INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH METHODS IN EDUCAITON

Prepared
By
Education Department
Wesley College of Education, Kumasi
 TABLE OF CONTENT

TABLE OF CONTENT....................................................................................i

UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH...................1

INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH 1
SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE 2
CLASSIFICATION/TYPES OF RESEARCH 4
IMPORTANCE/ PURPOSE OF RESEARCH EDUCATION 7

UNIT2: PLANING AND CONDUCTING RESEARCH................................9

VARIABLES IN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 9
THE RESEARCH PROBLEM 10

UNIT 3: THE RESEARCH PLAN................................................................13

RESEARCH PROPOSAL 13
THE METHODOLOGY SECTION OF THE PROPOSAL 16

UNIT 4: LITERATURE REVIEW /REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

........................................................................................................................21
IMPORTANCE OF LITERATURE REVIEW 21
PARTS OF LITERATURE REVIEW 22

UNIT 5: RESEARCH DESIGN.....................................................................23

DEFINITION OF RESEARCH DESIGN 23
PURPOSE OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN 23
CASE STUDIES 24

UNIT 6 ANALYSIS OF DATA AND REPORT WRITING........................39

PREPARATION AND ORGANIZATION OF DATA 39
STATISTICAL DATA ANALYSIS: DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICES 39
MEASURES OF VARIABILITY 40

SAMPLE QUESTIONS.................................................................................58

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 UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH
To the layman, research is the act of looking for a few facts and writing them down. This
implies that the layman uses the term research to mean fact- finding. Thus, if a person
goes to the library to look for the meaning of &' word from a dictionary or a historical fact
in the encyclopedia, then the person is undertaking a research.

Scholars do not use the term research only for fact - finding even though looking for facts
forms part of the research process. Thus, scholars do not accept fact - finding per se as
research.

Meaning of Research
1. Research entails the identification of a problem, data collection and organization,
analysis and interpretation of the results obtained with the view to solving the problem
identified.
2. Research is also defined as the process of arriving at dependable solutions to problems
through planned and systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of the results
obtained with the view to solving the identified problem.
3. Gay (1992) defines research as the formal, systematic application of scientific method
to the study of problems.
4. Research is viewed as the systematic application of scientific method to answer
perplexing questions in order to increase knowledge and understanding of a situation
or a phenomenon. It is the search for an answer to an unsolved and perplexing
question using scientific approach.

Meaning of Educational Research

Educational research is a formal and systematic application of scientific method to the
study of educational problems. In simple terms, educational research studies the general
problems of teaching and learning. It includes teacher absenteeism, poor examination
results, low school enrolments, truancy among school pupils, low teacher morale etc.

Characteristics of Research
Leecly (1994) identifies the following characteristics of research;
1. Research begins with a question, an issue or a problem in the mind of the researcher.
This characteristic points out that when a researcher sets out to do a research, he must
have in mind a question to answer, an issue to explain or a problem to solve.
2. Research requires a plan. Thus, a research entails a clearly stated plan which includes
the direction and procedures to succeed. This is called a research proposal. The
research plan (proposal) enables the researcher to know what specific questions to
ask, what data to collect, which research instruments to use (observation, interviews,
questionnaire, test etc) and how to analyze the data.

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3. Research demands a clear statement of the problem. A good research work begins with
an unambiguous or clearly stated problem on the issue concerned. Whatever problem,
issue or question you set out to do within your research must be stated clearly
indicating the relevant variables and the expected relationships, if any.
4. Research deals with the main problem through sub-topics, usually, the main problem
of concern may be too big to solve at a go. The problem is therefore, broken down
into smaller problem. By solving the smaller problem, the main problem is being
solved.
5. Research seeks direction through appropriate hypotheses or research questions. These
research questions provide the direction of the study so that the researcher does not
deviate from the main objective of the study
6. Research deals with facts and their meanings. In research, whatever data that are
collected must be organized into meaningful aggregates, analyzed and interpreted.
The analysis may be done by using description statistics or inferential statistics.
7. Research is circular .The research circle begins with a problems. The researcher then
formulates hypotheses or specific research questions that are related to the problem.
The researcher (investigator) continues the process by collecting relevant data,
organizing, summarizing and analyzing the data after which he interprets the results.
The process may result in the identification of another problem and that problem may
be taken up for another research. This is usually referred to as “Areas for further
Research”.

SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE
There are several ways by which we obtain knowledge. Each way has weaknesses.
However, the scientific method is the preferred way of knowing. The sources of
knowledge are:

 Personal Experience

This is the process of getting knowledge or skill by an individual through doing seeing and
feeling things as well as something that happens which has effect on the individual
personal experience however, has some limitations. These include:

(i) Difficulty in where to begin, knowing how to improve and how to handle new
demands and situations without the relevant knowledge or experience.

(ii) It is subject to mistakes and individual biases.

(iii) Personal way of knowing is not systematic.

 Tradition

Tradition is a belief, principle or way of acting or doing things which people in a

particular society or group or institution have continued to follow for a long time. There

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are many things that seem to be done in certain ways simply because they have been done
that way within a group or society. Through tradition, the ways of doing things or
approaches to handling problems are passed on from one group to another as accepted
“truths” which therefore becomes a way of knowing limitations:

(i) It eliminates the need to search for knowledge and understanding because we
simply accept what has been done and the way it is done as the best or
right way.

(ii) Reliance on tradition also makes it difficult to accept new knowledge.

 Authority

Authority refers to experts or people of recognized positions in society or institution that

can as a result of their expertise and positions have the right or ability to control others.
An authority therefore has experience or unique expertise in something and is able to
provide insights and understanding that we are able to see limitations:

(i) Authority hinder our knowledge of something

(ii) Authority can be wrong but whose opinion on idea may be accepted as affect.

 Logic

Logic is a way of knowing. It is a particular way of reasonable thinking that is based on

sound judgment. It can also be said t be formal method of thinking about ideas. Syllogism
is a form of logic. Example:

All human beings are mortal.

Kofi is a human being.

Therefore Kofi is mortal

The first statement is known as the major premise which a generalization from experience
about mortality of individuals. The second statement is known as the minor premise and it
is based on sensory experience. When the first two statements are true, the third must be
true. This is known as deductive reasoning which precedes from general to specific. The
opposite is inductive reasoning. It begins with specific observations and based on the
observations generalization is made.

Limitation:

(i) It is only when the major and the minor premises of a syllogism are both true that the
conclusion is guaranteed to be true. If either of the premises is false the conclusion may or
may not be true.

 Tenacity

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Information is accepted as true because it has always been believed or superstition support
its Limitations

(i) The information acquired might not be accurate. For example the statement about old
dogs not being able to learn new tricks the elderly can and do.

(ii) There is no method for correcting erroneous ideas. Even in the face of evidence to the
contrary, a belief that is widely accepted solely on the basis of tenacity is very difficult
to change.

 The scientific method

The scientific method is a very orderly process of knowing. The process entails a number
of sequential steps. The use of the scientific method in research is objective systematic
testable and relatively uninfluenced by personal beliefs, opinions and feelings. The
purpose of scientific inquiry is to explain natural phenomenon to understand the
relationship that underlie these phenomena and then to predict and influence behaviour as
a result.

Characteristics of Scientific Inquiry

 Objectivity: Being objective means not being influenced by personal beliefs or

feelings but basing views on real facts

 Control of bias: Bias is the tendency to support or oppose particular person or

things in an unfair way by allowing personal opinions to influence your judgment. Bias
affects objectivity. Controlling bias in scientific studies means, the researcher does not
allow personal prejudices, beliefs and attitudes to influence the process of the study or
results.

 Willingness to alter beliefs: In scientific inquiry, the researcher must be willing to

change his/her beliefs when this is justified by evidence (facts).

 Verification: The process and findings of scientific inquiry are subject to

replication by others. That is others who question the results can repeat the study to verify
for themselves.

 Induction: Induction involves drawing conclusions from specific observations.

 Precision: Scientific inquiry is characterized by being exact.

 Truth: In scientific inquiry, conclusions reached are tentative. Conclusions of any

particular study are based on available evidence. Once new evidence emerges and
contradicts an earlier one, the conclusion is changed to reflect the facts. When evidence
became available that the world is round and not flat, the conclusion about the shape of the
world changed.

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Steps in Scientific Inquiry

i. Identification of a problem or question: - There is a problem or a question of some sort

to start with.

ii. Clarification of the problem: Once a problem is identified, the researcher takes steps to
define it more precisely. The reason here is to make the problem clearer and exact as
to what the purpose of the study is.

iii. Determination of the information needed to solve the problem and how to obtain it.
The information needed to solve the problem may be quantitative (i.e. dealing with
numbers) or qualitative (i.e. verbal). The type of information and the characteristics of
the participants of the study determine how to obtain the information or data for the
study. E.g. you may decide to give questionnaire to teachers but interview pupils on
relevant issues.

iv. Organization of information (Data): Here the researcher decides on how to organize
the information that will be obtained.

v. Interpretation of the results: - After the data is organized, summarized and analysed,
the next step is to interpret the emerging results. This process ends with a conclusion
which is tentative.

CLASSIFICATION/TYPES OF RESEARCH
1. Basic Research
Basic research is also called pure or fundamental research. This type of research is
designed to contribute to the development and refinement of theories.
Basic research, unlike action research, is not concerned with applying results to
practical situations. The main concern of basic research is to gain an understanding
about a phenomenon. For example in educational psychology, the concern of basic
research is to understand and explain the effect of reinforcement on learning.
2. Applied Research
This is the type of research which is conducted for the purpose of applying theory and
evaluating its usefulness in solving educational problems. This theory usually focuses
on a pattern that needs to be solved to improve the practice of education. The results
are immediately and directly relevant to educational decision-making. For example, a
study to determine the best teaching method in a subject area to a specific level of
pupils is an applied research.
3. Evaluation Research
Evaluation research is directed towards making decisions-about the effectiveness of a
programme. The purpose of evaluation research is to make judgment about
alternatives in decision-making situations. Thus, evaluation research seeks to collect
and analyze data on two alternative programmes in order to make informed decision.
4. Case Study Research

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 In a case study, the researcher takes one unit of a phenomenon, object, a problem or an
event and studies it as exhaustively (detail) as possible. The object is studied in detail
in its real setting without the manipulation of the environment.
5. Research and Development
This type of research is directed towards the development of effective products for
schools. The purpose of this research is to develop appropriate materials such as
instructional materials and school management systems.
6. Correlational Research
This type of research attempts to determine the degree of relationship that exists
between two or more variables. A variable is a characteristic, event or a factor that can
change under different conditions.
7. A Survey Research
This type of research involves the use of interviews and questionnaires to provide
information about how people think believe and act. It is applicable to a large number
respondents e.g. political opinion, consumer preference etc.
8. Descriptive Research
This type of research design involves the collection of data in order to test the
hypothesis or answer research questions concerning the current state of the subject
under study. In descriptive research, the subject already exists or has already occurred
and the researcher merely selects the relevant variables for an analysis for the
relationships. Questionnaires, interviews and observations are instruments often used
in collecting the data. Example of descriptive research is “the impact of the IN-IN-
OUT programme on schools in Kwabre District of Ashanti Region.
9. Experimental Research
In experimental research, a particular condition is manipulated by the researcher and
the objects of the manipulation are recorded. Thus, in experimental research, the
researcher assigns the subject to one controlled group. The experimental group is
exposed to an independent variable whilst the controlled group is not.
10. Quantitative Research
Quantitative research involves the collection of data which is easily interpreted in
numbers. Thus, in quantitative research, hypotheses are formulated and then tested
statistically. Natural science use quantitative research e.g. WAEC B.E.C.E. results.
11. Qualitative Research
In qualitative research, the data collected is not interpreted or presented in numerical
forms. Under qualitative research, hypotheses are not formulated but rather research
questions are raised and answered in narratives reports e.g. WAEC chief examiner’s
report.
12. Action Research
It is a kind of research activity in which the researcher works collaboratively with other
people, to solve perceived problems. The focus of action research is to solve a specific
classroom or school problem, improve practice and make a decision at a single local site.
The goal is to improve practice immediately within one or a few classrooms or schools.
An external research does not generate new knowledge. It enables the participation of both
the researcher (teacher, head teacher and the pupils) to develop appropriate strategies
aimed at finding solutions to problems identified in the teaching and learning situation.

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Characteristics of Action Research
1. It is essentially an on the spot procedure designed to deal with a concrete problem
located in an immediate situation.
2. Step-by-step process is constantly monitored over varying period of time and by
variety of instruments such as questionnaires, interviews etc so that the feedback
obtained can be used to bring about the desired change.
3. It is flexible in its approach in the sense that in the course of implementation, change
may take place to suit the situation.
4. An action research can be conducted to deal with an individual pupil’s learning
problem or group.eg poor handwriting.
5. It relies chiefly on observation and behavioural data. It is therefore empirical.

Areas that call for Action Research

1. Problems and issues in the classroom, the school and the community at large. In the
Primary and Junior High Schools, we frequently encounter problems of lateness,
truancy, absenteeism, failure to do homework. The root causes of these common
problems must be investigated through action research.
2. Improvisation of teaching and learning materials to improve a particular concept in a
subject area. For example, Cuisenaire rods, abacus, multibase blocks, bundle of sticks,
flash cards, sentence cards, charts etc.
3. Designation of a game and how it can be used in the classroom as a teaching and
learning tool e.g. rhymes and poem etc.
4. Subjects - based investigation e.g. Mathematics, science, English etc.

Importance of Action Research

1. An action research is a means of modifying problems diagnosed in specific situation
either in the classroom or outside the classroom in the school environment.
2. It helps the teacher to understand what actually goes on in the teaching and learning
encounter.
3. It does not only enhance the teacher’s professional status and competencies but also
promotes his personal development and practices.
4. The modem teacher needs to be equipped to understand the various approaches that
best suit the children he teaches. It is through an action research that the teacher can
evaluate his teaching effectiveness.
5. Findings from action research provide teachers with the opportunity of acquiring a
better understanding on all aspects of their own practice, be it in relation to subjects,
content, the curriculum or the method appropriate to the level of the pupils in the
class.
Problems of Action Research
1. It is time - consuming due to its practical nature.
2. Action research is not proactive in nature. It does not prevent the occurrence of a
problem. It is only done when the problem has occurred.
Challenges in Conducting Action Research

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 1. Negative attitude of some teachers and students on project work.
2. Students travelling to meet their supervisors
3. Difficulty in the selection of topics
4. Allocation of students to tutors
5. Identification of research problems
6. Students or tutors not turning up for meeting schedules
7. Students do not take suggestions kindly.
8. Large number of students for supervisors
9. Distance of research location from supervisor
10. Supervisor - students relationship
11. Final project write - up usually full of mistakes.

IMPORTANCE/ PURPOSE OF RESEARCH EDUCATION

1. Educational research helps teachers to improve upon their teaching competencies and
skills. Through education research, teachers are able to develop or generate new
methods of teaching. It also helps teachers to advance their knowledge about
educational issues.

2. Educational research helps teachers to test theoretical concepts in actual problem

situations to see if they are effective. For example, teachers, through educational
research can compare the learning outcomes of students taught with students-centred
or teacher centred approaches.
3. Recommendations and suggestions generated through educational research could be
used by policy - makers to design new curriculum to cover areas that are lacking. It
also adds to knowledge about educational issues.
4. Educational research is also used for improving educational delivery. Through
research, a number of interventions such as FCUBE, school feeding, NALAP
(National Literacy Accelerations Programme) have been introduced to bring about
effective educational delivery.
5. Educational research helps to provide explanations to several educational phenomena,
issues and problems e.g. poor examination results.
6. Educational research also helps to build students research skills
7. It is used to provide reliable information about what happens in schools to the relevant
publics and stakeholders in educational.
8. It is used to predict educational outcomes due to specific administrative policies e.g.
the admission of students from deprived schools with relatively weaker grades into
KNUST.

Problems of Research in Ghana

1. Funding - One problem researchers facing in conducting research in education is
funding. Ghana is a developing nation and needs money to provide infrastructure and
social amenities like road, hospital, electricity, good drinking water etc. it is therefore,

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 difficult for the government to provide enough funds to support educational research.
2. Data collection through interviews and questionnaires is a very difficult task in Ghana.
This is because many people (respondents) are suspicious of the fact that such
information may be used for other purposes.
3. High rate of illiteracy - Another difficulty in conducting research is the high illiteracy
rates in the country. This means that only interview could be used in collecting data
for most research. This problem crates problems in terms of cost and the size of the
population.
4. Lack of statistical data in education is also a problem. Information such as the number
of educational institutions, number of pupils, distributions in term of sex, enrolments
etc are not reliable.

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 UNIT2: PLANING AND CONDUCTING RESEARCH
VARIABLES IN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

Researchers tend to call the properties they study variables.

A variable is a characteristic, property or term that can take on different values or have
categories. It is also a concept or characteristics that contain variations. The variations can
be described numerically or categorically.

Examples of variables include:

VARIABLE VARIATION

Achievement / performance excellent, very good, good, fair, poor etc.

Intelligence special, linguistic, arithmetic etc.

Aptitude high and low

Attitude good and bad

Behaviour good and bad

Sex/gender male and female

Marital status single, married, divorced, widowed,

separated

Other variables of interest in educational research are socio-economic status (SES),

cognitive style, methods of instruction and leadership styles.

From what have been discussed so far, it can be stated that, a variable is a property that
takes on different values, varies or have categories.

Types of Variables

There are several types of variables in educational research.

i. Independent/Treatment Variable: Is the variable that is manipulated by the researcher.

It can be called experimental or treatment variable. In experimental research, the
independent variable is the variable that the researcher manipulates.

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An independent variable is presumed to have an effect on another variable. The variable
which is affected is called the dependent /outcome variable.

ii. Dependent/Outcome Variable:

The nature of dependent variable is based on what the independent variable does to it or
how it affects it. During research, Dependent variable is observed for a change in order to
assess the effects of the treatment. On the other hand, it is the variable that is not
manipulated, rather it observed for outcome. For example when a researcher wants to find
out the effect of different teaching methods, he/she may manipulate the method (the
independent variable) by using different teaching methods

To further demonstrate these two variables, consider an experiment in which a researcher

is examining the effects of room temperature on memory performance. The purpose of the
experiment is to determine whether changes in room temperature cause change in memory
performance. The researcher manipulates temperature by creating two or more different
treatment conditions. For example, the researcher could set the temperature at 70° for one
condition and then change it to 90° for a second condition. The experiment would consist
of observing the memory performance for a group of individuals (often called subjects or
participants) in the 70° room and comparing their scores with those with another group
that is tested in the 90° room. To be able to say that different in memory performance are
caused by temperature, the researcher must rule out any other possible explanations for
the difference for this experiment the independent variable is the temperature while the
dependent variable is the number of words recalled on the memory test. Some examples
of dependent variables in education include performance, attitude, aptitude and
behaviour.

iii. Discrete Variable: Consists of separate, indivisible categories No values can exist
between two neighbouring categories. Discrete variables are commonly restricted to whole
countable numbers eg number-of children in a family or the number-of students attending
class.

iv. Extraneous-Variables: Any variable that exists within a study other than the variables
being, measured. In an experiment, any variable other than those used in the study. An
extraneous variable is a variable that affects the outcome of the independent variable but is
unknown to the researcher and therefore not controlled by the researcher.

v. Confounding Variables: A confounding variable is a type of extraneous variable that

affects the outcome of the independent variable systematically. For example, in an
experimental study, involving the effect of two methods of teaching, “Teachers” may
serve as a confounding variable in the sense that teachers’ characteristics may affect the
dependent variable in a systematic form, either bringing about an increase or decrease in
the measurement of the dependent variable.

vi. Categorical Variables: They are variables not assign a person or an object to a group

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using specific characteristics or properties. They can be said to be group variables. Some
categorical variables are dichotomous while others are not. Dichotomous variables can
take only two forms. Examples of dichotomous variables include gender (male / female),
dead or alive, pass or fail.

vii. Continuous Variable: For a continuous variable, there are an infinite number of
possible values that fall between any two observed values. A continuous variable is
divisible into an infinite number of fractional parts. Suppose, for example, that a
researcher is measuring weights for a group of individuals participating in a diet study.
Because weight is continuous variable, it continues variable are achievement,
aptitude, .altitude weight, height.

THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

A research study begins as a question that the researcher would like to answer or a
problem that the researcher would like to solve. A problem may usually imply that a
controversy or difference of opinion exists. It is the desire to find a solution to or
investigate a problem or a question which motivates a researcher to undertake a study.
Thus, a research problem refers to a problem, issue or controversy that motivates a
researcher to undertake a study.

Sources of Research Problem

As a student and a beginner in research, you can identify and-select research problems
from the following sources;
1. Replication - It refers to conducting a study again in a different context or situation. In
other words, replication involves looking through a list of research projects
previously carried out by students of your institution or similar institutions to see
whether a new project can be designed. In doing this, you need to focus attention to a
different time span, population sample, geographical area and different research
design.
2. Research problem can be selected from a list drawn up by the college or the project
work department. Currently, students are required to identify a problem during their
internship that is, when practising in their schools of attachment. The problem should
be relevant to teaching and learning.
3. Contradictory Results
Contradictory results and findings exist in many topics in literature. Some studies
indicate one conclusion whilst other studies of similar topic come out with an opposite
conclusion. These apparent contradictions present good opportunities for a research.
4. Experience
A person’s everyday experience provides a rich supply of problems of investigation.
Some of the best sources of idea come from one’s interest, personal and practical
experiences. For •
5. Ideas from experts or external sources
Research topics or problems may be given as a direct suggestion from an external
source. For example, a course tutor, supervisor, lecturer etc may give students a list of

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 topics from which to choose from. However, they should not be imposed on the
students.
6. Theory
McMillan (1996) defined theory as a set of propositions that explain the relationship
among observed phenomena. Theories are thus, general explanations of behaviour.
One approach to obtain a research problem is to take a theory in a related area such as
psychology, sociology. The researcher may test, revise or clarify an existing theory.
7. Literature
Ideas for research come from reading the relevant and related literature. A literature
refers to all written documents including scholarly textbooks, journals and theses.

Characteristics of a Good Research Problem

A good research problem must have the following characteristics;
1. It should be clear and unambiguously stated. According to Amedahe (2002),
ambiguity is seen when different people reading the same thing derive different
meaning from what is read. Thus, if a term, phrase or statement can mean several
things to different readers, then it is ambiguous e.g. terms like students and methods
could be made clearer by adding gender or course say, female students.
2. It could be stated in a question form e.g;
a. What is the relationship between social - economic background and school dropout
rate?
b. Can students who have had pre-training be taught a learning task more quickly
than those who have not had pre - training?
3. It should be researchable. A research problem is said to be researchable when it is
possible to collect data to answer the questions asked. A research problem should not
be one which can merely be answered with Yes or NO. A researchable problem is one
that can be investigated through the collection and analysis of data.
4. The problem should not represent a moral or ethical position. The research problem
must not inflict any physical and psychological harm or torture to human being or to
the environment of which they are part. Questions about values are often difficult to
study than questions about attitudes e.g. “should children be seen and not heard.”
5. The problem must be significant. The solution to the problem must not be a trivial one.
It should be seen as adding information to the present state of knowledge either in
theory or practice. The solution to the problem should contribute to improvement of
educational practices.
6. The research must be feasible. The feasibility of a research implies that the researcher
should be able to get the necessary financial support or has the necessary funds
available as will be required by the study. It also means the researcher would be able
to complete the study in good time. The researcher also should have adequate
knowledge of the required research design (type) and statistical procedures for the
study.

Statement of the Research Problem

A study cannot progress without the choice of a problem. The problem should be carefully

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stated in written form before proceeding with the design of the study
Putting one’s ideas in writing is often sufficient to illuminate (bring to light) the
ambiguities and uncertainties.

A good research statement of the problem should serve as a guide to the researcher in the
process of designing the study. What ingredients should then be included in the problem
statement? The problem statement should identify the key study variables, and-their
possible interrelationships and the nature of the population of it interest.
Research problems are expressed in two main forms:
i. Statement form
ii. Question form

Statement Form
Many researchers state their research problem in the declarative form as a broad statement
of purpose such as: The purpose of this research is to examine the relationship between the
retention levels of students who are taught addition of numbers using concrete materials
(real objects) and those who are taught without concrete materials( in abstract).

Question form
A research problem may also be presented in question form for example; what is the
relationship between the retention levels of students who are taught addition of numbers
using concrete materials (real objects) and those who are taught without concrete
materials?

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 UNIT 3: THE RESEARCH PLAN
RESEARCH PROPOSAL
A research proposal is a plan which provides a systematic procedure for the researcher to
follow. A research plan or proposal spells out in details what the researcher intends to do.
It thus, shows the intentions of the researcher. It also indicates the purpose of the
researcher’s intended study and its importance, together with a step-by-step plan for
conducting the study. It describes in details how to investigate a given problem.

Relevance of Research Proposal

1. A research proposal helps the researcher to think through every aspect of the study
including making his intentions known to others the problem to be studied and
the .methodology to be employed. This helps the researcher to identify the materials
and resources needed.
2. A resource proposal serves as a guide for conducting the study. The research plan or
proposal is like a building plan for a mason which the researcher can follow in
executing the study. This may avoid digression.
3. The preparation of a research proposal saves time for the researcher. Once a researcher
goes through the preparation of the plan, the steps to be taken, materials needed etc. It
avoids a situation where the researcher gets to a stage and pauses to plan on things to
secure.
4. Helps to avoid mistakes - by planning a research ahead of time, the probability of
making avoidable mistakes in carrying out the study is reduced.
5. It helps to produce a high quality research. All the planning that goes into the write-up
of a proposal ensures that the final product of the study has a high level of quality.
6. A research proposal allows interested parties such as supervisors and other previous
researchers to evaluate the worthwhileness of a proposed study.

Components/Parts of Research Proposal

 Essentials of a Research Proposal

Generally research proposals have four main component/ parts. These are introduction,
methodology, time schedule and the budget. However, for this course the emphasis will be
placed on introduction and methodology.

 Introduction Section of a Proposal

The introduction section of a proposal puts the study into perspective. It describes the
background to the problem, states clearly what specific issue, problem or question the
researcher wants to investigate, how the study relates to literature in the area of study, and
the statement of the specific hypothesis or questions to be tested or answered.

 Background to the study

Proposals will vary in terms of emphasis with regard to the above mentioned aspects of
the introductory part of the proposal depending on whether the problem is given or not.

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The issue of clearly stating the background to the problem and its statement is crucial. The
description of the background should be concise and help the reader to understand and
appreciate the specific problem to be investigated and its objectives. The background
description may be historical and must include relevant literature. In fact, in practice, you
must review literature before stating the background to the study and the problem as well
as the formulation of the hypotheses and /or questions.

 Statement of the Problem

The statement of the problem directly follows the description of the background to the
study. It is a concise statement of the problem the study is addressing, including its scope.
The statement of the research problem is very pertinent and must be considered with all
the seriousness that it deserves. A research problem can be defined as an issue in need of
investigation. Thus, problems spring from puzzling experiences. However, a vague feeling
.that something is wrong or that some theory or policy is not adequate does not constitute
a problem. Such a situation is an indication that a problem may exist. Before you proceed
with your proposal you must isolate, sharpen, and clarify the pertinent variables and
relationships rise to the problem statement. This you can do by reviewing the related
literature. This will help you put the problem in appropriate theoretical framework or
context.

The statement of a problem should indicate the variables of interest to the investigator and
their relationship, as well as the subjects of study. A research problem can be stated in
different ways. Three examples of problem statements are as follows:

 The problem to be investigated in this study is secondary school teachers’ attitudes

towards school-based assessment in Ghana.
 The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of the child labour on school
dropout rates in Kumasi Metropolis
 This study is to investigate the effect of kindergarten attendance on pupils’ reading
performance at class one.

Since the research design is action research, the problem should be described as it was
encountered. In effect, the statement of the problem should succinctly state what the
researcher investigated. An example of statement of the problem reads like this.

"The problem the researcher decided to investigate was “using place value to improve
the difficulty in solving problems in addition and subtraction at Pankrono R/C primary
five.

Even though the researcher has to evaluate the entire proposal at the end it is expedient to
evaluate the problem in terms of its appropriateness. MacMillan (1996) identified six
criteria that can be used to evaluate a research problem. In relation to the six criteria, the
researcher should ask him or her-self the following questions and if the answer to each of
them is yes then the proposed problem is a good one.

16
• Is the problem researchable? (i.e., the problem should be such that you can collect
data, organise data, analyse data to solve it).
• Is the problem important? (i.e., significant to practice, policy or theory)
• Does the problem indicate the type of research? (E.g. experimental or non-
experimental).
• Does the problem specify the population? (i.e., the target group of study).
• Does the problem specify the variables of interest? (e.g., achievement, attitude,
aptitude, perception).
• Is the problem clear? (i.e., devoid of ambiguity).

A good problem statement should have most if not all the characteristics mentioned
above.

 Hypotheses/Research Questions
After stating your research problem and making sure that your problem is a good one by
evaluating it, you must formulate either the relevant research hypotheses or research
questions. The hypotheses or questions must be directly related to the research problem
under consideration. One must always remember that the main problem is solved through
sub-problems. These sub-problems are what you restate as research hypotheses or
questions, depending on the problem.

Hypotheses are educated guesses or conjectures that are testable. Hypotheses are
formulated usually in quantitative research while research questions are used in qualitative
research and evaluations. Quantitative research, however, can involve the formulation of
both hypotheses and questions. Depending upon the problem of study, the researcher
should state the specific hypotheses or questions of the study. This is in line with the fact
that research deals with a main problem through sub-problems. It is expedient to divide
the main problem into appropriate sub-problems and formulate hypotheses or questions to
cover them.

Hypotheses must be stated in a research form and a null form. It is appropriate to state
your hypotheses in both ways. As a researcher you may be interested in the research
hypothesis (substantive hypothesis), but it is the null hypothesis that will assist you to
reach a decision on whether to accept the research hypothesis or not

If a study is qualitative, questions and/or objectives may be formulated as it may be in

evaluation research, for example. It is worthy of note that the research hypotheses may be
stated in a direction or non-directional form. This is guided by review of related literature.
A directional form is written: if you believe that the relationship will be in a particular
direction. An example of a directional research hypothesis is “there is a positive
relationship between secondary school students’ Performance in mathematics and
physics”. If you are not sure about the direction then the research must be stated in a non-
directional form. The equivalent non-directional research is “there is a relationship
between secondary school students’ performance in mathematics and physics”. The
direction of your hypothesis has implications for the probability level you will use data

17
analysis, particularly the power of the test. A one-tailed test (i.e., directional) is more
powerful than a two-tailed test.

You can evaluate your research hypotheses using the following questions (McMillan,
1996):

• Is the hypothesis stated in a declarative (statement) form?

• Is the hypothesis consistent with known facts, previous research, and theory?
• Does the hypothesis state the expected relationship or difference between two or
more variables?
• Is the hypothesis testable?
• Is the hypothesis clear?

 Significance of the Study

Even though the problem may be clearly stated, there is the need to explain to the reader
the significance of the study. That is, it should be clear as to why the problem should be
investigated. You need to explain how the results of the study will be useful in terms of
how it will influence practice, inform policy or contribute to theory. The review of related
literature is this

Delimitation deals with the scope of the study that is, it builds a fence around the topic
under study. Thus, delimitation is concerned with defining the boundaries of the study. It
gives opportunity to the researcher to tell the reader what was included in the study and
what was not included in the study. For instance, a study on the difficulty of place value
may be limited to addition and subtraction. Again, a study on the problem of English can
be narrowed down to an aspect like reading, grammar or spelling

THE METHODOLOGY SECTION OF THE PROPOSAL

Having satisfied yourself that your proposed problem is a good one by candidly answering
the above questions and also establishing its significance, you proceed to discuss in detail
how you propose to carry out the study. This is the methodology part of the proposal.
Methods and/or techniques should be described in detail and be appropriate for addressing
the problem.

The methodology section of a research proposal describes subjects/participants

(respondents) of the study, the design, research instruments and procedures to be followed,
including how you will analyze data collected to test each hypothesis or answer each
research question. Generally, it is required that the description of the methodology must be
particularly clear and precise to permit replication. When written well, the method section
of a proposal becomes Chapter 3 in most project reports, just as the introduction section
becomes Chapter 1.

In a study, a researcher may be interested in a group of elements or cases, whether

individuals, objects, or events, that conform to specific criteria and to which he/she
intends to generalize the results of the research. The group becomes your target group.

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The target group is the population of study. In the methodology section of the proposal,
you have to define your population (target group) of study and explain why it is relevant
for the study. An example of target group is all basic school pupils in Kumasi Metropolis.
If all members of the target group are not accessible then it will be expedient to define the
accessible population in addition to the population of study. You partly take care of the
population if in your problem. Statement the population of study is made clear. If the
population is going to be studied without selecting a subset (a sample) of it then you need
not think about selecting a sample for the study. On the other hand, if you are going to
select a sample then you must describe the process of selecting the sample in the
procedure section. For you to be able to generalize the results of your study, a
representative sample is required.

Sample size and Sampling

If a study will involve a sample, then you need to determine the sample size. Appropriate
sample size is needed for the credibility of the results. The sample size is also important
in making sure that your study is able to detect an impact if there is any. In sample
surveys of very large populations, one to five per cent of the population will be adequate
for a study when the sample is well selected to be representative of the population.
Generally, the larger the sample the better the results of the study. For statistical analysis,
a sample size of 30% or higher is considered to be large. This brings us to the issue of
sampling.

A sample can be selected using a probability or non-probability method. Probability

methods include simple random sampling, stratified sampling, systematic sampling, and
cluster sampling. Examples of non-probability sampling are convenience sampling, quota
sampling, purposive sampling, and snowball sampling.

The specific sampling procedure must be selected based on the characteristics of the
population and the practicality of the sampling process, bearing in mind that the selected
sample should be representative of the population.

The Design
The investigator needs to state and describe the proposed design. Generally, the design is
the special Strategy you will employ in collecting, analyzing and reporting the research.
For example, if a study is an action research, you must select a specific research strategy
that you think is appropriate to carry out the study. The design must be appropriate to
enable you to collect relevant data to test your hypotheses or answer your research
questions. The problem, if well stated, gives direction as to the appropriate design to be
used.

Note that when you prepare a proposal, you need to state your design and show its
appropriateness to the solution of the proposed problem. In other words, your design
should match the problem. It is also useful to discuss the strengths and limitations of the
design, when you are preparing a project or theses proposal.

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Instruments/ Tools
The instruments that you will use to collect data must be described in the proposal. By
instrument we mean research tools such as a questionnaire, interview schedule,
observation guides or tests.. If multiple instruments are involved in the study you must
describe each. If you are going to use an available instrument you need to show evidence
of its reliability and validity for your study. Any instrument that you use in the study must
also be described.

Data collection
The procedure section of the methodology should concisely describe how you would
collect your data step by step using the instruments. If a pretest or baseline data collection
is necessary it must be indicated, including when and how and by which instrument? This
applies equally to post test data collection.

Analysis of Data
The last section of the methodology section of a proposal should explain to the reader how
data collected would he analysed. For quantitative studies the researcher may have to
employ statistical procedures in analysing the data. The use of inappropriate statistical
procedure to analyse the data can result in a wrong conclusion. Usually, it is expected that
for each hypothesis, the researcher should indicate the specific statistical analysis he/she
proposes to use to test it. In your case, you may use only descriptive statistics or
percentages to analyze your data.

For qualitative research, content analysis and other methods can be used to analyse the
data. The important issue here is that the researcher must show in his/her proposal how
each hypothesis will be tested or how each specific research question will be answered
using data collected. Data analysis goes with interpretation of the results. There must be
an indication of how you intend to interpret the results and the implications of what the
results say.

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WHAT IS A RESEARCH QUESTION?

Research questions invite answers and help to focus the research’s attention on the kind of
data that would have to be collected to provide the answer.

 Nature of Research question

Not all forms of questions can be used as a research question during a research study.
Research questions should be preferably stated in an interrogative form to ensure
simplicity and directness. Let’s consider the following questions.

1. Do head teachers behave differently towards teachers of different sex?

2. How can principals of Colleges of Education improve counselling programme?

3. Does lecture method of teaching produce more satisfactory results than discussion
method?

A closer look at the above questions indicates clear case of simplicity and directness,
whereby the researcher collect data to answer them satisfactorily. In this case these
questions are researchable. (able to look for information to answer the research question)

In other cases, some questions cannot be used as a research question. Thus not
researchable (not able to collect data to answer them)

Let’s consider the following questions.

1. Should sex education be taught in the primary school?

2. What is the meaning of life?

These two questions are not researchable. There is no way to collect information to
answer either of them. Question 1 is an issue of value. It demands views such as wrong,
proper etc. and does not have any observable referents.

Furthermore, question 2 is a question of metaphysical. That is beyond human knowledge.

 Characteristics of Research Question

A good research question should have these for essential characteristics. A research
question should be:

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 1. Feasible

2. Clear

3. Significant

4. Ethical

1. A research question should be researchable or feasible

A feasible question is the one which can be investigated with the available resources,
time, money and energy

2. A research question should be clear

A clear question is the one which is free from ambiguity (having more than one
meaning)

3. A research question should be significant

This implies research question should be worth investigating.

4. A research question should kowtow to ethical values

The word ethic refers to questions of right and wrong. Research questions should be
devoid of unethical issues.

HYPOTHESES

According to Amedahe (2002), a hypothesis is an informed and intelligent guess about an

answer to a question. Tuckman (1994) defined hypothesis as a suggested answer to a
problem. It is a tentative expectation about a correct solution to a problem, descriptions,
possible relationships or differences.

In research, a hypothesis is the investigator's prediction or explanation of relationships

between two or more variables. Indeed, it is a tentative explanation for certain behaviours,
phenomena or events that have occurred or will occur as part of solving a problem. For
instance, a research project attempting to determine why a school has an unusually high
dropout could have the following as hypotheses;
a) Students are not interested in school
b) Students lack the ability to continue school
c) Students are under economic pressure to leave school and obtain a job.
Each of these hypotheses would provide some direction or basis for identifying facts
which would enable the researcher determine factually why majority of students are
leaving the school.

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Importance of hypotheses
 To guide the research by offering direction to its structure and operation
 To offer a temporary answer to the research questions
 To facilitate statistical analysis of variables in the context of hypothesis testing

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 UNIT 4: LITERATURE REVIEW /REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Literature review refers to a systematic identification, location and analysis of documents

containing information related to the research problem. In simple terms, literature review
refers to the reading of previous work related to the problem or issue to the studies.

IMPORTANCE OF LITERATURE REVIEW

1. It helps to avoid unintentional replication. A researcher, through review of related
literature, may discover that a very similar study has already been made on his
research problem. In such a case, the researcher may decide whether to deliberately
replicate the previous work or change the proposal plan.
2. Literature review provides information on the methodology adopted by previous
researchers especially on data collection and analysis procedures.
3. Literature review also helps to determine the feasibility of the study. Thus, it helps to
determine whether resources are available for the study.
4. It helps researchers to determine areas of further research.
5. It helps researchers to know the gab in knowledge i.e. what others have done and
what is left undone.
6. Literature review helps researchers to use the appropriate terminologies e.g. Target
population, accessible population, research design, sample, sampling techniques etc
7. It also helps to promote replication on a topic since circumstances may change.

Sources of Literature Review

1. Secondary source
A secondary source is a description of a study prepared by someone other than the
original researcher. In other words, a secondary source is the one that reviews,
summarizes or discusses someone else’s research. Examples of secondary source are
text books, scholarly books, research in journals encyclopedia and hand books.
2. Primary source
A primary source is the description of an investigation written by the person who
conducted the research. Thus, primary sources are original articles and reports in
which researchers communicate directly to the reader the methods and results of their
study e.g. “The Oguaa Education.

Importance of Primary sources

 Primary sources allow for more informed judgment about the quality and usefulness
of the information, they tend not to be distorted through being summarized or reported in
another form.

 It also provides sufficient detail about research studies.

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25
 PARTS OF LITERATURE REVIEW

There are four main parts of literature review

1. The introduction
The introduction briefly outlines the major headlines or sub - headings to be reviewed.
2. The, body
The body of literature review reports on what others have found, written or talked
about the research problem. Related studies are usually discussed together, grouped
under sub - headings to make the review easier to read.
3. The summary
The summary of the literature review puts together or highlights the main ideas or
issues revealed in the literature.
4. Reference

Types of Literature Review

1. Conceptual/ Theoretical Literature: This literature review covers ideas from
different theories: concepts such as sociology, medicine, psychology etc which are
related to the topic under study. They are ideas reviewed from original theories
which provide relevant information for the research under study.
2. Research Literature/ Empirical Review
This deals with literature on already carried out research on similar topic e.g. thesis,
dissertation, journals, periodicals etc.

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 UNIT 5: RESEARCH DESIGN
DEFINITION OF RESEARCH DESIGN

A researcher’s overall plan for obtaining answers to the research questions or for testing
the research hypotheses is referred to as the research design. A research design is thus a
plan or blueprint which specifies how data relating to given problem should be collected
and analysed. It provides the procedural outline indicates the basic structures of the study,
the nature of the hypothesis and the variables involved in the study.

The Descriptive Research Design

Definition: Descriptive research typically involves measuring a variable or sets of variable
as they exist naturally. It is concerned with the description of individual variables. The
good is to describe a single variable of to obtain separate descriptions for each variable
when several are involved. Thus, it involves collecting data in order to test hypotheses or
answer research questions concerning the current status of the subject of the study. (Gay
1992).

PURPOSE OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

The purpose of descriptive research is to observe, describe, and document aspects of a
situation as it naturally occurs. It sometimes, serves as a starting point for hypothesis
generation or theory development. In descriptive research, the events or conditions either
already exist or have occurred and the researcher merely selects the relevant variables for
an analysis of their relationships, Examples are “the perception of WESCO students of the
in-in-out programme” and “the attitude of primary school teachers in the Mamponteng
district towards the introduction of the new English syllabus”. In all these examples, the
same conditions do exist and the researcher is to observe and report as it is.

Nature and Characteristics of Descriptive Research Design

Descriptive researches as we saw in the definition, is generally concerned with the present
status of a phenomenon. According to Best and Khan (1998), descriptive research is
concerned with the conditions or relationships that exist, such as determining the nature of
prevailing conditions, practices and attitudes; opinions that are held; processes that are
going on, or trends that are developed. Amedahe (2002) also maintains that in descriptive
research, accurate description of activities, objects, processes and persons is the objective.
He also noted that research is not a fact finding per se. In fact, there is considerably more
to the descriptive research than just asking questions and reporting answers. .
Descriptive research deals with interpreting the relationship among variables and
describing their relationships. Descriptive research seeks to find answers to questions
through the analysis of relationships between or among variables.

Characteristics of Descriptive Research Design

27
 They may either be quantitative or qualitative. Thus, they may involve hypothesis
formulation and testing or formulation of questions and seeking answers to them or
describing situations.

 They use the logical methods of inductive and deductive.

 They employ the method of randomization so that error may be estimated when
population characteristics are inferred from observations of samples.

 Variables and procedures are described as accurately and completely as possible so

that the study can be replicated by other researchers.

 They are susceptible or easily influenced to distortions through the introduction of

biases in the measuring instruments. For example errors due to the use of
questionnaires or interviews might distort research findings.
 There is the need to organize and present data systematically in order to arrive at valid
and accurate conclusions.

Steps involved in a Descriptive Research Design

1. Clear definition of problem or question to be answered

2. The method of data collection should then be selected.

3. The alternative descriptive method available for collecting desired data in the
descriptive research include administering questionnaire, interviewing subjects,
observing events or analyzing documentary both primary and secondary source.

4. Selecting sample for the study. A meaningful and representative sample should be
selected with regard to the population characteristics such as size etc. 5% to 20% of
the population size is sufficient for generalization purposes.

5. Data collection then follows

6. Editing coding and analysis of data using the relevant procedures. E.g. one can develop
frequency and percentage tables and compute mean and standard deviation.

7. Interpretation of results.

Forms of descriptive research

Descriptive research ranges from simple surveys that do little more than ask questions
and report answers about the status of something (phenomena) to studies that present
explicit statements about relationships between variables.

CASE STUDIES
What is a case?
A case can be defined as a bounded system (Stake, 1997). A system is a set of interrelated

28
elements that form an organized whole. Using the system metaphor, a case is seen as a
holistic entity that have parts and that act or operate in their environments. Bounded is
added to signify that you should identify the outline or boundaries of the system- ie you
should identify what the case is and what is not. Typically cases are child/ children with
learning barriers, problems associated with national programmes (Burke, Christensen,
2012).
A case may go beyond an;
object or entity with a clear identity (eg. a group of people, a person, a classroom or an
organization) but can also include
an event (eg. campus protest)
an activity (eg. Learning to play) or
a process (becoming professional teacher) (Creswell,1998; Merriam, 1988; Yin,2009).
A case can be something relatively concrete such as an organisation, a group or an
individual, or something more abstract such as an event, a management decision or a
change programme (Gomm et al. 2000,Yin 2009).
Definition of case study Research
Case Study Research simply refers to a research which provides a detailed account or
analyses of one or more cases ((Burke, Christensen, 2012).)
Case studies research, explore and investigate contemporary real-life phenomenon through
detailed contextual analysis of a limited number of events or conditions, and their
relationships. Case study method enables a researcher to closely examine the data within a
specific context. In most cases, a case study method selects a small geographical area or a
very limited number of individuals as the subjects of study.
Another definition is offered by Yin. Yin (1984:23) defines the case study research
method “as an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its
real-life context; when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly
evident; and in which multiple sources of evidence are used.”
Case studies are investigations of an individual group, institution or other social unit. The
social unit may be a person, a family, a social group, a solid institution of a community. In
other words, case studies mostly involve the observation of individual unit e.g. a student, a
delinquent clique, a family group, a class, a school, a community, an event, or even an
entire culture, etc.
The researcher conducting a case study attempts to analyse and understand the variables
that are important to the history, development, or care of the subject o» the subjects’
problems. For example, there are some students who learn a second language rather
easily. In an attempt to gain insight into why this is the case, one such student could be
observed on a regular basis to see if there are any noticeable patterns or regularities in the
student’s behaviour. The student, as well as his/her teachers, counsellor, parents and
friends might be interviewed in-department. A similar series of observation and
interviews could also be conducted with a student who finds learning a second language
very difficult. The hope here is that, through the study of somewhat unique individual,
insights can be gained that will suggest ways to help other language students in future.

Similarly, a detailed study might be made in a single school as a way of'

conducting/undertaking a case study in the school that is noted for its successes in the
BECE examinations.
From the above examples, it can be noted that a case study can be simple and specific,
complex and abstract. A case study should also focus on bounded subject or unit that is

29
either very representative or extremely typical i.e. different from all others of its type.

Purpose of Case Studies

The purposes of case studies include the following:
1. Preliminaries to major investigations. Case studies are a useful way to
explore/examine/bring to light variables, phenomena, processes and relationships that
have not been thoroughly researched and as such deserve more intensive
investigation. The information obtained in case studies can be extremely useful in the
production of hypothesis in research questions to be tested or answered more
carefully in subsequent research. Case studies could be a pilot study where methods,
approaches or policies are tried out to see what the difficulties are that need to be
dealt with before a main study is undertaken.

2. Provision of anecdotal evidence. A case study may provide anecdotal evidence i.e. a
short, interesting or amusing information about the phenomena under study; that
illustrates more general findings.

3. A case study is mostly used when the relevant behaviours cannot be manipulated of
respondent’s physical characteristics, social qualities or behaviours, recorded data on
respondents from newspapers, schools, courts, clinics etc.

4. Intensive probing and analysis of interactions between factors under study. The
primary purpose of a case study is to determine the factors, and relationships among
the factors that have resulted in the current behaviours or status of the subject of the
study. The case study thus determines why and not just what. The case study
therefore probes deeply and analyses interactions between the factors that explain
present status or that influence change or growth. This intensive probing that
characterizes case studies often leads to insights concerning previously unsuspected
relationships.

In-depth case studies serve as important role of clarifying concepts and variables or
clarifying ways to measure them.

Types of Case Studies

Four types of case studies are described as follows
1. Historical Case Study: These studies involve the tracing of the development of
organisation/system overtime. Considered under the historical case studies is oral
history. Oral history involves first person narratives that the researcher collects using
extensive interviewing of a single individual retired educationist recounting how
he/she was taught during the era of the Accelerated Development Plan (ADP) in
1951.

2. Observational Case Study: These studies often focus on a classroom, group, teacher
and pupil often using a variety of observation and interview methods as the major
research tools.

3. Situational Analysis: Situational analysis is a form of case study where special events

30
 are studied. For instance, events like students unrest/strikes, teachers/workers strike,
etc. could be studied by interviewing the students, parents, teachers, workers
headmasters and other witnesses concern

4. Clinical Case Study: This approach aims to understand in-depth a particular

individual, such as a child having problem with reading, a teacher with disciplinary
difficulties, or a headteacher/manager with poor interpersonal relationship, etc.

Planning Case Study

Case studies, like other research design, need to be planned before they are carried out.
osuala (2001) has identified four main components to the research design in case studies.
1. Initial case study questions: Questions with regard to who, what, where, when and
how the case study would be undertaken must be clarified and stated in the right form.
It must be noted that without the initial questions, to which the researcher wishes to
find answers, no start can be made.
2. Study Propositions: There is the need to state clearly and shortly suggestions or
propositions that will enable the question(s) to be answered.
3. Unit of Analysis: This component is concerned with defining clearly and in
unambiguous terms the exact case we want to investigate. Without this the investigator
will not be limited to any defined area/scope. He/she would, thus, be tempted to collect
everything that randomly may have a bearing on the issue.
4. Linking Data/Data Analysis and Interpretation: This is the means to linking data to
proposition using it as a criterion for interpreting findings.

Principles of Case Study Data Collection

1. Use multiple sources: Most case studies are capable of producing several sources. The
use of multiple sources is the major strength of case study approach. Multiple sources
allow for the use of different approaches/methods - observation, interviews/questionnaires,
etc. This helps to improve the reliability and validity of data findings. Corroboration of all
these approaches makes a case study report more convincing.
2. Maintain a chain of evidence: In a case study evidence should be built up from
multiple sources if possible and shown to be in line/suitable with the conclusion.
3. Record data: There should be an on-site recording of every data the researcher obtains.
On-site recording can range from sketchy notes to the minute detail encoded on a tape, it
is also important that full notes be written up as soon as possible after the observation in
view of the fallibility of human memory. The investigator should also be more concerned
with remembering the substance of conversations rather than a perfect reproduction. The
actual content of any observation should' include verbal descriptions of setting, the
respondents and the activities, the observed comment, feelings, reactions and
interpretations.

Skills Needed by Case Study Investigator

The quality of a case study data depends to a great extent on the experience and skills of
the investigator. These skills as enumerated by Osuala (2001) include the following.

31
 1. Formulation of relevant and precise questions. The investigator needs to be able to
formulate or prepare relevant and exact questions that would enable data to be'
extracted from the subject.
2. Ability to use all the sense organs. The investigator needs to be a good listener,
observing, sensing and if possible touch and feel as a means of obtaining the right
data.
3. A grasp in-depth knowledge of what is being studied. The investigator must have a
firm grasp of the issues he/she is studying. Why should it be so? Without this,
important points and issues can be misled or misrepresented.
4. Lack of bias. Another important skill to be exhibited in undertaking a case study is to
avoid being bias. The investigator should be fair and present and interpret issues
exactly as he/she has observed. Do not interpret to support a preconceived position.

The investigator must know how to observe, allowing the subject to talk freely and at the
same time be alert for something definitive that may relate to a hazy hypothesis which
they are seeking to check. Minimize direct questions and use non-directive probing
questions. Example, “What happened next?” “What do you think?’” Use words, terms
and structures used by the respondent.

Analysing Case Study Data

Notes for case study may be derived from
1. interviews
2. observations
3. documents.
Case study notes may be in the form of written or typed notes in a pad, diary or index
card, audiotapes, computer disks, video/film. According to Osuala (2001), these notes
should be organised on an ongoing process so that as the study progresses the investigator
has some sense of the direction in which it is going and the confirmation and
contradictions that are arising. As part of the analysis, all the observation and data should
be organised chronologically or by topic, and they should be closely perused i.e. read/look
in a relaxed and not very detailed and the main aspects of the data isolated. Through this
activity the data would be organised. Other approaches of analysing the case study data
involves creating flow charts and diagrams, tabulating frequency and sorting information
into chronological order i.e. ordering the events by the time at which they happened.

POPULATION AND SAMPLING IN RESEARCH

Populating in research consists on all the people, things, institutions which bear the
characteristics that the researcher wishes to measure. In other words, it refers to the group
of people about which the researcher is interested in gaining information and drawing
conclusions.
Polit and Hungler (1996) defined population as the entire aggregation of cases that meet a
designated set of criteria. Example of such group may be “all students of Wesley College
of Education “, all teachers of Colleges of Education in Ashanti Region “, all principals of
Colleges of Education in Ghana etc

32
 Types of Research Population
a. Target population
The target population refers to the total number of people about which the researcher
would like to make generalizations. For instance; the target population for a research on
basic school teachers in Kumasi may be “all teachers in basic schools” in Kumasi. The
target population is referred to as the researcher’s ideal choice.
b. Accessible population
The accessible population refers to the total number of people that conform to a
designated criterion that are accessible to the researcher as a pool of subject for a study.
For instance, the accessible population may be teachers in basic school of a particular
education unit. This is the researcher’s realistic choice.

A SAMPLE
A sample is a smaller unit or a subset bearing the same characteristics of the population of
interest in a research. In simple terms, a sample refers to representatives of the larger
population who share similar characteristics. It is the proportion of the larger population
that the researcher will want to study and make some conclusions about the population.
Most population of interest is large, diverse and scattered over a large geographical area.
Contacting all of them can be time-consuming and expensive. For this reason, researchers
select a sample to study.
SAMPLING
Sampling refers to the process of selecting a portion of the population to represent the
entire population. Generally, sampling enables a researcher to study a relatively small
number of units of the target population. In sampling, the unit that makes up the sample
and population are referred to as elements.

Advantages
1. Studies based on samples require less time and produce quick answers
2. Samples offer more detailed information and a high degree of accuracy because they
deal with relatively small numbers.

TYPES OF SAMPLING
Sampling methods can be grouped into two. Probability and non-probability sampling
A. Probability Sampling
This involves some form of random selection in choosing the elements in such a way that
the researcher knows the probability of selecting each member of the population. Thus,
every member or unit of the population of sub-group has an equal, independent,
calculable and non-zero chance of being selected for the sample.
Four commonly used Probability Sampling Methods
1. Simple Random Sampling;
This type of sampling gives all units of the target population an equal chance of being
selected. The simple random sampling is appropriate when the population of study is
similar in characteristics. The main type of simple random sampling is the lottery
method / Hat / Balloting method. Choosing respondents by the lottery method follows

33
 a procedure that can be described in the following steps;
Prepare a list of the units of the target population e.g. school register which includes all
names of the target population
• Write names listed in sample frame or their number on slip of papers and put them in
a container.
• Mix well and remove one slip or paper at a time from the container without looking
into it.
• Record the number or name on the slip. When a slip is selected and recorded, it is
thrown back into the container before the next one is picked.
• The process continues until the required number of respondents is obtained. If an
already drawn number is selected for a second or third time, it is ignored and thrown
back into the container.
2. Systematic Sampling / Sequential
This method involves selecting the subjects from a population list in a systematic
rather than a random fashion. A systematic sampling consists of the selection of the
term from a list of all elements in a population beginning with randomly selected
elements. For example, if there is the need to select 10 respondents from 500
population, the 50th person can be selected systematically.
3. Stratified Random Sampling
Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into a number of homogenous
groups or strata. Each group contains subjects with similar characteristics. A sample is
then drawn from each group of stratum. The division of the population into strata or
homogenous group is based on one or more criteria e.g. sex, age, professional status
etc.
4. Cluster Sampling (Multi-stage sampling).
In cluster sampling, there is a successful random selection of naturally occurring
groups or areas and then selecting individual elements from the chosen group of areas.
Thus, a characteristic of these sampling method is that first group of elements (cluster)
are selected (e.g. schools, classes, suburbs) and then individual elements are selected
from these clusters. This sampling is used when the population is large and widely
spread.

B. Non - Probability Sampling

In non-probability sampling, elements are selected by non-random methods. That is, there
is no way to estimate the probability that each element has the chance of being selected in
a non-probability sampling.
1. Convenience Sampling
Convenience sampling involves choosing the nearest or available individuals to serve as
respondents and continuing the process until the required sampling size has been obtained.
It is also known as accidental, chunk, grap, haphazard, volunteer sampling. For example,
when a researcher stands at WESCO main gate between 10am and 1pm to gather data
from those who may pass between these hours for a study.
2. Quota Sampling
This sampling technique attempts to obtain representatives of the various elements of the

34
total population in a proportion in which they occur there. Thus, the researcher sets a
quota of respondents to be chosen form specific population groups by defining the basis of
choice eg. gender, marital status, ethnicity, education etc by determining its size e.g. 60
graduate teachers, 40 diploma teachers, 30 pupil teachers etc.
3. Purposive Sampling / Judgmental Sampling.
In purposive sampling, the researcher handpicks the respondents to be included in the
sample on the basis of their particularly knowledge ability about the issues under study.
Thus, the researcher selects the sample using his own judgment based on his previous
knowledge about the population. Under this form, the people chosen are themselves not
representatives of the population but rather possess the necessary information about the
population being studied.
4. Snowball Sampling / Network Sampling.
Here, a small number of individuals who have the required characteristics are identified by
the researcher. These people also identify others who also identify other people through
'linking and this process continues till the required number of respondents is obtained for
the sample. For example, the researcher approaches a few respondents available to
recommend other persons who meet a certain criteria of the research and who are willing
to participate in the study.

INSTRUMENTS AND PROCEURES

Data Collection Techniques.

The tools or techniques for data collection include

 Observation

 Questionnaire

 Interview

OBSERVATION:

Literally, observation means a method of data collection that employs vision as its main
means of data collection. In observational studies researchers collect data on the current
status of subjects by watching them and listening and recording what they observe rather
than asking questions about them.

 Types of Observation

There are several types of observation: some are more popular than others. Although,
basically, the various types are similar, they do differ from each other in the degree or
extent of the observers’ participation in the environment, in the setting in which it occurs
and in the manner in which it is organized.

Observation can be classified on three different bases.

35
 1. Observation can be structured or unstructured

2. Observation can take place in natural or artificial setting

3. Observation can be made known to the respondent or not

Structured observation

Structured observation employs a formal and strictly organized procedure with set of well-
defined observation categories. It is organized and planned before the study begins. The
researcher records his/her observation and later consults what was observed for further
studies.

Unstructured observation:

Unstructured observation is loosely organized and the process of observation is largely left
up to the observer to define. In using this observation, the researcher cannot easily record
his/her observation while the observation is in progress. Later he/she may attempt to
memorise whatever was observed.

Natural and Laboratory Observation

The main difference between the two lies in the type of setting in which they unfold. In
natural observation, observation takes place in the natural settings. In the laboratory, they
are performed in the laboratory.

Open and Hidden

This distinction refer to the degree to which the identity of the researcher as an observer as
well as the purpose of the open observation, the participants are well informed of the
nature of the study and the identity of the researcher but in hidden observation, they are
not.

Active and Passive Observation

This type of observation refers to the degree to which the observer is involved in the
process and purpose of observation. Active observation presupposes full engagement
of the observer in the course of the study. In passive observation, the role of the
observer is seen as being just a strict recording of data. In this case observation is a
job to be in an objective and neutral fashion.

36
Direct and Indirect Observation
Direct observation studies the subjects it intends, for example, if the study intends to
explain the patterns of conflict in marital homes, the observation involves named
couple, this is direct observation. Indirect observation does not involve the subject of
study; either because the subject refuses to take part in the study all the subject is
deceased. In this situation the observer observes the physical traces of the
phenomena under study that the subject has left behind and make conclusions about
the subject.

 The Process of Observation

Steps in Observation include:

1. Selection of topic:- The issues to be studied

2. Formulation of the topic: - This involves a specific definition of the topic,

development of observation categories, establishment of the observer - subject
relation sip, the type and explanation of what is to be observed.

3. Collection of Data: -This involves familiarization with the setting and subjects,
initial interaction, observation and recording. The method of recording varies
from one type of observation to another. The most commonly methods are:

i. Writing down verbatim in summary or in key words.

ii. Tape recording conversations

iii. Video recording events .

iv. Taking photographs

4. Auditing of Data: - At this stage, the researcher will undertake data reduction,
presentation (e.g. tables and graphs) cross tabulation and interpretation.

5. Report Writing

Tools of Observation

1. Observation Checklist

A checklist consists of a list of activities or behaviours recorded by an observer

immediately an incident happens. It is used to ascertain the presence of a particular
characteristic and this must be clearly specified. The traits or actions to be checked are

37
specifically listed. The items on the checklist ask the observer to indicate only if the
desired behaviour takes place. Example of observation checklist for social interaction in
class includes;
Actively participate in a group work Discusses with other students in class Does his work
alone Hardly talks in class

2. Rating scale
A rating scale consists of a list of attributes alongside of which descriptive terms showing
the extent or degree to which an attribute has been shown. Thus, a rating scale enables an
observer to indicate the status or quality of the characteristics being measured or rated.
When we rate people, we make judgment about their behaviour they have exhibited. A
rating scale may be filled out during and after an observation of an individual’s
characteristics or trait. Each trait is rated along a continuum. Among the characteristics
which may be rated by teachers, school heads, guidance personnel are leadership, honesty,
diligence, self-reliance dependability etc.

Examples of rating scales

a. Direction : Rate the under-mentioned students on the characteristics listed below as
follows;
Outstanding 5 Always
Above average 4 Frequently
Average 3 Occasionally
Below average 2 Seldom
Unsatisfactory 1 Never

Student............................................... Date................... Class.........

3. Anecdotal Records
Anecdotal records are accurate and written descriptions of important factual incidents
about an individual as observed by the researcher. The records are done in narratives.
The format for anecdotal records usually consists of three parts;
a. Background information such as the name of the student, date, time observed,
setting in which the event occurred
b. Reporting of the observations
c. Comment of the observer

The following is an example of anecdotal record

Name of student..................................................... observed by..........:.......................
Description.....................................................................................................................
Comments.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................Signature..............................

 Advantages of Observation

38
1. It provides information where others are ineffective. ,

2. It employs a less complicated and less time consuming procedures of subject

selection,

3. It can offer' data when respondents are unable and or unwilling to cooperate or
to offer information.

4. It approaches reality in its natural structure and studies events as they occur.

5. It offers first-hand information without relying on the reports of others.

6. It is relatively inexpensive.

 Disadvantages of Observation

1. It cannot be employed when large groups or extensive events are studied.

2. It cannot provide information about the past, future or unpredictable

3. It cannot study opinions or attitudes directly

4. It cannot offer quantitative generalization on the results.

QUESTIONNAIRE

Questionnaire is a device for securing answers to questions by using a form which

the respondent fills by himself. Questionnaire can also be explained as a list of
questions or statements relating to the aims of .the study, the hypotheses and
research questions to be verified and answered to which the respondent is required
to answer by writing.

 Characteristics of questionnaire

1. Questionnaires should be ambiguous

2. Questionnaires must be understood

3. Questionnaires should require calculations to be made

4. Questionnaires should not be such that answers will be biased

5. Questionnaires should not be too long

39
  Forms of Questionnaire
1. The close - ended form: It is a questionnaire that calls for short, check mark
(list) responses are known as restricted, structured or close - ended. Here the
respondent makes a “yes” or “no” rank alternatives provided based on how one feels
about the issue, check items from a list of suggested responses or scale responses. E.g.
how will you rate the adequacy of textbooks in your school library:

i. Excellent

ii. Good

iii. Fail

iv. Poor
v. Others (Specify)

2. The open - ended: The open - ended from questionnaire or the unstructured or
unrestricted question calls for a free response in the respondents own words e.g.
what is the textbook situation in your school?

 Structure of Questionnaire

a. Title - the questionnaire has a title which describes what the study is all about.
b. Biographical information/Biodata - Here, the respondent is required to provide
information about himself e.g. name of school, occupation, sex, married, single etc.
This information should be provided if it is relevant and will give you the required
information for the research.
c. Purpose of the study - The respondent is briefly informed of the purpose of the study.
d. Protection / Assurance - it is explained to the respondent that information provided
will be treated as confidential.
e. Instructions - the respondent is also informed of how to complete the questionnaire.
For example, whether he is to fill in the blank spaces provided or to tick off, underline,
circle the responses which he accepts.
f. Questions/items - the last part is the items to be responded to. They are the closed -
ended and the open - ended questions. For closed - ended questions, alternatives or
options are provided and the respondent is expected to tick or mark what he considers
to be appropriate. For open - ended questions, the respondent is free to provide his
own responses in his own words.

 Types of Questions and Response Mode

Questions asked in a questionnaire may be:

1. Direct or indirect questions

2. Specific or non-specific

40
 3. Fact or opinion eliciting questions or statements.

1. Direct Questions: They ask the respondents to offer information in a straight

forward manner. It also asks respondents to offer information about him/herself.
E.g. do you believe in God?

2. Indirect Question: It asks the respondent to offer information about other people
assuming that in this way the respondent will indirectly tell about him or herself.
E.g. do you think that people of your status and age believe in God nowadays?
Indirect questions are mainly used when the questions deal with sensitive,
embarrassing or threatening issues.

3. Specific Questions: They elicit information on specific issues e.g. how are you?

4. Non - Specific: The question is posed to seek more or less general information from
the respondents, E.g. instead of asking the respondent the number of years of teaching
experience, the research can provide intervals of years range of respondents from
which they indicate the intervals in which their years of experience fall.

 Rules of Questionnaire Construction

Rule 1.Layout:

 Questions must be well presented in the questionnaire to make it easier to read

and easier to follow.

 Questions and response categories must be easily identified and distinguished

from other questions and response categories.
 Clear instructions regarding the way of answering the questions must be given

Rule 2.Content of the Questions

 Every question must be relevant to one or more aspect of the study

 Ambiguous, non-specific and hypothetical questions are to be avoided

 Leading, double barrelled and presuming questions should not be employed.

 Embarrassing, personal or threatening questions should not ask.

 Vague words and academic jargons should not be used.

 The language of the respondents should be employed.

 Easy flow and logical progression in the questionnaire should be assured

 Each question should ask what it is supposed to ask

41
  Questionnaire Format

• The questionnaire must have a professional appearance and should give the
impression that it is a document that deserves respect and involve feelings of
responsibility

• The questionnaire should be presented m a w ay that encourages the respondent

to complete and return it.

• Write on one side of the page is for smaller questionnaires, preferable to writing
on both sides.

• Print and colour of paper should correspond with the preference of respondents.

• The questionnaire should be presented as a complete document with an inviting

and reassuring introductory- cover letter and a concluding note containing
instructions regarding the return of the questionnaire.

• The questionnaire size should be kept to minimum and restricted to as few as

possible.
• Sufficient instructions and probes should be provided where necessary.

 Administration of Questionnaire

Questionnaire administration refers to the act of sending or presenting the questionnaire

to the prospective respondent and following it up. There are two main ways of
administering a questionnaire.
1. Mail Questionnaire: Mail questionnaire is sent by post to respondents. Its success
depends on an efficient postal system. The questionnaire is filled in the absence of the
researcher. It therefore, pre - supposes that all respondents can read and write. It also pre
suppose that there will be no need for explanations and translations.
2. Non - mail Questionnaire: This involves the researcher personally delivering the
questionnaire to respondents. The questionnaire may be filled in the presence of the
researcher. The personal delivery is advantageous since the presence of the researcher can
influence the response of the • respondents.

Advantages of Questionnaires

1. Questionnaire can be given to a large number of people at the same time.

2. It is less expensive and time - consuming. It can be sent through mail whilst interviews
and observation cannot.
3. It also allows the respondents to freely respond to the items.
4. There is uniformity in the questions. The respondents are asked the same questions.
5. Questionnaire can be completed at respondent’s own convenience
6. They offer greater assurance of anonymity.

42
Disadvantages
1. Questionnaire as a tool for data collection cannot be administered on illiterates and
people who are for young to read and write.
2. Unclear or seemingly ambiguous questions cannot be clarified. This may give room
for misinterpretation
3. The response rate is usually low especially the open - ended questions.
4. Questionnaire does not provide an opportunity to probe for additional information
through observation
5. There is also the problem of non-returns.

INTERVIEW
An interview is a form of questioning characterized by the fact that it employs verbal
questioning as its principal technique of data collection. It involves posing questions
to respondents for answers in a face to face situation or by phone. It also represents
direct attempt by the researcher to obtain reliable and valid measures of
characteristics, behaviours, attitudes etc. in the form of verbal responses from one or
more respondents.

 Types of Interviews
1. Structured interview: Is interview in which specific questions are to be asked and
the orders of the questions are determined and set by the researcher. They are
basedon a strict procedure and a highly structured interview guide, which is like
a questionnaire. It is a questionnaire read by the interviewer as prescribed by
researcher. No freedom is allowed for adjustment to any of its elements, such as
contents/wording or order of questions is known as an interview schedule. The
process of interviewing using this type of interview is referred to as scheduled
interview.

2. Unstructured Interview: Has no strict procedures to follow. There are no

restrictions in the wording of the questions, the order of the questions or the
interview schedule. The interviewer has the discretion to form questions on the
spot, probe into issues and in some cases follow the order dictated by the
situation. The structure of the interview is flexible and has little restrictions. The
instrument used in such an interview is called an interview guide. The guide is not
as detailed as the schedule.

3. Individual Versus Group Interview: In individual interview, the researcher

interviews one respondent at a time. The interviewer asks the respondent direct
follow-up questions and interpreting questions.
In group interviews, more than one respondent is involved in the interview
situation. The respondents are addressed by the interviewer simultaneously. In a
small scale group, two people are interviewed concurrently. On a large scale, a

43
 group of about 20 persons might be interviewed e.g. a husband and a wife can be
interviewed, a small class can be interviewed.

4. Non - Directional interview: In this form of interview, the interviewer encourages the
interviewee to talk as much as possible. This type of interview makes it possible to get
deep information from the respondents.

 Skills and Qualities of Interviewers

1. Knowledgeable: The researcher must be knowledgeable on the topic or theme he

or she is working on.

2. Structuring: An interviewer should be able to structure the interview -

introduction, process and closing.

3. Clarity: The interviewer should pose clear, simple short and straight forward
questions. He should be able to speak distinctly and understandably and avoid
academic jargon

4. Gentility: Allows subjects to complete what they are saying – tolerate, and accept
unconventional and provocative opinions.

5. Sensitivity: The interviewer should control the course of the interview and should
not be afraid of interrupting digressions from the interviewee

6. Open mindedness: Approach the interviewer with an open mind. Must be open to
others opinion. Accept whatever opinions and interviewee expresses on an issue
once he has digressed.

7. Critical: Does not take everything that is said at the face value but questions
critically to test the reliability and validity of what the interviewees tell.

8. Remembering: The interviewer should be able to retain and recall what

interviewees tell and must be able to relate them.
9. Interpreting: An interviewer most throughout the interview sessiontry to clarify
and extend the meanings of the statement made by the interviewee for
confirmation or disconfirmation.

 Advantages of interview

1. Flexibility - Interviews can be adjusted to meet many diverse situations.

2. High response rate –interviewing attracts relatively high response rate.

3. Easy administration - Interview do not required respondents to have the ability

to read.

44
4. Opportunity to observe non-verbal behaviours.

5. Capacity for correcting misunderstanding by respondents

 Limitations/ disadvantages of interview

 Interviews are more costly and time consuming than other methods such as
questionnaire.

 They are attacked for the interviewer factor and the possible bias associated
with it.

 It is less effective than other methods when sensitive issues are discussed.
 It offers less anonymity than other methods.

45
 UNIT 6 ANALYSIS OF DATA AND REPORT WRITING
PREPARATION AND ORGANIZATION OF DATA

 Editing: Editing of research data involves

(a) Correcting mistakes in the data if possible and

(b) Deciding whether some of the data collected should be deleted from or kept
for data analysis later. Editing of data is intended to detect and as far as possible
errors in the data to ensure conclusion validity.

 Scoring: When a study is quantitative in nature, all instruments administered

should be scored accurately and consistently.

 Coding: Coding does not mean the same thing in quantitative and qualitative
research. In qualitative research coding refers to the process of categorizing data.
That is the process by which the researcher makes sense out of the text data, divides
it into text or image segments, labels the segments, examines codes for overlap and
collapses these codes into themes. The codes are therefore labels to describe a
segment of texts e.g. “poor learners” “problem children etc.

In quantitative research coding may involve:

a. Assigning each subject an identification

b. Assigning designated words to represent certain variables

c. Assigning non numerical or categorical data number.

For instance if there are 100 participants in a study. The subjects may be numbered
from 001 to 100. This is an example of assigning each subject an identification
number. With regard to assigning non numerical or categorical data numbers, the
experimental and control groups in a study may be coded “1” and “2”. The variable
“pre-test reading comprehension scores” may be coded (labelled) PRS. This is an
example of assigning designated words to represent certain variables in qualitative
research.

STATISTICAL DATA ANALYSIS: DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICES

Measures of Central Tendency: The general purpose of descriptive statistical

methods is to organize and summarize a set of scores. Perhaps the most common
method for summarizing and describing a distribution is to find a single value that
defines the average score and can serve as representative for the entire distribution.
In statistics, the concept of an average or representative score is called central
tendency.

46
 Central Tendency: Is a statistical measure to determine a single score that
defines the centre of distribution. The goal of central tendency is to find the single
score that is most typical almost representative of the entire group.

 The Mean: The mean, commonly known as the arithmetic average, is computed
by adding all the scores in the distribution and dividing by the number of scores. The
formulation is x =(∑ x )/n When individual scores are numerical values obtained
from an interval or a ratio scale of measurement, the mean is used. The mean is the
most commonly used measure of central tendency. The mean is not however used
when a sample contains a few extreme scores - usually high or usually low values -
the mean tends to be distorted by the extreme values so that it is not a good central
representative value. Not only that often sample data consist of measurements from
nominal scale and are not numerical values. E.g. gender, occupation etc.

 The Median: The median is the score that divides a distribution exactly in half.
Exactly 50% of the individuals in a distribution have scores greater than or equal to
the median and exactly 50% of the individuals have scores less than or equal to the
median The median is also called the 50th percentile. Distributions with few extreme
scores demand median to compute the central tendency.
 The Mode: The mode is the score or category with the greatest frequency. The
mode of a distribution is the value of the observation that occurs most frequently.

Advantages and disadvantages of Central Tendencies

Advantages Disadvantages
Mode  Good with nominal data.  Ignore most of the information in
 Bimodal distribution might verify a distribution.
clinical observations (pre and post-  Small samples may not have a
menopausal breast cancer). mode
 Easy to compute and understand.  More than one mode might exist
 The score exists in the data set.
Median  Not influenced by extreme scores or  May not exist in the data.
skewed distribution.  Does not take actual values into
 Good with ordinal data. account
 Easier to compute than the mean.
 Considered as the typical observation.
Mean  Mathematical center of a distribution.  Influenced by extreme scores and
 Good for interval and ratio data. skewed distributions.
 Does not ignore any information.  May not exist in the data.

 Inferential statistics is based on

47
 mathematical properties of the mean.

MEASURES OF VARIABILITY

 Variability - describes the spread of the scores in a distribution. When variability

is small, it means that the scores are all clustered close together. Large variability
means that there are big differences between individuals and the scores are spread
across a large range of values.

 The range - Is the simplest of all measures of dispersion. It is the difference

between the highest and the lowest scores in a distribution of observations. Thus, it is
found by subtracting the smallest value from the highest in a distribution e.g.24, 24,
25, 25, 26 the range is 26 - 24 =2. The range is a quick way of finding how
distribution is spread. It has a limitation of depending on only two observations in
distribution -.the highest and the lowest.

48
 Standard Deviation: Whenever the mean is used as the measure of central
tendency, the standard deviation is used as the measure of variability. Standard
deviation uses the mean of the distribution as reference point and measure
variability by measuring the distance between end score and the mean. Conceptually,
standard deviation measures the average distance from the mean when the scores are
clustered close to the mean, the standard deviation is small when the scores are
scattered widely around the mean, the standard deviation is large. To find the
standard deviation of a distribution, we first find the mean then we subtract the
scores from the mean, we then square the differences and the sum up the results. We
then divide the total by the number of scores in the distribution. The square root is
the standard deviation of the distribution.

The standard deviation is the best way to describe variability

Standard Deviation = √ Variance

Variance = (Standard Deviation)2

49
Representation of data
Data can be presented in the following forms;
Tables, Frequency distribution, pie-chart, bar graph and histogram

50
 HOW TO CONDUCT AN ACTION RESEARCH

A project work consists of five chapters namely the introduction, review of related
literature, methodology, results/findings, discussions and lastly summary, conclusions and
recommendations.

CHAPTER ONE
Background to the Study
The background gives a broad idea about what the problem is. It describes clearly the
problem or issue to be studied, some historical factors contributing to the problem. In
writing the background section of the research, you need to provide all the necessary
information to enable any reader appreciate and understand the research problem. Once
the background statement provides an understanding of the problem by a reader, your
work is done. To learn to do this, you must read completed projects to see how others have
gone about it. The background must be relatively long. For example, to conduct an action
research on pupils who have problems in understanding place value in mathematics, it is
important to talk about the relevance of mathematics generally in the curriculum and the
fact that place value is basic to many mathematical functions and the actual difficulties
pupils go through. An example of the background to the study on the difficulty some
pupils have in understanding place value in mathematics basic schools.
"Mathematics is generally recognized as an essential curriculum area in most schools and
adequate performance in this area is usually considered fundamental to school success.
Among the factors contributing to mathematics difficulties among pupils are lack of
reading readiness, inappropriate instruction and lack of interest and motivation. One
difficulty that some pupils face in mathematics in- basic schools is place value. The
concept is basic to many mathematical functions. Many pupils who have this problem
have trouble understanding that a value based on the powers of 10 is assigned to each
position in numerical term

Statement of the Problem

This is a brief description of the problem the study is addressing. It seeks to briefly outline
the problem under study and its possible effect if left unsolved. Since the research design
is action research, the problem should be described as it was encountered. In effect, the
statement of the problem should succinctly state what the researcher investigated. An
example of statement of the problem reads like this.

The problem the researcher decided to investigate was using place value to improve the
difficulty in solving problems in addition and subtraction at Pankrono RJC primary five

During the researcher’s teaching attachment programme at Pankrono RJC Primary Five, it
was realized that some of the pupils had difficulty in understanding place value. In view of
this, they were having difficulty in solving problems in addition and subtraction involving
two or more digits. At primary five, this should not have been a problem. This affected
their interest in mathematics. The researcher therefore, decided to choose this as a topic
for thorough investigation.

51
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study clearly states what the researcher proposes to investigate. In
other words, his intentions for the study. It should be concise statement which provides a
framework to which details are added later.

In writing the purpose of the study, terms like to assess, determine or compare etc should
be used.
The statement should also include the objectives of the study, who is to be studied and
finally, the site or area that the study is being conducted. An example is as follows;

The purpose of die study was to identify the causes of the difficulty in understanding place
value by the pupils of Pankrono RJ C Primary Five and to design appropriate teaching
learning materials like abacus to assist them to overcome the difficulty.

Research Questions
The research questions provide the researcher with some directions for the gathering of
facts that will provide valid answers or solutions to the problem understudy. The literature
review should help to answer most of the research questions and should be based on the
problem of the study.

The following research questions are based on the research problem;

a. What factors contributed to pupils’ inability to understand place value?
b. Were appropriate TLMs used in teaching addition and subtraction involving more
than one digit numbers?
c. How can the use of abacus help overcome such difficulty?

Significance of the Study

Under the significance of the study, the researcher must make clear why the study is
important. He must present an argument for the “worth of the study”. This is usually stated
in terms of the research’s contribution to improving practice, informing policy or
enriching the knowledge on the topic or how it should be taught. It also specifies the
various groups who will benefit from the study. For instance, on the study of pupils having
difficulty in understanding place value, one of the significance can be that ‘ the methods
could be adopted by teachers in basic schools to assist pupils in understanding place
value.

Delimitation
Delimitation deals with the scope of the study that is, it builds a fence around the topic
under study. Thus, delimitation is concerned with defining the boundaries of the study. It
gives opportunity to the researcher to tell the reader what was included in the study and
what was not included in the study. For instance, a study on the difficulty of place value
may be limited to addition and subtraction. Again, a study on the problem of English can
be narrowed down to an asp.ect like reading, grammar or spelling.

52
Limitations
Limitations describe the weaknesses of the study. In simple terms, they refer to the
problems the researcher has no control over and which may place restrictions on the
conclusions of the study.

They identify factors which will not make it possible to make a perfect generalization of
the results. It is concerned with several factors that limited the results regarding the
findings and their uses. Limitations of the study usually arise from the use of data
collection instruments, statistical tools for data analysis, negative attitudes of respondents
to questionnaire, interview; time, financial constraints among others. Factors that never
affected the study should not be included

Definition of Terms:
This provides the definitions of all key and unique terms used in the study. It is important
to define ill unusual terms in the study which could be misinterpreted e.g. aluta as used on
our campuses might be unfamiliar to some other persons. Always use operationalised
definitions, not conceptualized ones.

Organizations of the Study

This describes how the entire project report is organized. It tells readers what the various
chapters contain. For instance, it can be stated that in chapter one deals with the
background to the study, chapter two reviews related literature etc.

CHAPTER TWO
The second chapter of action research project report has the heading “Review of Related
Literature”. Basically, a literature review is supposed to offer combination of;

a. What has already been written on the topic in terms of theories or concepts and
empirical evidence (Scientific research studies)
b. The overall goal of clarifying how the present study intends to address the gap,
silence or weakness in existing literature.
When reviewing literature, it is important to use the research questions as a guide to
develop the key issues that may serve as a breakdown of the review.
Using the ‘place value as an example, the key words in the research questions are the
meaning, causes and how it can be improved etc. In this example, what has been written
about these ideas and some research work that have been conducted on it may be
reviewed. The literature review should uncover many gaps in the previous studies. The
literature review should end with a summary of the review that highlights the most
important studies, captures the major theme in the review and suggest why we need more
research on the topic.
The literature review is not simply a collection of notes from books, journals. You should
digest what you read and write from your head. If you pool together notes from different
sources, the materials become disjointed.
Use past tense (e.g. Joe Boye Asserted that............................................) or present perfect

53
tense (e.g. Joe Boye has argued that...................................) for the literature review.

CHAPTER THREE

Methodology is the chapter three of action research project. It describes the research
design and procedures employed in obtaining data for the study.

Research Design
It should be stated under this subheading that the design used was an action research
design (type of research used). There should also be an explanation of why the choice of
that design, the strengths and weaknesses inherent in the action research design.

Population and Sample

A description of the population for the study should be provided followed by the number
of participants sampled and how the sample was done. The reason for the use of a
particular sampling technique should also be given. For action research, sampling may be
done based on the perceived problem of that group, for which reason the research project
was embarked upon. Note that action research in your case should use a small sample size
since the study is limited to the classroom situation.

Research Instruments
The type of data collected and the procedure used to collect them should be described as a
well as the reasons for the choice of those particular instruments. There should also be
explanation of how the instruments were used. Some of the instruments which can be
used to collect data in research project are observation, interview, tests, questionnaire and
opinionnaire. If multiple instruments are used, they should be descried.
In action research, tests can be used to diagnose the extent of a problem and to determine
the effectiveness of an intervention that has been designed to address the problem. When
used as diagnostic instruments, it is known as a pre - test. After administering the
interventions, the same test or a parallel test (of the same difficulty) should be used to
determine the effectiveness of the intervention and to ascertain whether there has been a
change or not. This is known as post - test.

Interventional process
An intervention is a set of strategies planned and implemented to solve a specific problem
or improve/reform an educational practice located in an immediate situation. It involves a
step-by- step procedure which is constantly monitored over varying periods of time and
by a variety of mechanisms. Activities are planned, implemented and monitored for a
period of time (days, weeks, months etc). This process may include pre- intervention,
intervention and post- interventions.

A} The pre - intervention is the procedure that the researcher adopts in trying to
diagnose the perceived problems before the actual intervention. He may do it alone or
with colleagues who have knowledge of the problems. The use of instruments such as
observation, interviews, questionnaires and tests may help in diagnosing the problem

54
which must certainly suggest an intervention.

B} The intervention is a series of concrete measures/ methods put in place to solve a

specific problem. The researcher may use weeks or months to implement the strategies
for the purpose of solving the problem identified. Depending on the discretion of the
researcher, one or more strategies may be used.
C} The post - intervention evaluates the outcome of the action or intervention (s)
undertaken. This is to ascertain whether for instance, the pupils in JHS 1 of Pankrono had
improved upon their comprehension skills in English. In a case like this, a test may be
administered. The use of other instruments such as observation, interview, and
questionnaire could be used for verification.

Data Analysis Plan

This outlines the method by which the data collected may be analyzed. It includes
tabulation, histogram, bar chart, pie chart, graphs, maps, diagrams.

CHAPTER FOUR

This is the stage where the researcher presents information he has gathered through
results/ findings and discussions.

It includes the following.

1. Description of data obtained from various instruments used. This should indicate the
various methods used in the analysis of the data e.g. tables, graphs, pie-charts, etc.
The tables / graphs/ pie-charts etc should be well numbered to make reference easier.
2. Discuss pertinent issues and findings that come up in the data. Based on the data
obtained, there should be detailed discussion of the main findings or issues that came up
from the administration of the various instruments. The discussions of the findings should
be related to the research questions.
3. Discuss how the instruments and interventions helped to arrive at the findings. This is
to find out the extent to which the instruments and the interventions were useful in getting
the necessary information that led to the findings. For example, did the instruments bring
out the expected responses? Were the interventions appropriate?
4. What aspect of the problem was addressed and which one was not. The discussion
should be able to indicate whether or not the study was able to address the entire problem
set out to address. Assign reasons why there were any shortcomings, if any. What
accounted for the success of the study if all the problems were addressed? For example,
the study was not able to find out if there were enough textbooks for the pupils because
the head teacher who should have provided that information was absent throughout the
period that the research was conducted.
5. General outcome of the intervention
Discussion should indicate whether the intervention carried out was successful or not. If it
was successful, why? Indicate if there were any problems related to the intervention and
how they were resolved. For example, there was remarkable improvement in the speaking
ability of the pupils after they had gone through the activities used for the interventions.

55
 CHAPTER FIVE
The chapter five has the following key sub-titles; summary, conclusions and
recommendations. This chapter is very important because people who do not have time to
read the whole report may only read this chapter.

Summary
The summary part presents the highlight of the study including the problem studied, the
methodology employed and the results. This section must be written in a concise form. No
new information should be included here. It should also not involve repetition of sections
of previous chapters.
Conclusion
The conclusion is a summary statement that reflects the overall answer to the research
questions. Thus, the conclusion of the study is what you can tell somebody in a very apt
or exact way about the findings of the study. It is the sum of the evidence that leads to the
conclusions. It should be limited to what is directly supported by the findings. The
conclusion section can be a paragraph or several paragraphs.

Recommendations
This is the final section of the last chapter. In this section, the researcher has to make
recommendations or suggestions relevant to the problem being investigated in terms of the
implications for practice. The conclusions drawn should be used as a basis for making the
recommendations. Also, only recommendations warranted by the findings should be
made. An appropriate way of presenting the recommendations is to list them.

Areas for Further Research

This is suggested by the researcher to future researchers on the problem under study but
areas , which could not be resolved by the current study. This is done to avoid future
researchers from pursuing the same research in the same area.

REFERENCES
This is a list of books and articles which have been cited or referenced in the report. The
listing immediately follows the main report and begins on a new page. They include
documents such as journal articles, books, technical reports, computer programmes,
unpublished works etc mentioned in the study. Reference materials are listed in
alphabetical order.
Bibliography, unlike the list of references, includes all sources consulted during the
preparation of the investigation. With the adoption of the American Psychological
Association ( APA) style of writing research reports by the Institute of Education,
University of Cape Coast, the use of references is recommended and not bibliography.
The heading should be References. It must be accurate in terms of names, spelling and
years of publication as cited in the report.
The references should be arranged alphabetically and should not be numbered. Use the
last name (surname e.g. Boye) of the author(s) and their initials, e.g. Joe Boye, F. Every
source cited in the report must be included in the reference list.

56
 RULES IN CITING AN AUTHOR(S)

The following are the rules in writing references;

1. Indicate page number e.g. (p20) when there is direct quotation. If the quotation is a
long one usually more than 40 words, it should be indented and blocked.
2. A work by two authors: Name both authors in the signal phrase or in the parentheses
each time you cite the work. Use the word “and “ between authors’ names within the
text eg. Research by Asare and Adu ( 1973) should be ( Asare and Adu, 1973)
3. A work by three to five authors: List all the authors in the signal phrase or in
parentheses the first time you cite the source e.g. (Francis, Wilberforce, Michelle,
Clement and Prudence 1973).In subsequent citations, use only the first author’s last
name followed by ‘et al.’ e.g. Francis et al. (1973).
When using et al., et should not be followed by a full stop. However, al (alia) should
be followed by full stop e.g. (Boye et al. 1973)
4. Six or more authors: Use the first author’s surname followed by et al. in the signal
phrase or in parentheses e.g. Harry et al. (2005).
5. Authors with the same last names: To prevent confusion, use first initials with the last
names e.g. (E. Johnson, 2003, L. Johnson 2005)
6. Internet referencing without the name of the author and date should be cited as;
Anonymous (n.d). title (italicized) and date retrieved. E.g. anonymous (n.d). School
feeding in basic schools in Ghana. Retrieved on 13th September, 1973.
7. Referencing format, according to American Psychological Association [APA] style is
as follows;
A. Surname with initials
B. Year of publication into bracket with full stop after it.
C. Title of book italized with full stop after it
D. Edition, if any, in bracket e.g. (1st Ed.)
E. Place of publication with colon
F. Name of publishers with full stop e.g.
Joe Boye, F. (1973). Research Methods in Education for Colleges of Education. (1st Ed.)
Kumasi: University press.

APPENDICE
Appendices are relevant materials which were used to carry the study but are not featured
in the main body of the report. An appendix may be useful in providing detailed
information that would seem inappropriate or too long for the main body of the report. In
order words, materials that are related to the study but which would make the body of the
study bulky is placed in the appendix. They include for example, research instruments
such as questionnaire, observation checklist, test items, interview guides etc. (Singular-
appendix)
ABSTRACT
An abstract is a concise, accurate, comprehensive informative description of the study. It
is usually not more than one page. Generally, it indicates the purpose, the sample used and
the sampling procedures, the instruments used to collect the data, how the data was

57
analyzed. It also indicates the results of the study and the conclusions drawn. In effect, an
abstract is a brief summary of the study. It is usually without paragraphs.

DECLARATIONS
Amedahe (2003) maintains that the declaration is concerned with the authenticity of the
study and it is signed by both the student and the principal supervisor of the study. The
candidate’s declaration comes first before the supervisor’s. All should be signed. The
signature of the supervisor puts his reputation at stake. Declarations are unpaged. They are
affirmations by both the candidate and supervisor that the procedures laid down by the
University of Cape Coast with respect to project work writing and supervision have been
followed.

DEDICATION
Avoid being personal in your dedication. Dedicate the work to only one or not more than
two persons. Do not dedicate the work to yourself because it does not belong to you. It
belongs to the university. An example of dedication reads like this: This study is
dedicated to Hon. Joe Boye, former Member of Parliament for Tano Constituency of
blessed memory.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Acknowledgement is an unnumbered page of expression of gratitude to those who
contributed in diverse ways to the success of the research including God, supervisor,
husband, wife, typist, tutors, mentors, colleagues, data analyst and any other person whose
name is worth-mentioning.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
The table of content is a list of all items covered in the report and their pages as they
appear in the report .It is a means where the reader can locate any material within the
report easily. Thus, the table of content gives a layout of the project report from the
abstract, through the chapters to the appendices.

LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES

The table of contents is followed directly by separate pages for the list of tables and list of
figures respectively. The list of tables and figures should indicate the titles of all tables
and figures used in the report and the pages where they can be located. It covers graphs,
charts etc used in the analysis of the

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
1. general Line spacing / font
The project work should be double - spaced through report which also includes the table
and the references. The font should be New Times Roman and the font size should be 12
throughout the report.
2. Paragraphing
The first line of each paragraph should be indented. Block paragraphs are not accepted.
3. Margins
The recommended margins are 4cm to the left and 2cm to the right. The top and bottom
margin will be automatically set by the computer.

58
4. Table numbering:
Table numbering should be numerically numbered e.g. Table 2. There is no full stop after
the numbers.
5. Pagination
All page numbers of the project work from the abstract to the references should be placed
at the bottom and centred. Page numbers from abstract to the list of table / figures should
be in Roman Numerals e.g. (iii, iv, v) and page numbers of the remaining text should be in
Arabic Numerals e.g. (1, 2, 3 etc). The inside cover or title page and declarations are
unpaged; documents. Paging commences with abstract from roman numerals

General writing skills in research reports

An important aspect to writing a research report is to be able to communicate your ideas
well to the reader. The words so selected should be able to inform the reader about the
research rather than to impress him with flowery language and other forms of verbal
gymnastics.
The following are the writing skills in research report;
1. Use appropriate terms and concepts - writing a research is different from writing a
nontechnical composition. Therefore. Use the appropriate terminologies and concepts
in research in your writing. Avoid the use of jargons.
2. Sentence structure- in a research report, long sentences should be avoided. A sentence
is long if it is more than three lines.
3. You must apply the A, B, and C’s of writing. These include accuracy, merit and
clarity that go with critical adherence to the laws of grammar.
4. Emphasis should be on the data rather than the investigator. In general, references to
the investigator are to be kept to a minimum. Therefore, personal pronouns of the first
person (I, me, we, us, our and second person (you, your) are not to be used.
5. A research report is written in the past tense. In writing your reports, you have to say
for instance that the purpose of the study was This follows the fact that in the
project, the researcher reports what he has done. However, conclusions that apply to
more than a single instance are written in the present tense.
6. .Avoid one sentence paragraph in the report. They do no convey complete ideas.
7. Be logical in your writing/presentation. The logic of the argument should flow from
one idea to the next.
8. Key sub-headings in the project work should always start with upper case letters e.g.
Background to the Study, Statement of the Problem; Purpose of the Study etc. Key
subheadings should be centred.

FORMAT FOR PROJECT WORK WRITING FOR COLLEGES OF EDUCTION

The project work report consists of the following:
A. OUTSIDE COVER
PRELIMINARIES OR FRONT MATTER
The preliminaries begin with the outside cover page. The features of the outside page will
be UNIVERSISTY OF CAPE COAST followed by INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION,
TITLE OF THE PROJECT REPORT, the

59
FULL NAME OF CANDIDATE, followed by the College and the Year of presentation.
This information must be centred and boldened. The use of the word “BY” and titles such
as Mr., Mrs., Miss etc are not allowed on the cover page.

B. INSIDE COVER
The inside cover or title page constitutes the next page of the report.
This consists of Five Block of Words. The first block is UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST
and the INSTITUTE OF EDUCAITON. The second block is the TITLE OF THE
PROJECT WORK. The third block is the FULL NAME OF THE CADIDATE AND
COLLEGE. The fourth block is the DEPARTMENT of the UNIVERSITY of CAPE
COAST and PURPOSE WHICH THE WORK IS BIENG SUBMITTED. The fifth block
is the MONTH and YEAR of SUBMISSION. Even though, the title pages does not bear a
page number in the actual project report, it is recognized as page one ( in Roman
numerals) of the preliminaries.

60
 SAMPLE A - OUTSIDE COVER

UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION

USING TRACING TO IMPROVE HANDWRITING SKILLS AMONG BOMAA D/A

PRIMARY THREE PUPILS IN THE TANO DISTRICT

JOE BOYE

WESLEY COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, KUMASI

2010

61
 SAMPLE B: INSIDE COVER OR TITLE PAGE

UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION

USING TRACING TO IMPROVE HANDWRITING SKILLS AMONG BOMAA D/A

PRIMARY THREE PUPILS IN THE TANO DISTRICT

BY

JOE BOYE

OF

WESLEY COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, KUMASI

A PROJECT WORK SUBMITTED TO THE INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION OF THE

FACULTY OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST IN PARTIAL
FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF DIPLOMA IN
BASIC EDUCATION.

JULY 2010

62
 SAMPLE C:

DECLARATION

CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this project work is the result of my own original research and that no
part of it has been presented for another degree in this University of elsewhere.

Candidate’s Name......................................Signature.................... Date.............................

SUPERVISOR’S DECLARATIONS
I hereby declare that the preparation and presentation of the project work were
supervised in accordance with the guidelines on supervision of project work laid down by
the University Of Cape Coast.

Supervisor’s Name..........................................Signature....................Date................

63
 SAMPLE D - TABLE OF CONTENT
Page
ABSTRACT i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ii

DEDICATION iii

LIST OF TABLES iv

LIST OF FIGURES v

CHAPTER
1. INTRODUCTION 1
Background to the Study 1
Statement of the Study 9
Purpose of the Study 10
Research Question 11
Significance of the Study 11
Delimitation 12
Limitations 12
Organization of the Study 13

2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 14

3. METHODOLOGY 61
Research Design 61
Population and Sample 63
Research Instruments 64
Pre - Intervention Data Collection 65
Intervention 67
Post - intervention Date Collection 68
Data Analysis plan 68
4. RESULTS, FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS 78
5. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 105

REFERENCE 115

APPENDIX A 123

APPENDIX B 124

APPENDIX C 125

64
 THE MAIN BODY OF ACTION RESEARCH REPORT

This is made up of five chapters

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

• Background to the Study
• Statement of the Problem
• Purpose of the Study
• Research Questions
• Delimitations
• Limitations
• Definition of key terms, if required
• Organization of the Study

CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

• Breakdown review into sections to cover important aspects
• Review materials from both primary and secondary source
• Summary of Major Findings of Literature Review

CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY

• Brief introduction to the chapter

• Research Design: type of design is action research. Define action research, provide
reasons for choice of design; explain strengths and weaknesses.
• Population and Sample: Describe characteristics of population. Out of population, a
representative sample is selected. Sample should possess similar characteristics of
population
• Sampling techniques: Sample selection procedure (if sample was selected) Give
reasons for sample selection procedure
• Research Instruments: Describe how instrument(s) was/were developed i.e.
interview guide, questionnaire, observation checklist, opinionnaire and tests. Also
describe how instruments were administered.
• Pilot testing (if any) to help re-shape instruments. Discuss with supervisor the validity
and reliability of instruments.
• Data Collection Procedures
• Pre - intervention data collection
• Interventions
• Post - intervention data collection
• Data Analysis Plan

CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS/ FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS

• Present results by research questions

• Summarize chapter

65
CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, CONCLUSSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

• Summary i.e. overview of methodology used

• Summary of key findings
• Conclusions i.e. draw conclusions based on key findings in the study.
• Recommendation - based on research findings
• Areas for further research.

66
 SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1. The section of the research report which deals with the research design is the

a. Review of literature b. Conclusion and recommendation

c. Analysis d. Methodology
2. The introductory section of the research report should clearly indicate the following
except
a. Research questions b. Limitation to the study
c. Data collection procedure d. problem to be investigated
3. The section of the research report that presents inference derived from the findings is
known as
a. Conclusion b. results
c. Summary d. recommendations
4. The review of literature is useful for
a. Resolving contradictory findings
b. Introducing the methodology to be useful in the study
c. Defining the frontiers of the field
d. Confirming or disconfirming a theory

5. The abstract should accurately completely and concisely capture the following
essentials for the study except
a. Result of the study b. Methodology used
c. Implications d. Themes reviewed
6. Research in developing countries encounters the following difficulties except
a. Scanty statistics b. Illiteracy
c. Lack of financial support d. Many researchers

7. The statement that any difference between obtained sample statistics and specific
population parameters is due to sampling error or chance known as the
a. Deductive hypothesis b. inductive hypothesis
c. Null hypothesis d. research hypothesis
8. Which type of research emphasizes measurement of variables and their relationships?
a. Applied research b. basic research
c. Qualitative research d. quantitative research

9. Which of the following does not form part of the classification of research types?
a. Basic research b. secondary research
c. Applied research d. action research

10. Which of the following is not a basic component of a research proposal?

a. Introduction b.time schedule c. Conclusion d. budget

67
68
11. One difference between a descriptive survey and a causal comparative research is that
in
a. Causal comparative study, the researcher manipulates at least a variable but the
descriptive research does not manipulate a variable
b. Descriptive research, the researcher varies conditions for sub-groups of the study
but this is not the case in the causal comparative study
c. Be established in the descriptive research but be established in the causal
comparative study
d. Causal - comparative study relations can be established but in descriptive survey
this does not take place
12. In a causal comparative study, comparison groups are
a. Set by the researcher b. already in existence
c. Described by the respondents d. obtained by random assignment

13.Most causal - comparative studies begin with

a. Measurement of the independent variable
b. Assignment of subjects to treatment group
c. Known differences among two or more group
d. Description of variables in the study

14.Experimental research is the most powerful method for

a. Determining causes and effect relationships b. Identifying important dependent
c. Identifying possible relations d. Generalizing the results of the study
15. The general term applied to publications that contains descriptions of educational
research by an author who was not a direct observer or participant
a. First-hand information b. primary source
c. Secondary source d educational index
16.Which of the following is not a role of related literature in research project?
a. Clarifying contradictory results b. Defining the frontiers of the field
c. Avoiding unintentional replication d. Placing the question in perspective
17. At what point, during the research project should the researcher survey the literature
and studies conducted on the chosen topic?
a. During the search for the research question
b. After the inductor chapter
c. As soon as the research problem has been selected
d. After the researcher has returned from field

18. Which of the following items is not part of the front pages of a research report?
a. Title b. acknowledgement c. Reference d. abstract

19. Which data collection technique would be most appropriate when one is dealing with
young children in a study?
a. Questionnaire b. observation c. Interview d. test

69
 20. Which of the following is not part of the research proposal?
a. Methodology b. abstract
c. Review of related literature d. Summary
21. The type of hypothesis that is formed from generalization based on observation is known
as
a. Inductive hypothesis b. deductive hypothesis
c. Declaration hypothesis d. null hypothesis

22. A statement of predicted outcomes of the study is called

a. Null hypothesis b. research hypothesis
c. Research problem d. statistical hypothesis
23. The acceptable range of the sample size for most quantitative studies is between
a. 10% - 20% b. 10% - 30% c. 20% - 30% d. 20%-40%
24. The following are problems of research except
a. Lack of knowledge b. illiteracy
c. Lack of financial support d. Secrecy

25. Those conditions beyond the control of the researcher that may place restrictions on
the conclusion of the study and their application to other situations are termed as
c. Limitations b. delimitation
c. Research problems d. statement of the problem

26. Which of the following is a source of a research problem?

a. Applying theory b. current books and journals
c. Replication d. all the above
27. Which source of knowledge is likely to provide you with the most valid knowledge?
a. The scientific knowledge b. logic
c. Precision d. authority
28. All the following are characteristics of research?
a. Control of bias b. objectivity
c. Unwillingness to alter beliefs d. verification
29. Which of the following is a characteristic of research?
a. Research begins with a topic
c. Research is circular
b. research deals with data collection
c. research and development
30. The purpose of educational research is to
a. Collect data on educational phenomena
b. Determine educational phenomena
c. State educational phenomena
d. Understand and explain educational phenomena

70
31. A student goes to the library to obtain information to answer a question posed by his/her
class teacher in class. The student can be described as doing research in a scholarly sense.
a. True b. False
32. Which of the following types of education research will have the least implication for
professional practice?
a. Action research b. applied research
c. Basic research d. research and development
33. A research proposal is a plan of how a study is to be conducted
a. True b. False
34. The introduction type of research can be undertaken by a classroom teacher to solve
his/her problems in the classroom?
a. Design to be used b. problem to be investigated
c. Research questions d. significance of the study

35. Which of the following type of research can be undertaken by a classroom teacher to solve
his/her problems in the classroom?
a. Action research b. applied research
c. Basic research d. evaluation research
36. Each of the following is a criteria for a good research problem except that the problem
a. Is clear and concise b. indicates the expected results
c. Indicates the type of research d. indicates the type of variables

37. Without preparing a research plan, a researcher is not likely to proceed systematically in
conducting study
a. True b. False
38. Research problems that are obtained as a result of reading journals, especially those that
report the results of studies in the area of interest, is from what source?
d. Development agencies b. literature
c. Replication • d. textbooks
39. The researcher must have adequate knowledge of the required research design, be able to
get the necessary funds that are required by the study and be able to complete the study in
goodtime. This statement indicates that, the research problem must be
a. Significant b. researchable

c. Feasible d. Clear

40. A researcher is investigating the problem “Does a participative leadership style influence
job satisfaction or performance”? What is the dependent variable in this statement?
a. Influence b. participative leadership
c. Job satisfaction d. superior officers

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41. One of the following is a function of a research hypothesis
a. Makes the goals of the study clear and specific b. Analyse the study
c. Expands the literature search d. Describes database of the study

42. What is a variable in relation to research?

a. Any step in a research process that leads to a conclusion
b. Any problem of research that cannot be resolved
c. Any concept that can make two or more values
d. Any term in research that donates quality
43. In any research the dependent variable is the variable which......
a. Dominates the study’s objective b. Is not manipulated in the study
c. Can foretell the outcome of the study d. Causes changes in other variables
44. From what two sources does research usually formulate research problem?
a. Grouping subjects and interviewing children
b. Supporting other research and comparing notes
c. Replicating research and applying theory
d. Bringing some investigators together and writing books

45. Only one of the following is not a characteristics of a good research problem
a. Feasibility b. complexity c. Clarity d. importance

46. For a research question to be useful, it should.............

a. Indicate what exactly is being investigated b. Measure the extent of the research
c. Describe the nature of the study d. Ensure that everybody can answer it

47. A significant research question is that which..............

a. Is worthy of investigation b. Provides avenues formore studies
c. Indicates the .importance of the result d. Signifies the terminalpoint of thestudy
48. The following techniques can be used to analyse data meaningfully except:
a. Content analyse b. inferential statistics
c. Contest statistics d. descriptive statistics
49. In conducting a meaningful, systematic research, the investigator must prepare at the
onset a...
a. Project b. plane c.Programme d.proposal
50. Which of the following provide direction to research?
a. Hypothesis and objectives b. hypothesisandproblemstatement
c. Variables and any hypothesis
51. The statement of the researcher of the research problem is necessarily preceded by
in the
a. Research report b. background information
c. Research questions d. research designe. Methodological considerations

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 52. Which of the following best describes the circular nature of scientific investigation?
a. It starts with problem identification
b. It involves hypothesis/research questions
c. It involves data collection and interpretation
d. It ends with answers and identification

53. The process of research is not strictly compartmentalized into stages which prevents
referring back and forth. This means scientific investigation is not
a. Horizontal b.vertical c. diagonal d.cyclical
54. An in-depth study and analytical description of behaviours which occur naturally in a
specific
a. Culture is b. ecolography
c. Ethnography d. ecology e. Cultural studies
55. Researchers who rely heavily on numerical data is drawing conclusion conduct
a. Qualitative research b. historical research
c. Quantitative research d. ethnographic research
56. Basic research is to the development of theories as Applied Research is to.....
a. Decision making b. testing theories
c. Generalizations d. conclusions
57. My first step in the conduct of a quantitative research would be to identify....
a. Participants in the study b. phenomena of interest
c. Research assistants d. data analysts and respondents
58. Where would you place review of the related literature in your final research report?
a. First chapter b. second chapter
c. Third chapter d. fourth chapter
59. Which of the following aspects of the research report is a source of motivation for
reading the entire report?
a. Purpose of the study b.hypotheses c. Abstract d.
conclusion
60. The introductory chapter of the research proposal is sometimes captioned
a. Purpose of the study b. delimitation of the study
c. Terms used in the study d. discarded elements of the study

61. The elements of the research topic which are consciously eliminated from
considerations are discussed under in the research report.
a. Limitation of the study b. delimitation of the study
c. Terms used in the study d. discarded elements of the study
62. In the conduct of research, age family status, income levels political preference are
example of the
a. Design b. Data c. Variables d. Variations

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 63. As a researcher, Iwould state a clear and concise research problemas part of my study
to provide
a. Focus to the sample b. clues to the participants
c. Direction to the study d. conclusion for the study

64. A researcher question which is worth investigating can be described as.....

a. Feasible b. significant c. Clear d. ethnical
65. Reading of expect opinions and findings of studies which provide context another
study can be termed
a. Conceptual context b. theoretical context
c. Literature review d. research contest
66. A description of a study prepared by someone other than the original researcher
provides
a. Theoreticalsource of information b. secondarysource of information
b. Empirical source of information

Identify the source of knowledge by matching items in column I with those in Column II
of question 67 - 70.
I II
67. The palm nut soap was more tasty than the A. Logic
68. I heard the shrill light
voicesoup
just as John reported B. Sensory experience
A psychologist and an educational counselor
69. spoke to the JHS two student at the career C. Agreement with other
conference
Basic School teachers in Ghana use chalk.
70. Joyce is a basic school teacher in Ghana. Joyce D. Expert opinion
therefore uses chalk
71. In research, how would you describe variable which do not in degree and quantity but
are qualitatively different?
a. Continuous b. Confounding c. Dependent d. Categorical

72. The following important functions are fulfilled through of literatures EXCEPT...........
a. Provision of research ideas b. exposure towhat is know
c. Acceptance of null hypotheses
73. Which of these is not a characteristic of the descriptive design?
a. Quantitative and qualitative in nature
b. Hypothesis formulation and testing
c. Questions and answers giving a picture of situations
d. Randomization to prevent replication

74. The proportion of the universe for observation and analysis in a study is referred to as the
a. Population b. target c. Sample d. group
75. To ensure generalist ability of findings in quantitative study, select the percentage for

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 appropriate sample
a. 10% to 20% b. 10% to 30% c. 10% to 40% d. 5% to 10%
76. Distinguish a non-secondary source of literature from the following:
a. Professional journal b. encyclopedia of educational research
c. Yearbooks d. text books

77. The conclusion demanded by descriptive research is...................

a. Causal - comparative b. casual c. Relational d. current status of
phenomena
78. Only one of the following is not a step in qualitative research
a. Generating research questions b.collecting data
c. Surveying the field for in advance d.identifying theissue to be studied
79. One major purpose of educational research concerns
a. Bringing checks and balances in the school system
c. Making education open to every citizen
d. Identifying problems in education and finding solution to them
80. Improvement of practice through evaluation of existing ones is related to one of the
following
a. Qualitative research b. educational research
c. Experimental research d. basic research
81. Which of the following is most consistent with the scientific approach as a source of
knowledge
a. Verifying the data by examining the consistency between what has been done in the
past and how it needs to be done now
b. The difference between personal experience and systematic investigation
c. Objectivity in observation and replication of results
d. Expert analysis of existing information
82. A hypothesis is.....................................................
a. An aspect of scientific inquiry b. An informal hunch about probable results
c. Followed by theories in a subject aread. The goal of the researcher

83. Suppose a teacher wanted to investigate the effect of using a new technique to teach
mathematics on mathematics achievement. His/her research could be described as
a. Basic, experimental and qualitative
b. Applied, experimental and qualitative
c. Action, experimental and qualitative
d. Evaluation, non-experimental and qualitative
84. A distinguishing feature about a variable is that it
a. Is independent or dependent b. Is continuous or categorical
c. Varies in relation to defined characteristics
d. Contains different values or amounts
85.Which section of the research proposal considers the aspects of the problem that the

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 study is going to focus and those aspects that will not be covered?
a. Delimitation b. limitation
c. Preliminary definition of terms d. significance of the study

86. In the introductory of part of a research proposal, the statement of the problem is
proceeded by the
a. Background information b. purpose of the study
c. Research questions/hypothesis d. significance of the study
87. In methodology part of the research reports begin with the
a. Population b. sample c. Design d.instrument
88. The review of literature is useful for
a. Resolving contradictory findings
b. Introducing the methodology to be used in the study
c. Defining the frontiers of the field
d. Confirming or disconfirming a theory

89. Research entails the following with the exception of

a. Problem identification b. disability referencing
c. Data collection d. interpretation of results

90. Which of the following is NOT applicable to qualitative research?

a. Data are collection in the form of words or pictures
b. Data are analysed deductively
c. Researchers are concerned with process as well as product
d. Researchers are concerned with how people make sense of their lives

91. Which of the following would you regard as the most appropriate definition of research?
a. Looking for the meaning of a word
b. Scientific inquiry into a problem
c. Gathering facts on an issue
d. Predicting the occurrence of a phenomena
92. Research always begins with:...................................
a. Fact finding b. problem solving c. A problem d. data collection
93. To the lay man a research only involves
a. Application of information b. discovering new knowledge

c. Establishing relationships d. collecting facts about an issue

94. Real researchers consider the information they give out as reliable and accurate
because they obtain such information through
a. Sensory experience b. expert opinion
c. Scientific method d. agreement withothers

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 95. The method of obtaining information that involves answering questions through
systematic data collection and analysis is referred to as
a. Systems approach b. expert opinion
c. The scientific method d. formative method
96. Which of the following is not a purpose of educational research?
a. Development of a theory
b. Improvement of the practice of education
c. Contribution to knowledge about education
d. Provision of justification for children’s behaviour
97. When conducting educational research in Ghana, one is often confronted with the
following problems, except
a. People’s inability to understand research issues due to illiteracy
b. Lack of avenues to publish research findings
c. Lack of financial support
d. Belief among certain cultures that secrets should not be divulged
98. Information obtained through our sense may be unreliable mainly because
a. Our sense ate too few b. People have weak senseorgans
c. Data from our senses are incomplete d. Information fromoursensesdo not last long
99. Which is the basic ethical question for researchers to consider?
a. Will any physical or psychological harm come to anyone as a result of my research?
b. Will my research findings be accepted by all those who read my report?
c. Will there be enough funds to carry through the project?
d. Will there be enough data for the research project?

100. Which is the basic ethical question for all researchers to consider?
a. Will any physical or psychological harm come to anyone as a result of my research?
b. Will my research findings be accepted by all those who read my report?
c. Will there be enough funds to carry through the project?
d. Will there be enough data for the research project?
101. A researcher is interested in gathering large scale data in order to make
generalizations. The best methodology to adopt for such a study is
a. Experimental research
b. survey research
c. Causal comparative research
102. Researchers can manipulate a factor and then observe what happens to the response
of the subject as a result. This refers to the
a. Experimental research b. evaluation research
c. Action research d. applied research

103. Research entails the following with the exception of

a. Problem identification b. disability referencing

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 c. Data collection d. interpretation of results
104. The methodology chapter of a research report informs the researcher about
a. How the researcher questions of the study were formulated
b. How the research study was carried out
c. The purpose of the study
d. The background to the study
105. Research instruments refer to the following with the exception of
a. Quota b. interview c. Observation d. questionnaire
106. A research data may be edited to
a. Categorize the data
b. Develop a scoring procedure to guide the researcher
c. Identify and correct mistakes in the data
d. Reduce the lest of codes of manageable themes
107. The section of the research report which deals with the research design is the
a. Review of literature b. conclusion and recommendation
e. c. Analysis d. methodology
108. The introductory section of the research report should clearly indicate the following except
a. Research questions b. limitation to the study
c. Data collection procedure d. problem to be investigated

109. The section of the research report that presents inferences derived from the finding is
known as
a. Conclusions b. results
c. Summary d. Recommendations
110. The review of literature is useful for
a. Resolving contradictory finding
b. Introducing the methodology to be used in the study
c. Defining the frontiers of the field
d. Confirming or disconfirming a theory

111 .The abstract should accurately, completely and concisely capture following
essentials of the study except
a. Result of the study b. methodology used
c. Implications d. themes reviewed
112. Research is developing countries encounters the following difficulties except
a. Scanty statistics b. illiteracy
c. Lack of financial support d. many researchers

113. The statement that any difference between obtained sample statistics and specific
population parameters is due to sampling error or chance is known as the

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 a. Deductive hypothesis b. inductive hypothesis
c. Null hypothesis d. research hypothesis
114. Which type of research emphasizes measurement of variables and their relationships?
a. Applied research b. basic research
c. Qualitative research d. quantitative research
115. Which of the following does not form part of the classification of research types?
a. Basic research b. secondary research
c. Applied research d. action research

116. Which of the following is not a basic component of a research proposal?

a. Introduction b.time schedule c. Conclusion d. budget
117. One difference between a descriptive survey and a causal-comparative research is that,
in...
a. Causal comparative study, the researcher manipulates at least a variable out the
descriptive search does not manipulate a variable
b. Descriptive research, the researcher varies conditions for sub-groups of the study
but this is not the case in the causal comparative study
c. Be established in the descriptive research but be established in the causal comparative
study
d. Causal-comparative study relations can be established but in descriptive survey this does
not take place

118. In causal comparative study, comparison groups are

a. Set by the researcher b. already in existence
b. Described by the respondents c. obtained random assignment

119. Most causal-comparative studies begin with

a. Measurement of the independent variable
b.Assignment of subjects to treatment group
c. Known differences among two or more groups
d.Description of variables in the study
120. Experimental research is the most powerful method for
a. Determining cause and effect relationships
b.Identifying important dependent variables
c. Identifying possible relationships
d.Generalizing the results of the study
121. Opinion of experts in a field of study is not of interest to the researcher in
reviewing related literature.
a. True b. False
122. Which of the following factors should not influence the decision when selecting a
problem for research?
a. Is the problem amendable?

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 b.Will I be able to prove that my previously held beliefs are true?
c. Will solution to the problem advance knowledge in my field?
d.Will the study lead to the development of other investigations?

123. Delimitation refers to the

a. Limitations of the study b. geographical areas of study
c. Current status of phenomenon d. confines of the study
124. We use the results obtained from a sample to
a. Generalize to the population b. stratify the sample
c. Select a convenient sample d.identify the subjects used in the study
125. Which of the following is most consistent with the scientific approach as a source of
knowledge?
a. Expert analysis of existing information
b.The difference between personal experience and systematic investigation
c. Objectivity in observation and replication of results

126. Which of the following types of research emphasizes measurement of variables

and their relationships?
a. Applied research b. basic research
c. Qualitative research d. quantitative

127. Which of the following sampling procedures require a sampling frame?

a. Convenience b. purposive c. Quota d. stratified
128. In writing a project report, which of the following is appropriate?
a. Logical presentation of ideas b. use of personal pronouns
c. Use of one sentence paragraph

129. In the project report, which of the following pages comes last?
a. Abstract b. declaration page c. Title page
130. Which section of a project work puts the issue investigated into perspective?
a. Background statement b. limitations of study c. Significance
118. Generally, the methodology chapter of a project should be written in the project
report be written in the present tense
a. True b. False
119. Chapter four of a project report is concerned with the
a. Findings and conclusions
b. Results and discussion of results
c. Results and recommendations based on the results
120. Where in the project report will you place the reference list?
a. After the appendices b. after the table of contents
c. After the main body

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121. A random sampling procedure that is typical of all probability sampling procedures
is a. Cluster sampling b. convenience sampling
c. Simple random sampling d. stratified sampling
122. The following are characteristics of the scientific method except
a. Verification b. unwillingness to alter beliefs
c. Precision d. control of biases

123. The review of literature is useful for

a. Resolving contradictory findings
b. Introducing the methodology to be used in the study
c. Defining the frontiers of the field
d. Confirming or disconfirming a theory
124. Mail questionnaire are used to collect data in a descriptive research when
a. The sample of study can read and write
b. The postal system is efficient
c. There is no need to explain the questionnaire to subjects
d. All the above
125. When research improve practice by evaluating educational practice, it is
a. Experimental research b. basic research
c. Educational research d. applied research
126. The aim of research is to
a. Demonstrate the extent of our reading skills
b. Allay the fears of others by denying rumours
c. Focus attention on problems of the environment
d. Increase knowledge and understanding issues

127. When our views are based on real facts, we are being
a. Inductive b.truthful c. Objective d. precise
128. Which one of the following properly defines research?
a. Collecting data from the environment
b. Using systematic scientific steps to establish a fact
c. Solving a problems by explaining what it entails
d. Looking for a lost article in a room
129. One of the following is not a characteristics of research
a. Deals with facts and their meanings
b. Insists on first hand information
c. Demands a clear statement of the problem
d. Seeks direction through question or hypotheses
130. All the following except one are problems associated with research
a. Illiteracy b. secrecy c. Verification d. scanty statistics

131. In the event of a researcher collecting data in the form of words or pictures rather

81
 than numbers, he is said to be undertaking
a. Qualitative research b. quantitative research
c. Elementary research d. advanced research

145...............is the most trusted means by which we can know

a. Scientific method b. logic
c. Expert opinion d. sensory experience

146. What is the importance of a research proposal?

a. Provides means by which supervisors criticize the project
b. Provides basis for evaluation of the project
c. Provides avenues by which the candidate can argue his point
d. Provides the adviser the means to accept or reject the work

147. This section of the proposal describes the conditions beyond the control of the
researcher what may place restrictions on the conclusions of the study and their
application to other situations,
a. Purpose of the study b. significance of the study
c. Limitations of the study d. statement of the problem

148. Identify the two traditions of research

a. Versatility and probability b. quantitative and relativity
c. Objectivity and versatility d. qualitative and quantitative

149. This section of the research plan or proposal concerns itself with the research
design, population and sampling procedures.
a. Methodology b. conclusions
c. Background to the study d. literature review

150. A research whose data are strictly based on figures and statistical measurements is
said to be...
a. Elementary research b. quantitative research
c. Qualitative research d. advanced research
151. One major purpose of educational research concerns............
a. Bringing checks and balance in the school system
b. Financing educationists to expand education
c. Making education open to every citizen
d. Identifying problems in education and finding solution

152. Inability to replicate research from developed countries is mainly due to

a. Inadequate transportation b. paucity of willing researchers
c. Lack of financial support d. unsympathetic governments

153. Qualitative research is characterized by one of the following

a. Concerns itself with process as well as product
b. Data is analysed deductively
c. The contrived setting is the direct source of data

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 d. Data in the form numbers are preferred

154. Improvement of practice through evaluation of existing ones is related to one of the
following
a. Basic research b. experimental research
c. Qualitative research d. educational research
155. One major purpose of educational research concerns
a. Identifying problems in education and finding solution to them
b. Making education open to every citizen
c. Financing educationists to expand education
d. Encouraging children to attend school

156. A section of the research report that indicates the problem that was studied, the
population and sample as well as results and major conclusion is called the
a. Overview b. abstract c. Analysis d. discussion

157. The theoretical review and the empirical review are the major aspects of this
section of there search proposal
a. Statement of the problem b. discussion of results
c. Review of literature d. background to the study

158. One of the following usually forms part to the ‘Appendices’ of the report.
a. Research questions
b. Graphs and diagrams that appear in the analysis
c. Tables that have very little to do with the study
d. Materials which are related to the research but not included in the actual report

159. The significance of the study section of a research proposal depicts

a. The assumptions underlying the study b. the direction of the research
c. The outcome of the research d. Who will benefit or gain from the study

160. Which of the following spells the end of the introductory chapter of the proposal?
a. Summary b. overview of the study
c. Hypotheses construction d. conclusions drawn from the study

161. The general term applied to publications that contains descriptions of educational
research by an author who was not a direct observer or participant
a. First-hand information b. primary source
c. Secondary source d. educational index

162. Which of these is not a role of related literature in research project?

a. Clarifying contradictory results b. defining thefrontiers of the field
c. Avoiding unintentional replication d. placing the question in perspective

163. At what point, during the research project should the researcher survey the
literature and studies conducted on the chosen topic?
a. During the search for research question

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 b. After the introductory chapter
c. As soon as the research problem has been selected
d. After the research or has returned from the field

164. Which of the following items is not part of the front pages of a research report?
a. Title b. acknowledgement c. Reference d. abstract

165. Which data collection technique would be most appropriate when one is dealing
with young children in a study?
a. Questionnaire b. abstract
c. Review of related literature d. summary

166. Which of the following is not part of the research proposal?

a. Methodology b. abstract
c. Review of related literature d. summary
167. The range measures the
a. Highest score obtained in a test b. Lowestscore obtained in a test
c. The midpoint in a distribution
d. Difference between the highest and lowest score in a distribution
168. In which type of sampling does each of the elementary units of the universe have a
chance of being selected?
a. Stratified random sampling b. simple random sampling
c. Cluster sampling d. systematic random sampling

169. An example of non-probability sampling is

a. Snowball sampling b. systematic random sampling
c. Stratified random sampling d. simple random sampling

170. The scores of 12 students in an English test were as follows: 27, 27, 28, 39, 49, 45,
65, 70, 81, 56, 72, and 36.
a. 39 b.29 c. 59 d. 49
171. Which of the following is a measure of central tendency?
a. Correlation coefficient b. standard score
c. Median d. standard deviation
172. The type of hypothesis that is formed from generalization based on observation is
known as
a. Inductive hypothesis b. deductive hypothesis
c. Declarative hypothesis d. null hypothesis
173.. A statement of predicted outcomes of the study is called
a. Null hypothesis b. research hypothesis
c. Research problem d. statistical hypothesis

174. The acceptable range of the sample size for most qualitative studies is between
a. 10% - 20% b. 10% - 30% c. 20% - 30 d. 20% - 40%

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175. The following are problems of research except
a. Lack of knowledge b. illiteracy
c. Lack of financial support d. secrecy
176. Those conditions beyond the control of the researcher that may place restrictions
on the conclusion of the study and their application to other situation are termed as
a. Limitations b. delimitation
c. Research problems d. statement of the problem
177. Which of the following is a source of a research problem?
a. Applying theory b. current books and journals
c. Replication d. all of the above
178. Educational Research can be defined as:
a. Empirical methods of data generation and analysis in education
b. A way of generating solution to educational problems
c. A systematic method of gathering and interpreting information regarding
educational phenomena
d. Different methods applied to educational issues
179. Which of the following is not a feature in research?
a. Research begins with identifying problem b. research demands a plan
c. Research is cyclical d. research vertical
180. Which of the following types of research can be undertaken by a classroom teacher
to solve teaching and learning problems?
a. Applied research b. action research
c. Basic research d. valuation research
181 .The methodology section of a research proposal describes the following except....
a. Applied research b. action research
c. Basic research d. non-experimental research
182. The part of literature review which puts the current research into perspective to
show the state of the art is
a. Methodological review b. abstract review
c. Theoretical review d. empirical review
183. A researcher decides to study the perception of J.H.S teachers in the Ho
municipality towards the use of continuous assessment. What type of design is it?
a. Case study design b. causal comparative design
c. Descriptive design d. qualitative design
184. Which data collection technique would be most appropriate when he is dealing
with young children?
a. Questionnaire b. interview
c. Observation d. experimentation
185. In the single-group pretest-posttest design, the most significant threat to internal
validity is usually

85
 a. Selection b. statistical regression
c. Experiment bias d. history
186. This type of hypothesis is a generalization based on observation
a. Deductive hypothesis b. declarative hypothesis
c. Null hypothesis d. inductive hypothesis
187. A repetition of an original study using different subjects in different situation or
changing specified aspects of the original is
a. Duplication b. replication
c. Complication d. repetition
188. Which type of research warrants the formulation of research hypothesis?
a. Historical research b. qualitative statement
c. Introduction d. bibliography

189. Which type of the following is not necessary in literature review

a. Summary b. problem statement
c. Quantitative research d. bibliography
190. A secondary source in literature review consists of
a. Education index published by American Psychological Association
b. Publications in which authors describe the work of others
c. Publications in which researchers report the results of their own investigations
d. Sources a researcher consults to locate other sources
191. Those publications in which researchers report the results of their own
investigations are referred to as
a. General references b. primary sources
c. Secondary sources d. educational index
192. The most essential characteristic of a researchable question is that
a. It is able to elicit the sort of information required
b. It should make the respondents think seriously before answering it
c. It should be possible to formulate it in many different ways
d. It should bring about positive relationship between the researcher and the subject
193. The significance of a research question is mainly determined by
a. The case with which data can be gathered through it
b. The knowledge it contributes to human condition
c. The processes in which the study is done
d. The number of subjects who participate in the study
194. All subjects in a research study need to be assured that
a. They will be paid handsomely
b. The research findings will be part to good use
c. Any data collected about them will be held in confidence
d. All data collected will be documented for future use
195. A problem is said to be researching when

86
 a. It involves two or more variables
b. Its solution can help improve the educational process
c. It is possible to collect data to solve the problem
d. It does not involve physical and psychological harm to humans
196. The non-acknowledgment of works of other writers used by a researcher in a
current study is described as
a. Plundering b. academic dishonestly
c. Piggyism d. plagiarism
197. Which of these is NOT a research instrument?
a. Interview b.Questionnaire c.Guide d. observation

198. The essential elements of the preliminary part of a thesis/project report does not
include
a. Abstract b. list of table and figures c. Proposal d. title page
199. In the use of this scale in research, numbers give more information but do not
allow mathematical operations
a. Interval scale b. ratio scale c. Weighing scale d. ordinal scale

200. In a research report, location, sex, marital status and teaching experience are
categorized under
a. Methodology b. subjects c. Variables d. conclusion
201. Inability to replicate research from developed countries is mainly due to
a. Inadequate transportation b. paucity of willing researchers
c. Lack of financial support d. unsympathetic governments
202. Heavy reliance on numbers, measurements and experiments is the chief
characteristic of one of the following
a. Inductive research b. basic research
c. Educational research d. experimental research
203. When a researcher believes that there are facts with objective reality that can be
expressed in numbers, his research efforts will yield data
a. Qualitative b. quantitative c. Inductive d. subjective
204. Probability sampling is to random sampling as non-probability sampling is to
a. Accidental sampling b. systematic sampling
c. Simple random sampling d. cluster random sampling
In questions 205 - 208 match each item in column 1 with the best choice in column 2.
205.Correlation coefficient a. measure of central tendency
206.Standard score b. measure of variability
207.Median c. measure of relationship
208.Standard deviation d. measure of relative position

209.A researcher is always interested in finding information on key issues such as ages,

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gender, performance, etc of participants. Such key issues on which information is
gathered constitute
a. Data b. variables c. socio d. frequency
210.Which of the following topics suggest relationships?
a. Do students who score high marks in English also score high marks in
mathematics?
b. Using devolution method to teach multiplication
c. What teachers dislike about the new educational reforms
d. Religious affiliations of first year students of U.E.W.

211.In a study a researcher had the following hypothesis: Method A is more effective
than Method B, Which type of hypothesis is this?
a. Null hypothesis b. non-directional hypothesis
c. directional hypothesis d. significant hypothesis

212.The best way to clarity ambiguous or unclear terms in an educational research project
involves the use of
a. Dictionary definition b. comparing relationships
c. Operational definition d. reflection and analysis

213.Which of the following guideline should a researcher using children participants

observe?
a. Giving them food containing the necessary vitamins
b. Paying them adequately to cover the entire period
c. Seeking informed consent of parents or guardians
d. Conducting the study in the evening only

214.A reliable instrument in a research is the one that

a. Gives consistent results
b. Protects the privacy of participants
c. Facilitates easy comparison of individuals
d. Can easily be analyzed by the computer

215.One characteristic researchers are to eliminate from the judgments they make about
their findings is
a. Subjectivity b. objectivity c. Reliability d. validity

216.The most important consideration in the choice of an instrument to be used in a

research investigation is
a. Reliability b. validity c. Simplicity d. mobility
217.Which of the following is true about the positively skewed distribution of scores in
an experimental research?
a. The median is less than the mean b. the mean is less than the median
c. The mean is less than themode d. the mode is more than the median

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218.The type of research whose main purpose is to help develop theories is
a. Action research b. applied research
c. Evaluation research d. basic research
219.The main criterion considered in evaluating the suitability of questionnaire items in a
research is
a. Comprehensiveness b. reliability
c. Frequency d. generalizability
220.Which of the following is an example of categorical variables?
a. Gender of teachers b. amount of time watching television
c. Aptitude in science d. height in inches

221. The blue print that outlines how a particular research project will be conducted is the
a. Research design b. research proposal
c. Research hypothesis d. research methodology
222. Which of the following should not necessarily be considered important in
evaluating the relevance of a researcher’s literature review?
a. The extent to which it establishes the significance of the current study
b. Provision of logical basis of hypothesis for the current study
c. Objective analysis and summaries of previous studies
d. Whether there are more secondary sources than primary sources
223.In a research report, the research design is usually described in
a. Chapter three b. chapter two
c. Chapter one d. chapter five
224. The research design is usually best described as
a. The questions that the research deals with
b. The methods that will be used in selecting the sample
c. Plants to be used in collecting data to answer the research questions
d. The problems that the research is trying to solve
225. The overall plan for collecting data in order to answer the research question is
referred to as
a. Descriptive design b. research design
c. Data collecting tools d. sampling procedures
226. The sampling procedure developed to study members of a gang or group difficult
to identify is
a. Quota sampling b. systematic sampling
c. Stratified sampling d. snowball sampling

227.The questions ‘how are you? Is an example of

a. Specific question b. direct question
c. Non-specific question d. fact-eliciting question
228.In what section of the research proposal is the researcher expected to give and

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 exposition for the topic selected and the reasons for choosing the topic?
a. Objectives of the study b. statement of the problem
c. Significance of the study d. background of the topic
229.The kinds of information researchers obtain on the subject of their research from the
field are termed as
a. Data b. devices c. Sample d. techniques
230.Which data collection technique/tool is particularly advantageous to use when the
sample size is very large?
a. Interview b. questionnaire c. Observation d. rating scale

231.Which of the following is not an example of categorical variables?

a. Class achievement b. blood type c.Marital status d. sex
232.Which of these appropriately defines a research problem?
a. A concept that can take two or more values
b. A question for which you want to seek an answer
c. A condition beyond the control of the researcher
d. A plan for systematic action
233.Which of these is not a characteristic of a good hypothesis?
a. It must be able to exhaust the problem b. It should be reasonable
c. It should be researchable d. It should be consistent with known facts

234.Activities designed to discover facts and relationships that will make knowledge
more effective is termed as
a. Research b. data analysis c. Educational research d. hypothesis

235.The purpose of educational research is to.......... ,

a. Collect data on educational phenomena
b. Determine educational phenomena
c. State educational phenomena
d. Understand and explain educational phenomena

236.Educational research can be defined as

a. a way of generating solutions to educational issues
b. a systematic method of interpreting information regarding educational phenomena
c. different methods applied to educational issues
d. understand of data generating and analysis in education

237.The following statements are characteristics of a good research except

a. research demands application of educational theories
b. research demands using a replication
c. researching requires clear statement of problem
d. research is to use reason and common sense to generalize

238.The method of knowing which involves observing specific instances and then
generalizing from the instances is known as

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 a. Deductive b. inductive c. Syllogism d. observation

239.The following are characteristics of the scientific method except

a. Subjectivity b. precision c. Verification d. validation

240.Research is promoted by one of the following:

a. The hypothesis b. the plan c. The findings d. the problem
241.Which of the following is the acceptable range of the sample size for most qualitative
studies?
a. 20% - 40% b. 20% - 30% c. 10% - 20% d. 10% - 30%

242.In the event of sub-group comparisons being critical in a research, which of these
sampling procedures would you adopt to ensure acceptable representation of sub-
universe?
a. Simple random sampling b. probability sampling
c. Stratified random sampling d. systematic randomsampling

243.To ensure reasonable length of responses and validity in terms of representativeness

of returns, which of the following will adopt in your studies?
a. Open questions b. closed questions
c. Mixed interference d. tested questions

244.“How will the supply of a laptop computer to each university student in Ghana affect
their achievement?”the problem with this research question is that it is
a. Not significant b. not feasible c. Unethical d. notclear

245.The process of assembling and keeping data accurately and securely to make it easy
to use is
a. Data analysis b. data evaluation
c. Data cleaning d. data management
246.Coding in research is the process
a. Of identifying respondents in a study
b. Of assembling and keeping data accurately
c. In which completed instruments and statements are translated in numbers
d. Of proving accurate and reliable information

247.A prediction of the possible outcome of a study is

a. Research question b. hypothesis c.Data analysis d. statistics
248.A numeric or graphic way of summarizing data from a population is
a. Statistic b. interval c. Parameter d. frequency
249.The commonest measure of variability used in educational research is the
a. Range b. variance c. Standard deviation d. limitations
250.In a research report, those conditions beyond the control of the researcher and which
affect the conclusion are
a. Delimitation b. hypothesis c. Appendices d. limitations

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251 .The centre for distance education has assembled your assignment and exam scores
for the last semester for analysis. How would you describe the scores as a researcher?
a. Results • b. marks c. Sample d. data

252.The statement by a researcher that “Teacher learning by DE mode should be

supposed financially by Government for combining work and studies” is a
a. Recommendation b. conclusion c. Finding d. summary

253. A sample size which over-or under-represents the target population from which
the sub-group was selected is said to be
a. Unsystematic b. biased c. Non-stratified d. unbiased

254. Which are the two forms of administering questionnaire?

a. Individual administration and mailing
b. Individual and group administration
c. Personal administration and mailing d. Immediate collection and later collection

255. This section of the research report acknowledges source of opinions, points of
view and generalization
a. Conclusion b. reference c. Summary d. conclusion

256. Probability sampling is to random sampling as non-probability sampling is to

a. Accidental sampling b. systematic sampling
d. Simple random sampling d. cluster random sampling

257.What minimum sample size would be acceptable in correlational study?

a. 10 b. 20 c. 30 d. 50
258.When the results of a correlational study is near .00 then the variables are
a. Not related b. positively related
c. Negatively related d. related

259.What is the mean of the following scores obtained by students in a maths class: 50,
50, 30, 20, and 50.
a. 50 b. 40 c. 30 d. 20

260.The type of hypothesis which uses observation as the basis for generalizationis
a. Deductive hypotheses b. inductive hypotheses
c. Directional hypotheses d. alternative hypotheses
261.The difference between directional and non-directional hypotheses is that non-
directional
a. Makes projection of the exact nature of the association
b. States the nature of the expected relationship
c. Is used when the researcher anticipates the specific outcome of the study
d. Is stated when the researcher is not sure about the nature of relationship

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262.“Upper primary children like school less than lower primary children but more than
J.H.S. students” what type of hypotheses is this?
a. Non-directional b. directional
c. Null hypotheses d. statistical hypotheses
263.Which of the following is not a characteristic of good hypotheses?
a. It should be stated in a question form
b. It should be empirically testable
c. It should be consistent with known facts
d. The result should contribute to an established body of knowledge
264.One reason why researcher conducts historical research is to
a. Assess the performance of educational policy
b. It gives insight into the circumstances for the current educationalsystem and
practices
c. It affords researcher opportunity to assess their methodof research
d. It encourages other to engage in research
265.Which of the following is a common criticism of historical research?
a. It over rely on primary source for data
b. It over rely on secondary source of data
c. It draws relationship between past and present
d. It does not involve systematic data collection
266.Which of the following documents can be described as a source?
a. A review of a book in journal
b. A preface by an author in a textbook
c. A scholarly textbook
d. A report written by an investigator
267.Educational research can be defined as
a. A systematic approach to gathering and interpreting information
b. A way of generating solutions to problems
c. Empirical methods of data generation and analysis
d. Embarking on fact finding mission

268.Variables are said to be positively correlated when the co-efficient is hear

a. +1.00 b. +100 c. -1000 d.10.00

269.Which of these variables represents a normal scale?

a. Age b. reading readiness
c. Reading success d. sex

270.The following scores were available for 9 studies in research methods class 18, 20,
15, 13, 12, 10, 8, 17, 21. The score for the 10 th student was missing but it was later known
to be the lowest score. What would be the median for the distribution?
a. 13 b. 14 c. 14 d. it cannot be determined

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271.Consider the three measures of location-mean, median and mode. Which measure is
affected most by extreme score?
a. Mean b. Median c. Mode d. None of them
272. Research reports are very much affected by the following except
a. Ethical considerations
b. The purpose of the report
c. Cause and effect of the topic
d. The nature of the readers for whom the report is prepared
273. Which of the following statements is not true about the t-test?
a. It is a ratio test b. Itis and interval test
c. It is a parametric d.It is employed when more than two variables are studied

274. What is the range of the following scores?

a. 32 b.43 c. 48 d. 58

275. Which of the following statements is true about correlational research

a. It studies whether and to what extent or degree of relationship exists between two
or more quantitative variables
b. It is costly and time consuming than other types of research
c. It involves the observation of individual unit
d. The researchers manipulates one variable so that he can control the other variable
276.Usually research hypotheses are formulated when a study is more or less
a. Qualitative b.quantitative c. Statistical d.directional

277....Research entails the following with the exception of.

a. Problem identification
b. disability referencing
c. Data collection
d. interpretation of results
278....The methodology chapter of a research report informs the researcher about
a. How the research questions of the study were formulated
b. How the research study was carried out
c. The purpose of the study
d. The background to the study

279....Research instruments refer to the following with the exception of.

a. Quota b. interview c.Observation d. questionnaire
280....A research data may be edited ……………
a. Categorize the data
b. Develop a scoring procedure to guide the researcher
c. Identify and correct mistakes in the data
d. Reduce the list of codes of manageable themes

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 SECTION B ESSAY QUESTIONS
1. a) Discuss three major problems that hinder the successful conduct of educational
research.
ANS: Major problems associated with the conduct of research
 Illiteracy: Research demands collecting data from respondents more often than
not through the use of questionnaire. Yet most Ghanaians are illiterate hence vital
information may not be retrieved through the use of questionnaire and other
research instruments. The problem of illiteracy therefore affects the results of
research.
 Secrecy: Like most African countries, Ghanaians tend to have a special liking for
secrecy. As a result they feel reluctant to give vital information that otherwise
would be for public consumption is considered a secret. In the same vein, people
have reservations on questions such as ‘do you sleep on mattress?’etc. the
prejudice against these types of questions from one whose intentions are not very
clear is translated into prejudice against research as a whole.
 Scanty Statistics: Research is still at its infancy stage due to the fact that most
background data are not readily available. For a successful research work there must
be availability of statistics to support it. Yet in developing countries like Ghana,
keeping of reliable statistics is woefully inadequate. For example, if one is carrying
out a research work on teachers he finds it difficult to get available information on
teachers in a particular educational district office.
 Lack of Financial Support: One of the most serious problems facing educational
research is lack of financial support. Yet, this facility is not forth coming making
researchers unable to replicate researchers done in developed countries. Many policy
makers in this region think that it is a waste of resources pumping money into
research instead of looking at adequate transport, water supply, electricity, etc.
 Apart from these problems are lack of research skills, limited demand for research
scholars and the prejudice that African University researchers do not have much
application for this research.

b) For what two (2) purposes is research in education conducted?

ANS: i) Educational research helps to identify problems in the educational system
and finds solutions to them.
ii) Educational research contributes to knowledge about educational issues
iii) Educational research helps in the development of theory.
iv) Educational research improves the practice of education through the evaluation
of existing practice.

2. a) Identify and explain five (5) purposes of literature review

in research ANS: i) Literature review serves as a source of
research ideas
ii) It serves as orientation to what is already known
iii) Review of related literature helps researchers to delimit the research the
problem

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 iv) Provision of conceptual context
v) Information on research approach
vi) Interpretation of the significance of results

b) Explain “Theoretical and Empirical Reviews” in research.

ANS: Theoretical Review: it is the first part of literature review in which you review
writings and research in other fields that forma base on which your own research may
be founded. Empirical review sets the current research into perspective to show the
state of the fart. It shows how your present research fits into the whole scheme of
things.
3. a) What is a variable in relation to educational research?
ANS: A variable is any concept that can take two or more values, for example, sex
(male and female) and marital status (single, married, divorced, widened, separated)
other examples are age, family status, income, education, social class and
achievement.
A variable is thus a type of concept or characteristic that a type of concept or
characteristic that can take on different values or have categories.
b) Describe the function of variables in the process of conduction research.

4. a) State and discuss three (3) points to bear in mind order to construct a good
questionnaire for a study.
ANS: i) The number of question should be kept at a minimum.
ii) Questions should short and clear.
iii) Offensive questions should be avoided
iv) Influential or leading questions should not be used
v) Questions should be easy to answer
vi) Question should require simple

b) Describe two (2) advantages and two (2) disadvantages of a questionnaire.

Advantages of Questionnaire
ANS: i) A questionnaire permits a wide coverage for a minimum expense both in money
and effort.
ii) When the questionnaire does not call for a signature or other means of
identification, because of its greater impersonality, it elicits more candid and more
objective replies.
iii) A questionnaire permits more considered answers
iv) A questionnaire is more adequate in situation in which the respondent has
check his information.
Disadvantages of questionnaire
a) A questionnaire does not permit the investigator to note apparent reluctance or
evasiveness of the respondent, a matter which is better handled through in interview.
b) There is the possibility of misinterpretation of the questions.
c) The validity of questionnaire data depends, in a crucial way, on the ability and the
willingness of the respondent to provide information.

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 d) A questionnaire frequently does not provide the researcher with sufficient
opportunity for developing interest on the part of the respondent, nor does it allow the
researcher to develop the rapport necessary to permit him to ask of a personal or
embarrassing nature.

5. a) Explain what a research is.

ANS: Research is simply the process of arriving at dependable solutions to problems
through planned and systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data. More
formally, research can be defined as a systematic investigation to increase knowledge
and or understanding of phenomena.
Gay (1992) also defines research as the formal systematic application of the scientific
method to the study of problems.
b) Identify and explain three essential characteristics of a good research question.
ANS: i) The problem must be researchable
ii) The problem should be important
iii) The research .into the problem must be feasible
iv) The research should specify the variables
v) The problem should specify the population
vi) The problem should be clear

6. A) Explain what “Literature review” is to a friend who is about to undertake a

research.
ANS: Literature review is the opinion of experts in a field and other research studies
of interest to read.
b) What four (4) reasons would you give the new researcher to encourage him/her to
do literature review for him/her research?
ANS: The following are the purpose of literature review.
i) Literature review serve as a source for research ideas.
ii) Orientation of what is already known
iii) Review of related literature helps researchers to delimit the research problem
iv) Provision of conceptual context
v) Information of research approach
vi) Interpretation of the significance of results.
c) With reference to two examples, explain secondary sources of referencing.
ANS: Secondary sources of referencing refer to the publication in which authors
describe to work of others. Examples are textbooks, educational and encyclopaedias,
research review and year books.
7. Outline and describe with examples the five (5) steps you would follow in a
qualitative research.
ANS: The following are the steps followed by qualitative researchers.
i) Identification of the issue to be studied
ii) Identification of the participants in the study
iii) Generation of research questions

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 iv) Data collection
v) Data analysis
8. a). Briefly explains educational research.
ANS: Educational Research is the formal and systematic application of the scientific
method to thestudy of educationalproblems. That is, educational research is applying
the scientific method to solve problems that confront educators and other stakeholders
in education.
b) Argue with four (4) major points against the assertion that ‘Educational Research
should no longer be conducted in Ghana’.
ANS: a. Educational research helps to identify problems in the educational system and
finds solutions to them
b. Educational research contributes/adds to knowledge about educational issues
c. Educational research helps in the development of theory
d. Building students’ research skills
a. Educational research helps to identify problems in the educational system and
finds solution to them: Education like any other human institution is confronted with a
number of problems/issues which need to be identified and solved. Educators therefore
strive to address these problems to improve upon teaching and learning. Identification
and solution of educational problems make educators undertake research in order to
contribute to existing information about these issues/problems.
b. Educational research contributes/adds to knowledge about educational issues:
Educational research helps to have an insight into the variables which control the
educational system. Educational research thus adds to our knowledge about
educational issues, by addressing the gaps in knowledge, expanding, and replicating
knowledge and adding voices of individuals to knowledge. By investigating a pressing
educational issue, the gap/void in existing information is filled. For instance if you are
to choose the most effective method among existing method of teaching R.M.E. in your
school and you are not sure which is the most effective method research can help you
address this gap in your knowledge. Through educational research you will get more
knowledge about educational issues and practices.
c. Educational research helps in the development of theory:
Findings from educational research can be applied to situational events. When these
events are tested over a period of time they become a standard for addressing those
events. New theories are developed from the existing ones.
d. Building students’ research skills:
This implies that as one goes through educational research as a course it helps him/her
to acquire research skills to help solve some of the educational problems that confront
society. The process of educational research helps individuals develop conceptual,
writing, organizing and presenting skills. Acquiring the above skills the individual to
evaluate studies reported in the literature more effectively.
9. In education research, most researchers prefer probability sampling to non-probability
sampling. As educational research students, state and explain four (4) main types of
probability sampling to a friend who is not studying research.

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ANS: i) Simple random sampling
ii) Stratified random sampling
iii) Cluster random sampling
iv) Systematic random sampling

10. a) What is research?

ANS: Research is simply the process of arriving at dependable solutions to problems
through planned and systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data. More
formally, research can be defined as a systematic investigation to increase knowledge and
or understanding of a phenomenon.
Gay (1992) also defines research as the formal systematic application of the scientific
method to the study of problems.
b. Explain five (5) characteristics of Research.
ANS: Characteristics of Research
i) Research begins with a question, an issue or problem in the mind of the research.
ii) Research requires a plan
iii) Research demands a clear statement of the problem
iv) Research deals with the main problems through sub-problems
v) Research seeks direction through appropriate hypotheses or questions.
vi) Research deals with facts and their meanings
vii) Research is circular.

11. State and explain five (5) sources of problem for research
ANS: i) Relevant books and journals in research area of interest.
ii) Investigator’s interest and experiences
iii) Applying theory
v) Replication

12. In what four ways is educational research important?

ANS: i) Educational research helps to identify problems in the educational system and
finds solutions to them.
ii) Educational research contributes to knowledge about educational issues
iii) Educational research helps in the development of theory.
iv) Educational research improves the practice of education through the evaluation
of existing practice.
13. A. What is educational research?
ANS: Educational Research is the formal and systematic application of the scientific
method to the study of educational problems. That is, educational research is applying the
scientific method to solve problems that confront educators and other stakeholders in
education.
b) State and explain four characteristics of educational research.
ANS: Characteristics of Research
i) Research begins with a question, an issue or problem in the mind of the research.
ii) Researchrequires a plan

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 iii) Researchdemands a clear statement of the problem
iv) Researchdeals with the main problems through sub-problems
v) Researchseeks direction through appropriate hypotheses orquestions
vi) Researchdeals with facts and their meanings
vii) Researchis circular.

14. Discuss five main problems which in your view impede educational research.
ANS: a. Educational research helps to identify problems in the educational system and
finds solutions to them
a. Educational research contributes/adds to knowledge about educational issues
b. Educational research helps in the development of theory
c. Building students’ research skills
Educational research helps to identify problems in the educational system and finds
solution to them: Education like any other human institution is confronted with a number
of
a. problems/issues which need to be identified and solved. Educators therefore strive to
address these problems to improve upon teaching and learning. Identification and solution
of educational problems make educators undertake research in order to contribute to
existing information about these issues/problems.
b. Educational research contributes/adds to knowledge about educational issues:
Educational research helps to have an insight into the variables which control the
educational system. Educational research thus adds to our knowledge about educational
issues, by addressing the gaps in knowledge, expanding, and replicating knowledge and
adding voices of individuals to knowledge. By investigating a pressing educational issue,
the gap/void in existing information is filled. For instance if you are to choose the most
effective method among existing method of teaching R.M.E. in your school and you are
not sure which is the most effective method research can help you address this gap in your
knowledge. Through educational research you will get more knowledge about educational
issues and practices.
c. Educational research helps in the development of theory:
Findings from educational research can be applied to situational events. When these
events are tested over a period of time they become a standard for addressing those events.
New theories are developed from the existing ones.
d. Building students’ research skills:
This implies that as one goes through educational research as a course it helps him/her to
acquire research skills to help solve some of the educational problems that confront
society. The process of educational research helps individuals develop conceptual, writing,
organizing and presenting skills. Acquiring the above skills the individual to evaluate
studies reported in the literature more effectively.

15. In educational research, the literature review serves a master of important functions.
Identify and discuss any five functions of literature review.
ANS: i) Literature review serves as a source of research ideas
ii) It serves as orientation to what is already known
iii) Review of related literature helps researchers to delimit the research of the problem

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 iv) Provision of conceptual context
v) Information on research approach
vi) Interpretation of the significance of results

16. A) What is research data?

ANS: Research data refers to the kinds of information researchers obtain on the subject of
their research. Demographic information (such as age, gender, ethnicity and religion) is
one kind of data scores. The device which the researcher uses to collect data is the
instrument.
b) Explain the following three techniques for obtaining data for an educational research,
i) Observation ii)Questionnaire iii)Interview
ANS: i) Observation: Observation is the act of recognizing and noting facts or
occurrences. Observation can fairly be called the classic method of scientific enquiry. The
concise Oxford Dictionary defines observation as accurate watching and nothing of
phenomena as they occur in nature with regard to cause and effect or mutual relations.
Observation can be classified on three different bases:
a) Whether the observation is structure or unstructed.
b) Whether the situation of the respondent is natural or artificial.
c) Whether the respondent knows he is being observed.
ii) Questionnaire: Questionnaire consists of a list of questions or statements relating to
the aims of the study, the hypotheses and research questions to be verified and answered,
to which the respondent is required to answer by writing. They really constitute the first
attempts at true scaling. They are patricianly advantageous wherever the sample size is
large enough to make it uneconomical for reasons of time or funds to observe or interview
every subject.

iii) Interview: An interview is a form of questioning characterized by the fact that it

employs verbal questioning as its principal technique of data collection. It involves posing
questions to respondents for answer in face-to-face situation or by phone. It is the most
usual method of collecting data in social surveys. It is very similar in nature and purpose
to the questionnaire advantages; the two techniques are essentially interchangeable. The
interview is also most frequently used in connection with non-research activities, such as
counseling, administration of an individual test of intelligence and employee deselecting.
The interview can either be structured or unstructured depending on the extent to which
the content and the procedures involved are prescribed and standardized in advance.
17. a) State and explain five (1974) characteristics of research.
ANS: Characteristics of Research
i) Research begins with a question, an issue or problem in the mind of the research.
ii) Research demands a clear statement of the problem.
iii) Research deals with the main problems through sub-problems
iv) Research seeks direction through appropriate hypotheses or questions
v) Research deals with facts and their meanings
vi) Research is circular.

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b) Discuss with illustrations any four (4) problems you are likely to encounter when
conducting a research.
ANS: a. Educational research helps to identify problems in the educational system and
finds solutions to them
a. Educational research contributes/adds to knowledge about educational issues
b. Educational research helps in the development of theory
c. Building students’ research skills
a. Educational research helps to identify problems in the educational system and finds
solution to them: Education like any other human institution is confronted with a number
of problems/issues which need to be identified and solved. Educators therefore strive to
address these problems to improve upon teaching and learning. Identification and solution
of educational problems make educators undertake research in order to contribute to
existing information about these issues/problems.
b. Educational research contributes/adds to knowledge about educational issues:
Educational research helps to have an insight into the variables which control the
educational system. Educational research thus adds to our knowledge about educational
issues, by addressing the gaps in knowledge, expanding, and replicating knowledge and
adding voices of individuals to knowledge. By investigating a pressing educational issue,
the gap/void in existing information is filled. For instance if you are to choose the most
effective method among existing method of teaching R.M.E. in your school and you are
not sure which is the most effective method research can help you address this gap in your
knowledge. Through educational research you will get more knowledge about educational
issues and practices.
c. Educational research helps in the development of theory:
Findings from educational research can be applied to situational events. When these
events are tested over a period of time they become a standard for addressing those
events. New theories are developed from the existing ones.
d. Building students’ research skills:
This implies that as one goes through educational research as a course it helps him/her to
acquire research skills to help solve some of the educational problems that confront
society. The process of educational research helps individuals develop conceptual,
writing, organizing and presenting skills. Acquiring the above skills the individual to
evaluate studies reported in the literature more effectively.

18. a) Describe “the interview: as a research method.

ANS: Interview: An interview is a form of questioning characterized by the fact that it
employs verbal questioning as its principal technique of data collection. It involves
posing questions to respondents for answer in face-to-face situation or by phone. It is
the most usual method of collecting data in social surveys. It is very similar in nature
and purpose to the questionnaire advantages; the two techniques are essentially
interchangeable. The interview is also most frequently used in connection with non-
research activities, such as counseling, administration of an individual test of
intelligence and employee deselecting. The interview can either be structured or
unstructured depending on the extent to which the content and the procedures involved

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are prescribed and standardized in advance.
b) What four (4) functions would you perform as an interviewer in the data collection
process? ANS: The task or functions of an interview in the data collection process are as
follows:
i) To locate or select sample members
ii) To obtain interviews with them
iii) To ask the question
iv) To record answers as instructed.

19. a. Clearly distinguish between ‘research problem’ and ‘research question’

ANS: Research Problem
Is a statement which is more specific than a topic and which limit it scope of the
research problem?
Is usually stated in an interrogative form,
b. Identify and explain any four (4) characteristics of a good research questions.
ANS: Is feasible: it can be investigated with available resources such as time, money
availability of subjects, cooperation of others, facilities and equipment and the
experience of the research
Should be clear:
a) The terms and phrases in the research questions should not be ambiguous.
b) A common way of clarifying ambiguous or unclear terms in research questions is to
use definition of terms and operational definitions.
Should be significant:
a) The research question should be worth investigating. That is whether it is worth
spending time, energy and money to get data.
b) The value of the research must also be considered before too much preliminary work
is done i.e. whether the question will advance knowledge, improve educational
practice or improve human conditions.
Should conform to ethical practice:
a) In considering ethics, researchers must ask themselves if it is right or wrong to
conduct a particular study or investigate a certain question.
b) The basic question which a research must ask regards to ethics is: will any
physical or psychological harm come to anyone a as result of my research?
20. a. Distinguish between the terms ‘sample’ and ‘sampling’
Sample: A sample is a group subjects from which data are collected often
representing a population.
Is simple a part of the population that is studies
Sampling: Is a process of selecting a number of individuals / subjects for a study in
such a way that the individual represent a larger group from which they were
selected (i.e. population)
b. Mention any four probability sampling techniques and briefly explain any two of them.
ANS: four probability sampling techniques are:
a. simple random sampling

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 b. stratified random sampling
c. cluster random sampling
d. systematic random sampling
Any two of the above briefly explained.

21. a. What is Literature Review?

Definition: is a summarized critique of the status of knowledge on carefully defined topic
or simple defined as delving into the literature to find out what has been written about the
topic the researcher is interested in investigating,
a. Identification of the two sources:
 Primary sources
 Secondary sources
Brief explanation of the two sources
ANS: Primary Sources
Defined: In research it is the document or testimony of an eyewitness account to an event.
1. Is written by the person who conducted the study
2. The authors communicate their findings directly to readers.
3. Examples to primary sources and journal of Educational development and ‘Ogua
Educator’
Secondary sources
Defined: In research it is the document or testimonies of the individual who did not
actually observed or participate in the event and so depend on hearsays evidence can be
defined as the description of a study prepared by someone other than the original
researcher.
Review articles that summarize the literature on a topic considered assecondary sources. It
thus refers to publication (s) in which the authors describe thework of others. Examples of
secondary sources in education are textbooks.
c. Outline any five steps involved in literature review:
i) Define the research problem as precisely as possible
a. State the research question or hypotheses as specifically as possible
b. The question of interest should be narrowed down to a specific concern.

ii) Read a number of secondary sources

a. Look for available reviews and others relevant information in secondary sources
such as Encyclopedia of educational research and textbooks
iii)Selection of appropriate general references select one or two general references to help
you to identify particular journals Psychological abstract and Research in education.
iv)Formulation of search terms
a. Involves the description words to use to help locate primary sources. The
descriptor words help to locate the important words in the problem statement.
b. The search terms refer to the keywords and phrase which are relevant / pertinent to
the problem or question of interest.
v) Selection of general reference for the relevant primary sources
a. The two major types of primary sources are professional journals and reports.

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 1. The professional journals publish reports of research on a wide range of educational
topics.
2. Reports in any important research findings are first published in reports which are
sometimes presented at presented at professional meetings and conferences.
vi)Locating primary sources
Most primary source materials are found in journal articles and reports where most of
the research findings in education are published.
22. a. What is data management?
Defined: Is the bringing together and keeping data accurately and securely in the
form that will be easy to use.
1. When data have been assembled after administering the instruments, it becomes
necessary to review and sort them out based on well defined criteria such as school
community, job type, gender educational criteria.
2. It is about cleaning/editing the data and preparing a coding or scoring scheme and
data dictionary before the data analyzed.
b. Identification of the 5 steps in data management:
 Coding the data
 Preparing a data dictionary or coding book
 Editing and checking data
 Manual preparation of data
 Handing missing data
Brief discussion of the above points
a. Coding the data:
Definition: It is the process in which completed instruments, statement and answers
are translated into numbers. It helps to organize the data by assigning an identification
number to each complete questionnaire form or variable.
Suggested answers to research methods in education diploma Nov/Dec. 2007.

23. a. What is randomization?

• Randomization is a process of selecting a sample in such a way that all individual
the defined populations have an equal and independent chance of being selected as
sample.
• The goal of randomization is to select a sample i.e. to select a sample that
sufficiently represent the population so that what is described in the sample sill be true
of the population.
• In randomization, the probability of being selected and the selection of one
population in on way affect the selection of another individual.
• In randomization, each member of the population or to a sub group of the
population has equal chances of being selected.

b. The three types of randomization techniques that a research can use are:
i. Table of random numbers
ii. Computers

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 iii. Balloting
i. Table of random numbers:
• In using the table of random numbers, the researcher will first of all have a serial
number to every member of the group. The researcher then closes his eye a page of
table of random numbers; place his finger at any point member of the sample.
• Selecting other members of the sample, the researcher goes down the list of been
selected.
• Since the numbers are randomly listed, it would not matter if the researcher and
down the table, or left sideways or right sideways.
ii. Computers:
• As an electronic machine.
• The computer is instructed to procedure a list of one digit, or two etc. random order
for selecting the sample.
iii.Balloting:
• In balloting the name of all members (say 150) of the group / popular is writing
slips of paper.
• The slips are put a bag and thoroughly, shaken or mixed up.
• With the researcher’s eye closed, he dips his hand into the bag and put up and
records the name and puts the slip back into the bag. The process repeated up sample
size (say 150) is obtained.

24. a. What is the difference between action research and basic research?
a. i) Action Research
• Is a specific type of applied research is eclectic self-reflex programme.
• Has the primary purpose to solve classroom or school problem
• Meant to improve the quality of practice immediately within a classroom or
school, thus concerned with practical things.
• Conducted mainly by teachers and school administrators i.e. teach researchers:
teachers intervening in their own practice.

b. ii) Basic Research

• has the primary purpose to develop theories
• Is concerned with explaining and understanding and to provide generalizations
about how phenomena or things are related.
• If often conducted in highly controlled and contrived settings.
• Few educational researchers are basic.

c. Explain four uses of Action Research to the educational practitioner:

1. Solve educationally classroom/school problem
2. Help teachers to solve their own personal problems, since Action makes teachers
become independent, reflective and autonomous partition.
3. Help improve school based curriculum development.
4. For in-service education. It can help school to identifytheir own needinitiate
action to meet these needs.

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 5. For the professional development of the teacher.

• Can be used to help the teacher to develop themselves profession researching to gain
knowledge and improve skills and attitudes. That can use action research for testing and
improving their own clear practice and thus help teachers to embark upon a journey of
self- education.
25. a. What is sampling in research are:
ANS: Sampling is the process of selecting a number of individuals for a study in such
a way that the individuals represent the larger group from which they were selected,
b. State and explain three (3) types of probability sampling in educational research ANS:
The types of probability sampling are:
a. Simple random sampling
b. Systematic sampling
c. Stratified sampling

a. Simple Random Sampling: This is the most basic of all the probability designs. This
type of sampling gives all units of the target population an equal chance of being selected.
This method is more appropriate when the population is uniform in characteristics or the
population has the same characteristics. There are two main methods in simple random
sampling. These are the lottery method and the random number method.
b. Systematic sampling: this method is a modified form of simple random sampling. It
involves selecting the subjects from a population list in a systematic rather than a random
fashion. A systematic sampling consists of the selection of the term form a list of all
elements in a population beginning with a randomly selected element. For example, if
there is the need to selected element. For example, if there is the need to select 100
subjects from a population of 50,000.
Eg; 50.000 = 500
100

This will mean that the researcher will select element using lottery or random number
method.
c. Stratified Random Sampling: Stratified sampling involves dividing the groups called
strata. Each group contains subjects with similar characteristics. A sample is then drawn
from each group or stratum. The sub-samples make the final sample for the study. The
division of the population into strata or homogenous group is based on one or more
criteria, for example, sex, age, economic status, professional status, etc. the sample from
the groups can be proportional or disproportional. E.g. 5 percent maleand 10 percent
female is disproportional and 5 percent female and 5 percent male is proportional. This
method is employed when there is the need to represent all groups of the target population
in the sample.
26. a. Designing research questionnaire are one of the most important tasks for an
investigator.
State and explain any FIVE (5) common characteristics of a good questionnaire.
a. The question should not be ambiguous. This is the question must be capable of

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 only one interpretation. In other words non-specific and hypothetical question are
to be avoided.
b. The questions must be easily understood. Technical terms should be avoided
except the questionnaire is meant of specialists. It therefore means that the
language of the respondent should be employed. If possible, simple language
should be used, without jargon, slang or complicated expressions.
c. Every question should cover the exact object of the inquiry. That is every
question must be relevant to one or more aspects of the study. If the
questions are not relevant to the exact object of study then the researcher will
end up by achieving a result which has nothing to do with the research topic.
d. Easy flow and logical progression in the questionnaire should be assured.
That is the questionnaire should be in such a way that respondent should not
encounter much difficulties in answering them.
e. The questionnaire should not require the respondent to decide upon
classification and calculation. The questionnaire should therefore be
presented in way that encourages the respondent to complete and return it.
27. a. What is a research question?
ANS: Explanation of what a research question is:
i. A research question is a presentation of a research problem in the interrogative
(question) form;
ii. A research question is derived from a research problem and it is stated in question
form.
iii. A research question provides direction as to what data are relevant and should be
gathered by the research problem. E.g. what is the relationship between provision of
school meals to lower primary pupils and school attendance?

b. State four characteristics of a good research question.

ANS: Characteristics of a good research question:
i. A research question should be feasible
ii. A research question should be clear
iii. A research questionshould be significant
iv. A research questionshould conform to ethical principles
28. .a. Explain the term educational research.
ANS: Educational research is the type of research which applies scientific methods
in the study of educational issues and practices with the aim of improving
teaching and learning.

b. State and explain four (4) importance of research in education.

ANS: a. Educational research helps to identify problems in the educational
system and finds solutions to them
a. Educational research contributes/adds to knowledge about educational issues
b. Educational research helps in the development of theory
c. Building students’ research skills
a. Educational research helps to identify problems in the educational system and finds

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solution to them: Education like any other human institution is confronted with a number
of problems/issues which need to be identified and solved. Educators therefore strive to
address these problems to improve upon teaching and learning. Identification and solution
of educational problems make educators undertake research in order to contribute to
existing information about these issues/problems.
b. Educational research contributes/adds to knowledge about educational issues:
Educational research helps to have an insight into the variables which control the
educational system. Educational research thus adds to our knowledge about educational
issues, by addressing the gaps in knowledge, expanding, and replicating knowledge and
adding voices of individuals to knowledge. By investigating a pressing educational issue,
the gap/void in existing information is filled. For instance if you are to choose the most
effective method among existing method of teaching R.M.E. in your school and you are
not sure which is the most effective method research can help you address this gap in your
knowledge. Through educational research you will get more knowledge about educational
issues and practices.
c. Educational research helps in the development of theory:
Findings from educational research can be applied to situational events. When these
events are tested over a period of time they become a standard for addressing those events.
New theories are developed from the existing ones.
d. Building students’ research skills:
This implies that as one goes through educational research as a course it helps him/her to
acquire research skills to help solve some of the educational problems that confront
society. The process of educational research helps individuals develop conceptual, writing,
organizing and presenting skills. Acquiring the above skills the individual to evaluate
studies reported in the literature more effectively.
29. a. Identify five (5) characteristics that make research a peculiar one
 Research begins with a question, an issue or problem in the mind of the researcher
 A good research requires a plan (Research proposal)
 Research demands a clear statement of the problem
 Research deals with the main problem through sub-problems
 Research seeks directions through appropriate hypotheses or question

b. Explain by giving examples three (3) of the characteristics named in (a)

 Research begins with a question, an issue or problem in the mind of the researcher:
This means that when one sets out to do research he/she must have in mind a question
to answer, an issue to explain or a problem or a problem to solve. Research therefore
usually arises from a question, an issue to explain or a problem to solve. Research
therefore usually arises from a question, an issue that a researcher has observed and it
puzzles him/her.
 A good research requires a plan (Research proposal): Research is a purposeful
activity and for it to be successful it requires a plan. In research language, the plan is
known as the “research proposal”. The research plan seeks to direct the research work.
By developing a plan you get to know what specific (information) to collect, how to
organize and analyze the data what conclusion to reach. Though one cannot rule out

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 accidental findings, a good research must have plan for it to proceed purposefully.
 Research demands a clear statement of the problem: This point presupposes that,
whatever problem, issue or question you set out to deal with in your researcher, must be
stated clearly indicating the relevant variables and the expected relationships if any.
The researcher therefore needs to specifically state the problem to avoid different
interpretations.

30. a. Explain i) mean

ii) median
iii) mode

b. The following are the results of the class quiz conducted by a teacher in Mathematics:
38,28,18,28,18,48,53,43,38,33
28, 23, 18, 28,38, 18, 33, 23,43,48
48,28,38,33, 28, 23, 18, 13, 33,28
23, 18, 13,28, 18, 13, 16, 16, 16, 15

i) Construct a frequency distribution table

ii) Use your table to find the mean score
iii) What is the modal score?

31. In Ghana, most of the research work embarked by researchers is either abandoned or
shelved. Identify four (4) problems associated with the conduct of research study and
explain, giving examples.
ANS: Major problems associated with the conduct of research
 Illiteracy: Research demands collecting data from respondents more often than not
through the use of questionnaire. Yet most Ghanaians are illiterate hence vital
information may not be retrieved through the use of questionnaire and other research
instruments. The problem of illiteracy therefore affects the results of research.
 Secrecy: Like most African countries, Ghanaians tend to have a special liking for
secrecy. As a result they feel reluctant to give vital information that otherwise would
be for public consumption is considered a secret. In the same vein, people have
reservations on questions such as ‘do you sleep on mattress?’etc. the prejudice
against these types of questions from one whose intentions are not very clear is
translated into prejudice against research as a whole.
 Scanty Statistics: Research is still at its infancy stage due to the fact that most
background data are not readily available. For a successful research work there must
be availability of statistics to support it. Yet in developing countries like Ghana,
keeping of reliable statistics is woefully inadequate. For example, if one is carrying
out a research work on teachers he finds it difficult to get available information on
teachers in a particular educational district office.
 Lack of Financial Support: One of the most serious problems facing educational
research is lack of financial support. Yet, this facility is not forth coming making
researchers unable to replicate researchers done in developed countries. Many policy
makers in this region think that it is a waste of resources pumping money into

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 research instead of looking at adequate transport, water supply, electricity, etc.
 Apart from these problems are lack of research skills, limited demand for research
scholars and the prejudice that African University researchers do not have much
application for this research
32. a. Explain briefly the scientific method of knowledge
ANS: Scientific method of knowing (problem-solving) involves collection of facts
and continue doing this solution arises.

b. Write short notes about each of the following scientific inquiry characteristics:
i. Objectivity
ii. Control of bias
iii. Induction
iv. Willingness of alter beliefs

ANS: Notes on scientific inquiry characteristics

i. Objectivity: Being objective means not being influenced by personal beliefs or
feelings but basing viewson real facts. It behaves you therefore to be objective in your
observation, data collection and reporting of your study or study.
ii. Control of bias: Bias is the tendency to support or oppose a particular person or
things in an unfair way. By allowing personal opinions to influence your judgment. This
in a way affects objectivity. Control of bias therefore means that in scientific inquiry the
researcher does not allow personal prejudices, beliefs and attitudes to influence the
process of the study or results.

iii. Induction: Induction which is an aspect of logic involves drawing general

conclusions form specific observation. For instance a group of DBE 2 students can be
randomly selected in a course and data collected on them can be summarized and
generalized for all the course students within the programme.

iv. Willingnessto alter beliefs: Truth is the ultimate concrete for every scientific inquiry.
The truth isalways supported by available facts. So if the truth supported by the available
facts does not agree with the existing beliefs the researcher must be willing to change
his/her beliefs.

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ANSWERS TO SAMPLE OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS

1. D 41. A 81. A 121. B

2. C 42. C 82. B 122. B
3. A 43. B 83. C 123. D
4. B . 44. C 84. C 124. A
5. D 45. B 85. A 125.C
6. D 46. A 86. A 126. D
7. C 47. A 87. C 127. D
8. D 48. C 88. B 128. A
9. B 49. D 89. B 129. A
10. D 50. A 90. B 130. A
11. A 51. B 91. B 131. B
12. A 52. D 92. C 132. B
13.C 53. D 93. D 133. C
14. C 54. C 94. C 134. C
15.C 55. C 95. C 135. B
16. A 56. B 96. D 136. B
17. C 57. B 97. B 137. D
18. C 58. B 98. C 138. C
19. B 59. C 99. A 139. D
20. B 60. C 100. A 140. C
21. A 61.B 101.B 141. B
22. B 62. C 102. 142. B
23. B 63. C 103. B 143. C
24. A 64. B 104. B 144. A
25. A 65. C 105. A 145. A
26. D 66. B 106. C 146. B
27. A 67. B 107. D 147. C
28. C 68. C 108. C 148. D
29. C 69. D 109. A 149. A
30. D 70. A 110. B 150. B
31. B 71.D 111. D 151. D
32. A 72. C 112. D 152. B
33. A 73. B 113.C 153. A
34. A 74. C 114. D 154. D
35. A 75. B 115.B 155. A
36. B 76. A 116. D 156. B
37. A 77. A 117. A 157. C
38. B 78. C 118. A 158. D
39. C 79. D 119. C 159. D
40. C 80. B 120. C 160. B

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161.C 201. B 241. D
162. A 202. D 242. C
163.C 203. B 243. A
164.C 204. A 244. D
165.B 205. C 245. D
166.B 206. D 246. C
167. D 207. A 247. B
168.B 208. B 248. A
169. A 209. B 249. C
170.D 210. A 250. D
171. C 211. C 251. D
172. A 212. C 252. A
173.B 213.C 253. B
174.B 214. A 254. A
175.A 215. A 255. B
176. A 216. A 256. A
177.D 217. B 257. C
178.C 218. D 258. A
179. D 219. B 259. B
180.B 220. A 260. B
181. 221. A 261. D
182.D 222. D 262. B
183.C 223. A 263. A
184. C 224. C 264. B
185.D 225. B 265. D
186.D 226. D 266. D
187. B 227. A 267. A
188.D 228. D 268. A
189.B 229. A 269. D
190.B 230. B 270. B
191.B 231. A 271. A
192.D 232. B 272. C
193.B 233. C 273. D
194.C 234. A 274. C
195.C 235. D 275. A
196.D 236. B 276. B
197.C 237. D 277. B
198.C 238. B 278. B
199. D 239. A 279. A
200. C 240. D 280. C

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