b. Panel research
Method for collecting data repeatedly from a pre-recruited set of people.
Example:

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c. Cohort studies
Follows research participants over a period of time (often many years).
Example:

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THE VARIABLE
A variable is defined as a quantity susceptible or liable to fluctuation or change in value, level, degree,
scale, or magnitude under different conditions. These quantities represent numerical value, level, degree, scale
or magnitude under different conditions. These quantities represent numerical values, groups, classes, kinds or
categories.

Kinds of Variable
1. Independent Variable
Independent variable is the stimulus or cause variable chosen by the researcher to determine the
relationship of an observed phenomenon. It is also known as treatment variables; variables that the
researcher manipulates to affect the outcome of the study (the expected cause).

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Example 1:
Suppose the researcher wishes to assess the knowledge, attitude, and practice of
pharmacy and medical students regarding self-medication in Cebu City

Research Title: KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDE, AND PRACTICE OF PHARMACY AND MEDICAL

STUDENTS REGARDING SELF-MEDICATION IN CEBU CITY

The independent variables of the above study are pharmacy and medical students in Cebu City
because they are the stimuli or cause variables that are manipulated or operated.

Example 2:
Suppose the researcher wishes to determine the antioxidant activity of striped sunflower
(Helianthus annuus) seed aqueous extract using DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) method.

Research Title: ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY OF THE STRIPED SUNFLOWER (HELIANTHUS

ANNUUS L.) SEED AQUEOUS EXTRACTS

The independent variables of the above study are striped sunflower (Helianthus annuus) seed
aqueous extracts because they are the stimulus or cause variable that is manipulated or operated.

2. Dependent Variable
Dependent variable is a response variable or effect that is observed or measured to determine
the effect of the independent variable. It changes when the independent variable varies. These are
variables representing the outcome of the study (the expected effect).
Example 1:
Suppose the researcher wishes to assess the knowledge, attitude, and practice of
pharmacy and medical students regarding self-medication in Cebu City

Research Title: KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDE, AND PRACTICE OF PHARMACY AND MEDICAL

STUDENTS REGARDING SELF-MEDICATION IN CEBU CITY

The independent variables of the above study are the mean scores and correlation/association of
knowledge, attitude, and practice because they are the response variables as effects of the
independent variables.

Example 2:
Suppose the researcher wishes to determine the antioxidant activity of striped sunflower
(Helianthus annuus) seed aqueous extract using DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) method.

Research Title: ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY OF THE STRIPED SUNFLOWER (HELIANTHUS

ANNUUS L.) SEED AQUEOUS EXTRACTS

The dependent variables of the above study are DPPH radical scavenging activity (%) & IC50
values from the different concentrations of striped sunflower (Helianthus annuus) seed aqueous
extracts.

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3. Moderator Variable
Moderator variable is a special kind of independent variable chosen by the researcher to
determine if it changes or modifies the relationship between the independent and dependent
variables. For instance, if a researcher wishes to determine the effects of independent variable A on
the dependent variable B, but suspects that a third factor C changes or modifies the relationship
between A and B, factor C is considered as moderator variable.
Example:
Suppose the researcher wishes to assess the knowledge, attitude, and practice of
pharmacy and medical students regarding self-medication in Cebu City

Research Title: KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDE, AND PRACTICE OF PHARMACY AND MEDICAL

STUDENTS REGARDING SELF-MEDICATION IN CEBU CITY

The moderator variables of the above study are possibly the gender, field of study, and year of
education because they might change or modify the relationship between the pharmacy & medical
students in Cebu City (independent variables) and the mean scores & correlation/association of
knowledge, attitude, and practice (dependent variables) regarding self-medication.

Example 2:
Suppose the researcher wishes to determine the antioxidant activity of striped sunflower
(Helianthus annuus) seed aqueous extract using DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) method.

Research Title: ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY OF THE STRIPED SUNFLOWER (HELIANTHUS

ANNUUS L.) SEED AQUEOUS EXTRACTS

The moderator variables of the above study are the different concentrations (3 μg/ml ,15 μg/ml
,30 μg/ml) of striped sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) seed aqueous extracts because they might
change or modify the relationship between the striped sunflower ethanolic extracts and the DPPH
radical scavenging activity (%) & IC50 values.

4. Control Variable
Control variable is a variable that is managed by the researcher in which the effects can be
neutralized by eliminating or removing the variable. These variables are held constant throughout the
study or experiment. For example, the researcher wishes to determine the effects of independent
variable A on independent variable B. He may control X (control variable) because he cannot do
many variables simultaneously. In other words, he may eliminate or remove D to neutralize the
effects. Control variable will guarantee that it will not have a moderating effect on the relationship
between A and B.

Example 1:
Suppose you wishes to study the effectiveness of vitamin D supplements on improving
alertness among young adults. You design an experiment with a control group that receives a placebo
pill, and an experimental group that receives the supplement.

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Research Title: EFFECTIVENESS OF VITAMIN D SUPPLEMENTS ON IMPROVING

ALERTNESS AMONG YOUNG ADULTS

The independent variable is whether the vitamin D supplement is added to a diet by young adults
and the dependent variable is the level of alertness. To make sure any change in alertness is caused
by the vitamin D supplement and not by other factors, you control these variables that might affect
alertness: diet, timing of meals, caffeine intake, and screen time.

Example 2:
Suppose the researcher wishes to determine the antioxidant activity of striped sunflower
(Helianthus annuus) seed aqueous extract using DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) method.

Research Title: ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY OF THE STRIPED SUNFLOWER (HELIANTHUS

ANNUUS L.) SEED AQUEOUS EXTRACTS

The researcher would provide experimental controls (positive control and negative control) for this
study in which the effect of the independent variable is not included or not tested. Positive control is
an experimental set-up in a change in the dependent variables is observed or measured according
to expectations. Positive control groups are groups where the conditions of the experiment are set to
guarantee a positive result. A positive control group can show the experiment is functioning properly
as planned. The positive control for this study is quercetin because it is a known and a powerful
antioxidant. A positive control is essential for comparison of your test sample (striped sunflower seed
aqueous extracts) and the known antioxidant (quercetin). Negative controls are particular samples
included in the experiment that are treated the same as all the others but are not expected to change
from any variable in the experiment. Negative control groups are groups where the conditions of the
experiment are set to cause a negative outcome or no effect(s). The negative control for this study is
distilled water because there are no antioxidant components or any components in a distilled water,
hence will provide no effect. Positive control and negative control are two types of tests that give
completely opposite responses in an experiment. The main difference between positive and negative
control is that positive control gives a response to the experiment whereas negative control does not
give any response. Positive and negative controls assure that the experiment is conducted properly.

5. Intervening Variable
Intervening variable hinders the independent and dependent variables, but the effects can either
strengthen or weaken the independent and dependent variables. For instance, the researcher wishes
to determine how A (independent variable) will affect B (dependent variable). It is possible that E
(intervening variable) might have an effect on B.
Example 1:
Suppose the researcher wishes to study the effectiveness of teaching Pharmacology to
students of the pharmacy schools in Cebu City.

Research Title: EFFECTIVENESS OF TEACHING PHARMACOLOGY AS PERCEIVED BY THE

STUDENTS OF PHARMACY SCHOOLS IN CEBU CITY

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On the effectiveness of teaching Pharmacology as perceived by the students of pharmacy schools

in Cebu City, the dependent variables are effectiveness and mean scores. It is possible that the
qualities of teachers (conventional or modern), instructional facilities, and classroom facilities (air
condition or lighting) might affect the effectiveness of teaching Pharmacology. These factors become
intervening variables.

BASIC STEPS IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS

The following steps outline a simple and effective strategy for writing a research paper. Depending on
your familiarity with the topic and the challenges you encounter along the way, you may need to rearrange these
steps.
Step 1: Identify and develop your topic.
1. Select a topic within the parameters set by the assignment. Your instructor will give you clear
guidelines as to what you can and cannot write about. Failure to work within these guidelines may
result in your proposed paper being deemed unacceptable by your instructor.
2. Select a topic of personal interest to you and learn more about it. The research for and writing of
a paper will be more enjoyable if you are writing about something that you find interesting.
3. Select a topic for which you can find a manageable amount of information. Do a preliminary search
of information sources to determine whether existing sources will meet your needs. If you find too
much information, you may need to narrow your topic; if you find too little, you may need to
broaden your topic.
4. Be original. Stand out from your classmates by selecting an interesting and off-the-beaten-path
topic.
5. Still can't come up with a topic to write about? See or approach your instructor for advice.

Once you have identified your topic, it may help to state it as a question. For example, if you are interested
in finding out about the extensive cases of drug addiction in the Philippine population, you might pose
the question "What are the causes of drug addiction in the Philippines?" By posing your subject as a
question you can more easily identify the main concepts or keywords to be used in your research.

Step 2: Do a preliminary search for information.

Before beginning your research in earnest, do a preliminary search to determine whether there is
enough information out there for your needs and to set the context of your research. Look up your
keywords in the appropriate titles in the library's Reference collection (such as encyclopedias and
dictionaries) and in other sources such as our catalog of books, periodical databases, and Internet search
engines. Additional background information may be found in your lecture notes, textbooks, and reserve
readings. You may find it necessary to adjust the focus of your topic in light of the resources available to
you.

Step 3: Locate materials.

With the direction of your research now clear to you, you can begin locating material on your topic.

Step 4: Evaluate your sources.

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Your instructor expects that you will provide credible, truthful, and reliable information and you
have every right to expect that the sources you use are providing the same. This step is especially
important when using Internet resources, many of which are regarded as less than reliable.

Step 5: Make notes.

Consult the resources you have chosen and note the information that will be useful in your paper.
Be sure to document all the sources you consult, even if you there is a chance you may not use that
particular source. The author, title, publisher, URL, and other information will be needed later when
creating a list of references or bibliography.

Step 6: Write your paper.

Begin by organizing the information you have collected. The next step is the rough draft, wherein
you get your ideas on paper in an unfinished fashion. This step will help you organize your ideas and
determine the form your final paper will take. After this, you will revise the draft as many times as you
think necessary to create a final product to turn in to your instructor.

Step 7: Cite your sources properly.

Give credit where credit is due; cite your sources. Citing or documenting the sources used in your
research serves two purposes: it gives proper credit to the authors of the materials used, and it allows
those who are reading your work to duplicate your research and locate the sources that you have listed
as references. The MLA and the APA Styles are two popular citation formats.

Step 8: Proofread
The final step in the process is to proofread the paper you have created. Read through the text
and check for any errors in spelling, grammar, and punctuation. Make sure the sources you used are
cited properly. Make sure the message that you want to get across to the reader has been thoroughly
stated.

CONCEPTUALIZING A RESEARCH STUDY

Conceptualization is the process of refining the important concepts and terms in the thesis/dissertation
by giving them conceptual or theoretical definitions. One of the most difficult aspects of research is how to
develop the idea for the research project. The research process has three phases: the conceptual phase, the
empirical phase, and the interpretative phase. In this module, it focuses on the conceptual phase – the process
that determines which questions are to be addressed by the research and how research procedures are to be
used as tools in finding the answer to these questions. Conceptualization involves bringing together several
considerations to identify a good research idea, i.e. an answerable research question that is worth answering.
Conceptualization is guided by theoretical framework, research perspectives or approach in the research study.

Selecting a Research Topic or Problem

Research is a systematic process. The first step in research is identifying a topic. Research topic
broadly defines the area of research. They are not the same as the title of the research study. There is a
need of further work to become research study feasible. Conceptualizing research topic would include:

1. Finding your Focus

• Which aspects of your discipline interest you most?

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• What have you observed that you have questions about?

• What articles have you read that have raised questions in your mind?
2. What are the gaps in the literature?
• By topic (what is not being looked at?)
• Methods (what is not being done?)
• Populations (who is not being studied?)
• Comparisons (who or what is not being compared?)
3. Where to start?
• Read
• Detailed literature searches
• Discuss subject area with your groupmates
• Listen and ask questions
4. Refining research topics
• Discuss with fellow researchers (groupmates).
• Ask questions or discuss with research instructor.
• Assess what is most critical to learn.
• Assess research sources available.

5. Questions to ask yourself

• Is this a good idea?
• Who cares?
• Can it be address using appropriate research methods?
• Will it simulate interest by others and the sponsors?
• Is it feasible/practical/doable?

The F.I.N.E.R. Criteria for a Good Research Topic or Problem

In selecting a research topic, it is useful to employ the FINER criteria to determine which among
your proposed topics are (see Figure 2).

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Figure 2. The FINER Criteria.

Questions you can ask to determine FEASIBILITY:

• Is it possible to conduct this experiment?
• Can I obtain enough test subjects to make my results statistically relevant?
• Do I have or can I recruit enough technical expertise to take measurements and do statistical
analysis?
• Do I have enough time?
• Do I have enough funds to conduct and complete this study?

Questions you can ask to assess how INTERESTING your topic is:
• Is anyone interested in the answer to this question?
• What gap in the literature is it filling?

Questions you can ask to evaluate the research topic’s NOVELTY:

• Has this experiment already been conducted?
• Am I improving and/or expanding on previous experiments?

Questions you can ask to analyze how ETHICAL the study would be:
• Will this experiment involve living organisms as test subjects?
• Can this experiment be conducted without physical and/or psychological harm?

Questions you can ask to identify the RELEVANCE of the proposed research topic:
• How are the results of this experiment going to have an impact?
• How will it change the profession in the fields of research, policy, or practice?

Writing the Research Title

The title of a research or thesis proposal must be brief and concise, researchable, novel, indicates
possibilities for further research, and time for completing the study is possible. It summarizes the main

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idea or ideas of your study. A good title contains the fewest possible words that adequately describe the
contents and/or purpose of your research paper.

If the title is too long it usually contains too many unnecessary words. Certain forms of title
phrasing such as “Study of…..”, “An Analysis of…..”, “A Scientific Study of…..”, “An Investigation of…..,”
and “A Preliminary Study of…..” are to be avoided. They are vague, not pleasing, and not acceptable for
inclusion in a research/thesis title.

The following parameters can be used to help you formulate a suitable research paper title:
1. The purpose of the research.
2. The narrative tone of the paper (typically defined by the type of the research).
3. The methods used.

The initial aim of a title is to capture the reader’s attention and to draw his or her attention to the research
problem being investigated.

Here are basic questions asked about the research title.

• Does the title describe what the study is all about?
• Does the title contain high specificity level?
• Is the title academically phrased and is not verbose?
Effective titles in research proposal/papers have several characteristics:
• Indicate accurately the subject and scope of the study.
• Avoid using abbreviations.
• Use words that create a positive impression and stimulate reader interest.
• Use current nomenclature from the field of study.
• Identify key variables, both dependent and independent.
• May reveal how the paper will be organized.
• Suggest a relationship between variables which supports the major hypothesis.
• Is limited to 10 to 20 substantive words.
• Do not include "study of," "analysis of" or similar constructions.
• Titles are usually in the form of a phrase, but can also be in the form of a question.
• Use correct grammar.

Note: For your thesis proposal, you will be conducting an applied and quantitative or mixed method
research design.

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Activity 3: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (25 mins + 5 mins checking)

A. Multiple Choice. Select the BEST and CORRECT answer for each of the following questions
below. Write the CAPITAL LETTER only of your answer before each number. Check your answers
against the Keys to Corrections found at the last pages of this SAS. Write your score on your paper.

1. Characteristic of research which ensures the procedures followed to find answer to questions
are relevant, appropriate, and justified.
a. Controlled c. Systematic
b. Rigorous d. Critical
2. Characteristic of research in which the procedures adopted to undertake an investigation
follow a certain logical sequence.
a. Controlled c. Systematic
b. Rigorous d. Critical
3. Characteristic of research that exhibits careful and exact judgment wherein a higher level of
significance must be established.
a. Controlled c. Empirical
b. Valid and Verifiable d. Critical
4. Characteristic of research that implies whatever once can conclude on the basis of findings
is correct and can be verified by others too.
a. Controlled c. Empirical
b. Valid and Verifiable d. Systematic
5. Characteristic of research that any conclusion drawn is based upon hard evidence gathered
from information collected from real life experience or observation.
a. Empirical c. Controlled
b. Rigorous d. Systematic
6. Otherwise known as pure research.
a. Field research c. Development research
b. Basic research d. Applied research
7. Research that seeks new application of scientific knowledge to solve a problem (e.g., the
development of a new system or procedure, a new device, or new method.
a. Field research c. Development research
b. Basic research d. Applied research
8. Classification of research that is conducted in artificial and controlled conditions by isolating
or separating the study in specified and thoroughly operationalized area.
a. Laboratory research c. Field research
b. Library research d. Basic research
9. Which of the following DOES NOT belong to the group?
a. Pure research c. Development research
b. Field research d. Field research
10. Classification of research that is conducted in a natural environment wherein no changes
are made.
a. Library research c. Basic research
b. Laboratory research d. Field research

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B. Identify the following statements. Write your answer before the number. Check your answers
against the Keys to Corrections found at the last pages of this SAS. Write your score on your paper.

_________________________1. It is a response variable or an effect the is observed or measured.

_________________________2. It is a variable that hinders the stimulus and response variables and
its effects can either strengthen or weaken the stimulus and response variables.
_________________________3. It is a stimulus variable to determine the relationship of an observed
phenomenon.
_________________________4. The other term for fundamental research.
_________________________5. A variable that is managed by the researcher in such a way the effects
can be neutralized by eliminating or removing the variable.
_________________________6. A variable that changes the relationship between the stimulus and
response variables.
_________________________7. A quantity that is susceptible or liable to fluctuations or changes in
value, level, degree, scale, or magnitude under different conditions.
_________________________8. Under what kind of research does the Archimedes’ principle fall?
_________________________9. Newton’s law of motion if an example of:
_________________________10. Characteristic of research where the process and the procedures
used must be withstand critical scrutiny.

Activity 4: What I Know Chart, Part 2 (5 mins)

Instruction: To review what was learned from this session, please go back to Activity 1 and answer the “What
I Learned” column. Notice and reflect on any changes in your answers.

Activity 5: Check for Understanding (60 mins)

Instruction: Now it’s time for you to figure one out on your own! Take time to read, analyze, and understand to
following scenarios. Answers will be discussed by the instructor after. Write your score on your paper.

A. Search or browse through the internet and give an example published research title to each of
the following types of research, then write the author(s) of the study/research, and the significant
methods used in their study. Examples that are given already in the “Content Notes” must not be
included as your answers.

Published Published Research Author(s) Methods Used

Research Title Title
1. Qualitative

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2. Quantitative

3. Mixed-Method
Research
Design

4. Applied

5. Developmental

6. Experimental

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7. Descriptive

8. Cross-
sectional

9. Exploratory

10. Field

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B. Think, create, or formulate five research topics/titles and rank your research topics/titles using
the FINER criteria. Get the sum for each scored topic/title and determine the topic with the
highest number of points. Use the scale provided below.

Feasible (F)
1= Study not feasible, considering available resources
2= Study feasible, considering available resources
3= Study very feasible, considering available resources

Interesting (I)
1= Not interesting 2= Interesting 3= Very interesting

Novel (N)
1= Sufficient information already available
2= Some information available but major issues not covered
3= No sound information available on which to base problem-solving

Ethical (E)
1 = Major ethical problems (human subjects)
2 = Minor ethical problems (use of animals)
3 = No ethical problems

Relevant (R)
1= Not relevant 2= Relevant 3= Very relevant

Proposed Research Topics/Titles Feasible Interesting Novel Ethical Relevant Total Number
of Points
1.

2.

3.

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4.

Rationalization Activity: Coordinate with your groupmates (actual/virtual as necessary) to discuss and
compare your highest-ranking proposed research topics/titles. The group will only select 1 research
topic/title based from your group’s decision. A representative of each research group will explain further
about their selected research topic/title and share about the initial research they have conducted that
led to the formulation of such topic. The reporter will briefly explain (preferably 3-5 minutes per group)
about the feasibility, interest, novelty, ethical consideration, and relevance of their chosen research
topic. The instructor will give his/her feedback, comments, suggestions and recommendation
afterwards.

C. LESSON WRAP-UP

Activity 6: Thinking about Learning (5 mins)

A. Work Tracker: You are done with this session! Let’s track your progress. Shade the session
number you just completed.

P1 P2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

B. Think about your Learning. Tell me about your thoughts! Today’s topic is all about understanding
research process and conceptualizing a research study. What surprised you about the lesson today?
Explain why.

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FAQs

1. How to characterize a good research title?

Ans: A good title informs the reader accurately about the contents of the study. The main responsibility
of a title is to explain what the research is all about without misleading or establishing wrong
expectations. Make sure it doesn’t include anything that your reader won’t be able to find in the paper.
To make the title interesting, attention-grabbing, and easy to read, use words that create a positive
impression and stimulate the reader’s interest. It contains important keywords. Keywords are important
words and concepts that are frequently used in your research paper. Using them in the title will let you
introduce the topic, problem, or solution right away.

KEY TO CORRECTIONS

Activity # 3

A. Multiple Choice. Select the BEST and CORRECT answer for each of the following questions
below. Write the CAPITAL LETTER only of your answer before each number.
1. b. Rigorous
2. c. Systematic
3. d. Critical
4. b. Valid and Verifiable
5. a. Empirical
6. b. Basic research
7. c. Applied research
8. a. Laboratory research

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9. c. Developmental research
10. d. Field research

B. Identify the following statements. Write your answer before the number.
1. Dependent variable
2. Intervening variable
3. Independent variable
4. Basic research
5. Control variable
6. Moderator variable
7. Variable
8. Basic research
9. Basic research
10. Critical

Other References:
• Introduction to Research (Kabir, 2016)
• Pharmacy Practice Research Methods 2nd ed. (Babar, 2020)
• https://www.nhcc.edu/student-resources/library/doinglibraryresearch/basic-steps-in-the-research-
process
• https://library.sacredheart.edu/c.php?g=29803&p=185911

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