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Chapter 10

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8 views

Chapter 10

Uploaded by

mfarrukhnadeem1
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Chapter 10

Error detection and correction are essential concepts in data communication and digital systems. They
help ensure that information sent from one place to another arrives correctly, despite potential
interference, noise, or errors that could occur during transmission. Here’s a breakdown of the key
components in a simplified way:

1. Types of Errors
• Single-bit errors: When only one bit (like 0 or 1) is incorrect.
• Burst errors: When multiple bits in a sequence are incorrect. This is more common in noisy
channels.

2. Redundancy
• Redundancy adds extra bits to the data so errors can be detected and corrected. Think of it like a
safety net; if something goes wrong, we have extra information to identify and fix the problem.

3. Detection versus Correction


• Detection: Identifies that an error has occurred but doesn’t fix it.
• Correction: Identifies the error and also corrects it, which usually requires more redundancy bits
than detection.

4. Forward Error Correction versus Retransmission


• Forward Error Correction (FEC): Adds enough extra data so the receiver can correct some
errors on its own.
• Retransmission: If an error is detected, the data is sent again from the beginning. This approach
is often used in systems where correction is difficult or costly.

5. Coding
• Coding is the process of adding redundancy to data for error detection or correction. Codes are
used to structure the data in a way that makes it easier to spot errors.

6. Error Detection and Error Correction


• Error Detection techniques check for errors in transmitted data (e.g., using parity bits).
• Error Correction techniques, such as Hamming codes, not only detect but also correct errors
based on the information in the code.

7. Hamming Distance and Minimum Hamming Distance


• Hamming Distance: The number of bits different between two binary sequences. For example,
if we compare 1010 and 1001, the Hamming distance is 2.
• Minimum Hamming Distance: The smallest Hamming distance between any two valid
codewords in a coding system. It tells us how many errors we can detect and correct. Higher
distances offer better error detection and correction.
8. Cyclic Codes
• Cyclic codes are special types of codes where a circular shift of the codeword still produces
another valid codeword. This structure makes cyclic codes especially useful for error detection.

9. Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)


• CRC is a widely used error-detecting code in digital networks. It uses polynomial division on
binary data to create a "check value" that’s appended to the data. When the data arrives, this check
value helps verify if there were errors during transmission.

10. Hardware Implementation


• Hardware circuits, like XOR gates and shift registers, can quickly calculate and check CRC
values, making it efficient for real-time error detection.

11. Polynomials in Cyclic Codes


• In cyclic codes, data is treated like a polynomial. For example, the binary sequence 1011 can be
represented as 1x3+0x2+1x+1. Polynomials help perform calculations in CRC.

12. Cyclic Code Analysis and Advantages of Cyclic Codes


• Analysis: Cyclic codes are analyzed based on their ability to detect multiple types of errors.
• Advantages: They are efficient, easy to implement in hardware, and can detect multiple bit errors
reliably.

13. Other Cyclic Codes


• Beyond CRC, there are other cyclic codes (like BCH codes and Reed-Solomon codes) that are
stronger and can correct more complex errors.

14. Checksum
• A checksum is a simple error-detecting code where all data bits are added together. This sum is
sent along with the data. The receiver also adds up the data bits and compares it with the
transmitted sum to detect errors.

15. Idea and One's Complement


• In some checksum methods, the data is added using one's complement. This means inverting all
bits if the sum exceeds the max value, so it fits into a fixed length.

16. Internet Checksum


• A specific type of checksum used in the Internet Protocol (IP) to detect errors in transmitted data
packets. It’s efficient and widely used, though not as powerful as CRC in error detection.

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