Chapter 8 – Mahatma Gandhi and the National Movement

Revised Syllabus

• Mahatma Gandhi : Non-cooperation Movement:

Causes (Khilafat Movement,Rowlatt
Act,Jallianwala Bagh tragedy),programme and suspension – Chauri Chaura incident, and impact of
the movement;
• Civil disobedience movement,causes(reaction to the simon commission,Declaration of poorna
swaraj at the lahore session of 1929),Dandi March, programme and impact of the movement,
Gandhi-Irwin Pact and the second round table conference.
Champaran satyagraha(1917)

• The indigo cultivators of champaran were bound by law to grow indigo on 3/20 th of their land and
sell it to British planters at price fixed by them.
• The indigo cultivators invited Gandhiji to take up their cause but the district authorities banned his
entry to the district.
• He organised satyagraha as a result of which inquiry was conducted into the conditions of the
peasants .
• This helped in indigo cultivators to get some relief.
Ahmedabad satyagraha(1918)

• Gandhiji led the mill workers of Ahmedabad to fight against mill owners who had refused to pay
them higher wages.
• Gandhiji supported workers by undertaking fast(hunger strike) and as a result of his fasting, on the
fourth day fearing the consequences, British gave mill workers 35 % increase in wages.
Kheda satyagraha(1918)

• Crops failed in kheda and peasants were not in a position to pay land revenue.

• Government refused to forgo the land revenue.

• Gandhiji organised satyagraha and farmers refused to pay the revenue and ultimately the
government was forced to arrive at a settlement with the peasants.

• Sardar Vallabhai Patel became Gandhiji’s follower during this struggle.

Gandhiji’s Methods and Directions

• Satyagraha : It is made up of two sanskrit words – Satya (truth) and agraha (insistence to hold
fast)
• Satyagraha was a moral force born out of truth and non-violence.
• It means to be fearful,truthful as well as peaceful,suffering willingly while refusing to submit to
what is wrong.
 Doctrine of Non-Violence

• It means non-killing or avoiding injury to anything by thought, word or deed.

• It is not a negative but positive and active force.
• It is the virtue of the strong which requires benevolence and sympathy.
Swadeshi

• It means producing necessary items in one’s own country and using them for one’s own use
without being dependent on imported goods.
• It would make us self-sufficient and eliminate our dependence on imported goods.
• He emphasized manual labor and use of charkha and khadi.
Mass movement

• The South African experiment gave Gandhiji the experience of leading Indians belonging to different
religions,castes,regions and social classes. It gave faith in the ability of Indian masses to participte
in the freedom movement.
Non-cooperation- Meaning

• It is a way of protesting in which one does not cooperate with the evildoer.
• Gandhiji asked people not to assist the foreign government to rule over them.
Causes of Non-Cooperation movement

• Khilafat Movement- The Muslim population in India started a powerful agitation known as the
Khilafat Movement under the leadership of Ali Brothers- Mohammed Ali and Shaukat Ali,Maulana
Azad,Hakim Ajmal khan and Hasrat Mohani.
• Khilafatists formed a three point programme
1. The ottaman caliph should retain his empire.
2. The caliph must be left with sufficient territory to enable him to defend Islamic faith
3. The arab lands(Arabia,Syria,Iraq,Palestine) must remain under the Muslim rule.
4. ‘Khilafat day’ was observed on october 17, 1919 on an all-India scale.
• Gandhiji saw an oppurtunity in khilafat movement for uniting hindus and muslims.
• Mahatma Gandhi was elected as President of the All-India Khilafat conference in November 1919.
• 1919-Programmes of khilafat non-cooperation movementpeople resigned from government
services;shops selling foreign goods were picketed;students boycotted schools and
colleges;hartals and demonstrations were held.
• 1920 – congress and khilafat movement merged together.
• 1921- appealed to muslims not to join police and armed forces and not to pay taxes.
• Ali brothers were arrested on charge of sedition.
 Rowlatt act(1919)
On receiving a report from the sedition committee headed by justice rowlatt , two bills were introduced
in the central legislature in february,1919. the purpose of the bills was to curb the growing
upsurge of the country. It implies
• Arrest of person without warrant
• In camera trial(trail in seclusion)
• Restrictions on movement of individuals
• Suspension of rights of habeas corpus
• Search your house/offices without search warrant

Gandhiji appealed to viceroy to withhold his consent but his appeal was ignored. He started
‘satyagraha’ as a challenge to the government.
Jallianwala bagh tragedy
• A large but peaceful crowd gathered at Jallianwala bagh in Amritsar on April 13,1919 to protest
against arrest of leaders like Dr.Saifuddin kitchlu and Dr.Satya Pal.
• It had only one exit, the other three sides enclosed by buildings.
• General Dyer surrounded the bagh with his soldiers and closed the exit with his troops.
• General Dyer ordered his troops to shoot at the crowd.
• The troops kept on firing till ammunition were exhausted.
• About 1000 killed and many were wounded.
• After the massacre, the British government made a half-hearted attempt at constitutional reform.
The British government also refused to annul the Rowlatt Act and make amends for the atrocities
in Punjab.
Objectives of Non-cooperation movement
i. To attain self-government within british empire if possible and outside if necessary
ii. Amulment of rowlatt Act and remedying of Punjab wrong i.e. the British government should
express its regret on the happenings in Punjab, particularly in Amritsar.
iii. Remedying the khilafat wrong, i.e. the British should adapt a lenient attitude towards turkey,
and restore the old status of the sultan of Turkey.
Programmes of Non-Cooperation Movement
Boycott programmes
• Boycott of government schools, colleges and courts
• Boycott of foreign goods
• Boycott of elections to be held for councils
• Resignation from nominated seats
• Surrender of titles and honorary offices
• Refusal to attend government functions
Swadeshi programmes

• Popularisation of swadeshi and khadi by reviving hand-spinning and hand-weaving

• Establishment of national schools and colleges
• Establishment of private arbitration courts known as panchayats
• Development of unity between Hindus and Muslims
• Removal of untouchability
• Emancipation and upliftment of women
Suspension of Non-cooperation movement
• Chauri-chaura incident- it occured on Feb 5, 1922
• A procession of 3000 peasants marched to the police station to protest against police officer who
had beaten volunteers picketing a liquor shop
• Police fired at the peasants and this infuriated the demonstrators ans they set set the nearby
police station on fire,killing 22 policemen.
• There were few violent incidents in other parts of the country.
• Gandhiji, a believer in Ahimsa, was shocked at these incidents and withdrew Non-Cooperation
movement on Feb 12,1922.
• Gandhiji was arrested on march 10,1922 and sentenced to 6 years imprisonment.
Impact of the movement

• The National Movement become a mass movement

• Instilled confidence among the people
• Congress became a revolutionary movement
• Fostered hindu-muslim unity
• Promoted social reforms- prohibition and removal of untouchability.Many national schools and
colleges were setup
• Spread Nationalism to every part of the country – Provincial congress committees were organised
with 15 members based on linguistic areas. It even reached down to villages and its membership
fee was reduced to four annas per year to enable rural and urban poor to become its members.
• Popularised the cult of swaraj.
Civil disobedience movement causes
• Simon Commision
i. In nov 1927, British appointed simon commision to investigate the need of further constitutional
reforms
ii. It is composed of seven british member of parliament. It had no indian members. This was seen
as a violation of the principle of self-determination and a deliberate insult to the self-respect
of the Indians.
iii. Inc led by dr.ansari in madras session decided to boycott simon commision and it was supported
by muslim league and hindu mahasabha.
iv. Wherever the commission went it was greeted with hartals and black flag demonstrations under
the slogan ‘simon go back’
v. On oct 30,1928 while leading a demonstration against simon commission, lala lajpat rai died as a
result of lathi blows from the police.
Recommendations of simon commission
• Dyarchy should be abolished and there should be complete autonomy in the provinces
• Provincial legislative councils should be enlarged
• Federal government should not only embrace british india but also princely states.
• The governor-general should appoint and select members of his cabinet.
• British troops and british officers should stay on in indian regiments for many more years.
• High courts should be under the control of Government of India.
• The communal representation was to continue.
 Declaration of poorna swaraj

• The Calcutta session of congress had served an ultimatum to the British government to accept the
Nehru report by end of 1929 or to face a mass movement.
• Jawaharlal Nehru was made the president of congress in historic Lahore session of the congress in
1929.
• It passed a resolution declaring poorna swaraj to be the objective of the congress.
• The congress committee met in Jan 1930 and decided the following programme
1. Preparation for civil disobedience
2. Poorna swaraj was set forth as goal of the national movement
3. Observance of 26th january as poorna swaraj day all over the country with the hoisting of
national flag. It was decided to observe 26 jan as independence day every year.
4. Resignation by members of legislature
5. Withdrawal from all possible associations with the British government.
Civil disobedience movement

• The congress working committee met in sabarmati ashram and made gandhiji the leader of civil
disobedience movement
• Gandhiji served an 11 point ultimatum but no response from government
Dandi march
• On 12th march, Mahatma Gandhi began his historic march from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi, a
village on Gujarat sea coast.
• A number of people followed him.78 members followed him
• On 6th april, gandhiji violated salt law by picking up some salt left by the sea waves. According to
the salt law, the Government had the monopoly to manufacture and sell salt.
• He decided to attack the salt law because the salt tax affected all sections of society, especially the
poor.
• Gandhiji breaking of the salt law marked the beginning of civil disobedience movement.
Programme of the movement

• Civil disobedience movement involved :

i. Defiance of Salt Laws ii.
Boycott of liquor
iii. Boycott of foreign cloth and British goods of all kinds and iv. Non-payment of taxes and revenues
Gandhi-Irwin pact

The British Government agreed to

i. Withdraw all ordinances and end persecutions
ii. Release all political prisoners, except those guilty of violence
iii. Permit peaceful picketing of liquor and foreign cloth shops
iv. Restore the confiscated properties of satyagrahis
v. Permit free collection of salt by people living near seacoast.
The congress,in turn, consented to the following
i. To suspend civil disobedience movement
ii. To participate in second round table conference
iii. Not to press in police investigation into police excesses.
Second round table conference

• It was attended by Gandhiji as sole representative of congress.

• Held between sep 7 to Dec 1,1931.
• The conference was soon deadlocked on the minorities issue, with separate electorates being
demanded by depresses classes, Indian christians, Anglo-Indians and Europeans.
• The question of independence receded into the background.
• Gandhiji returned to India disappointed as his demand of dominion status was not accepted by
british.
Impact of the Movement

• The movement caused a tide of patriotic fervour in the country that would not leave the
Government in peace.
• The civil disobedience movement widened the base of the freedom struggle.
• It made people understand the significance of the principles of non-violence.people could resist
violence with tolerance and courage.
• The movement also popularised new methods of propaganda. Prabhat pheris, in which hundreds
of men and women went around singing patriotic songs in the early morning. Handwritten
patrikas or newssheet were issued in large numbers.even children were organised into vanara
sena and girls had separate manjari sena or the cat army.
• The movement under the leadership of Birla and the ‘Harijan Sevak sangh’ changed the social
conditions. The depressed classes were given entry into temples and access to wells
• It brought women out of their homes to participate in politics and to make equal partners in the
freedom struggle.
• The government of India act, 1935 introduced the principle of a federation and the principle of
provincial autonomy.
• The movement revived the will to fight elections.
 Chapter 9 Quit India Movement
Revised Syllabyus
• Quit India Movement - Causes(failure of
Cripps Mission,Japanese threat), Quit India
Resolution and the significance of the
Movement. Forward Bloc ( objectives) and INA ( Objectives and contribution of subhash chandra
Bose)
The Cripps Mission(1942) Not in syllabus. Only for reference
• The Cripps Mission proposed the following proposals
1. India would be given a dominion status when the war would end.
2. A constituent Assembly would be setup. It would be setup to draft a new constitution.
3. There would be federation of British India and Indian states.
4. The provinces would be free to join the Indian Union. If they would not join, they would frame
their own constitutions.
5. An undertaking would be negotiated between his majesty government and constituent assembly
covering all matters arising out of complete transfer of responsibilities.
6. Provisions would be made for protection of religious minorities.
7. During the critical years of the War, the power of Viceroy would remain hitherto and he would be
responsible for defence of the country.
Failure of Cripps’ mission

• Reasons given by Congress:

• It did not bring promise of Independence in the near future.
• The plan involved partitioning the country.
• The congress was opposed to the principle of nonaccession of the provinces.Mahatma Gandhi
described as a ‘post-dated cheque on a failing bank’.
• The congress insisted on the immediate formation of a national government with full responsibility.
• The congress wanted that all subjects including defence should be handed over to the national
government.
• Reasons given by Muslim League:The league opposed the creation of single union. The proposals did
not accept Pakistan specifically.
• Reasons given by Hindu Mahasabha: The Hindu Mahasabha rejected the proposals because it feared
the partition of the country.
• Reasons given by Minorities:The sikhs,the AngloIndians,the Indian Christians and labour leaders also
opposed them because they did not provide sufficient safeguards for their interests.
• Reasons given by princely States:The people of the Princely states had no right to send their
representatives to the proposed constitution-making body.
Japanese Threat

• The japanese army had attacked Burma and was marching towards Assam.
• Gandhiji observed ‘The Presence of British in India is an invitation to japan to invade India. Their
withdrawal removes the bait’.
• The Indian leaders were anxious to save their country from the japanese invasion but their slavery
was a hindrance.
• Gandhiji and other leaders were convinced that this situation called for immediate independence
from the British immediately.
• Gandhiji was convinced that ‘India’s safety and Britain’s too,lies in the orderly and timely British
withdrawal from India’
 Quit India Resolution

• The congress committee met at wardha in July,1942 adopted Quit India resolution.
• The resolution stated ‘ British rule in India must end immediately’.Gandhiji raised the slogan 'Do or
die'.He said"I am not going to be satisfied with anything short of complete freedom...We shall do or
die.We shall either free India or die in the attempt."
Impact of the movement
1. It demonstrated the depth of nationalist feeling had reached in the country and the great capacity
for struggle and sacrifice that the people had developed.
2. It was evident that British would longer find it possible to rule India against wishes of people.
3. It was the last mass uprising before Independence.
4. The hindus,muslims,sikhs,parsis and even princely states participated.
5. It strengthened the congress nationalist Party. Its leader Jai Prakash Narayan became a legendary
figure.
6. After the suppression of Quit India Movement, the constitutional question remained dormant till
the close of war in 1945.
7. There was hardly any political activity till the war ended in 1945.
8. The leaders of national movement were in jail and new leaders arose to take their place to give a
new lead to the country.,
Objectives of Forward Bloc

• Its immediate objective was liberation of India with the support of workers,peasants,youth and other
organisations.
• After attaining Independence,Forward Bloc would work for the establishment of a Socialist state
through
• Reorganisation of agriculture and industry on socialist lines.
• Abolition of the Zamindari system
• Introduction of a new monetary and credit system.
Indian National Army- Founder and its objectives
• Founder- Capt.Mohan Singh
Objectives of INA
• To organise an armed revolution and to fight the British army with modern arms.
• Since it was not possible for the Indians to organise an armed revolution from their homeland, this
task must be assigned to Indians living abroad, particularly on Indians living in East Asia.
• To organise a provisional government of Free India in order to mobilise all the forces effectively.
• Total mobilisation of Indian man-power and money for a total war.
• The motto of the INA was ‘unity,faith,sacrifice’.
Contribution of Subhash Chandra Bose
• Subhash chandra Bose was instrumental in the formation of the Forward Bloc.
• After evading the british Indian authorities,Bose led the freedom struggle outside the country.
• Active phase of INA began when subhash chandra bose arrived at singapore by German and japanese
submarines.
• He officially took charge of Indian Independence League. He was greeted as Netaji-the great Leader
• In Aug 1943, he took charge of INA and became its supreme commander.
• He setup INA headquarters in Yangon and in singapore and reorganised the INA.Recruits were made
from civilians. A women regiment called the Rani Jhansi Regiment was led by Dr. Laxmi Swaminathan.
• Setup provisional government of free India in 1943 in Singapore.
• The battle cry of Subhash was ‘Give me blood and I shall get you freedom’, ‘Delhi Chalo’ ( March to
Delhi) and ‘Jai Hind’ (Victory to India)
 Chapter 10- Independence and Partition of India
Revised Syllabus

• Cabinet Mission Plan (clauses only)

• The Mountbatten Plan (clauses and its acceptance); and the Indian Independence Act of 1947 (
clauses only)
Clauses of Cabinet Mission Plan
1. Federal Union: There was to be a federal union of the British Provinces and the Princely States. The
Union Government should deal with (i) foreign affairs; (ii) Defence; and (iii) Communication.
2. Powers of the Union : The Union would have its own executive and legislaturs composed of
members elected by all Provinces.
3. Provincial autonomy: the provinces would enjoy full autonomy for all subjects other than the
UnionSubjects.
4. Grouping of Provinces:
Group A : This would include six Hindu Majority Provinces (i)
Madras;(ii) Bombay;(iii) Central Provinces;(iv) United Provinces; (v) Bihar; (vi)
Orissa
Group B : This would include three Muslim Majority Provinces (i) Punjab; (ii) NWFP; (iii) Sind.
Group C : This would include (i) Bengal; and (ii) Assam. Of the Chief Commissioner’s Provinces,
Delhi,Ajmer-Marwar and coorg to join Group A and Baluchistan to join Group B.
5. Formation of a Constituent Assembly : A Constituent Assembly would be set up to frame new
Constitution of the Indian Union. It is composed of 389 members, out of which 296 to be elected from the
British Provinces and 93 to be elected from the Princely States.
6. Representation of minorities : Separate representation was to be given to Muslims and sikhs.
7. Formation of Interim Government : An Interim Government would be formed at the centre with 14
members.
8. Freedom to Join the Commonwealth: India would be free to remain within the British
Commonwealth or secede from it.
9. Transfer of Power: It would be necessary to work out a Treaty between the Constituent Assembly
and the United Kingdom for matters arising out of the transfer of power.
Clauses of Mountbatten Plan
1. Partition – the country would be divided into two Dominions,i.e. India and Pakistan.
2. Relation between two dominions – it was for the two dominions to decide what relations they
would have with British commonwealth and with each other.
3. A Boundary Commission – create a boundary commission to settle the boundaries of the two
dominions in case partition was decided upon.
4. The Princely States – the treaties with them would come to an end and they would be free to
associate themselves with either of the dominions or remain independent.
5. Bengal and Punjab – the legislative assemblies of two provinces would decide in favour of
partition of their respective provinces.
6. Sind – the legislative assembly will take its own decision at a special meeting.
7. North – West Frontier Province – plebiscite was to be held to ascertain whether the people wanted
to join India or Pakistan.
8. The District of Sylhet – the district of sylhet was to decide by referendum whether it would join East
Bengal or remain in Assam.
9. Constituent Assembly- the existing constituent assembly would continue to work but it would n ot
apply to pakistan. A separate constituent Assembly would be constituted for those parts of India
which decided in favour of Partition.
10. Transfer of Power – british parliament would pass an Act for the transfer before aug 15,1947.
Acceptance of Mountbatten Plan

1. The large scale communal riots that engulfed the whole country convinced all that the only
solution to the communal problem lay in Partition of India.
2. The league had joined the interim government to obstruct and not to cooperate.
3. The only alternative to Partition was a federation with a weak centre.
4. A smaller India is better than a bigger state with a weak centre.
5. Any further continuation of British rule would mean a greater calamity for India
6. Further delay in transfer of power could find India in midst of a civil war.
7. Partition would get rid the constitution of separate electorates and other undemocratic
procedures.
Indian Independence Act, 1947

1. Two new dominions

India would be partitioned and two independent Dominions – India and pakistan would be created.
Pakistan would compromise Sindh,British Baluchistan, North-west Frontier Province, the west punjab and
East bengal.

2. Provisions of Partition
Bengal and Punjab- The Provincial assemblies of two provinces would decide through a majority vote
whether they wanted the division of the province or not.
A plebiscite would br held in district of sylhet as well as in
NWFP whether they would like to join pakistan or not.
3. Governor-General for each dominions
4. Constituent assemblies to serve as central legislatures.
5. End of jurisdiction of British Parliament
a. The legislative authority of british parliament would cease from Aug 15,1947.
b. The titles of ‘Emperor of India’ and ‘The King of England’ were dropped from royal style.
c. Till new constitution was framed, all provinces to be governed by Act of 1935.
d. The Governor General was given the powers to modify or adopt the Act of 1935 by March 31, 1948.
e. The right of king to veto laws was given up and given to Governor General.
6. Princely States
They would join either of dominions or to remain Independent and all treaties and agreements made with
British would lapse from August 15,1947.

7. Treaties and Agreements

All treaties and agreements with British Government and the rulers of indian states or any any authority in
tribal areas would lapse.
8. Division of Army and Assets
9. Governor General was given powers for bringing Indian Independence into effective operation.
10. Provisions were made for safeguarding the interests of existing officers appointed by secretary of
state.
The First World War
 Revised syllabus
• Causes ( Nationalism and Imperialism, division of Europe and Sarajevo Crisis) and Results (Treaty of
Versallies, objectives of League of Nations)

Nationalism and Imperalism

Nationalism
• Nationalism refers to the sense of unity felt by the people, who share a common history, language and
culture.
• People believe that their country is superior to other countries.

Aggressive Nationalism
• Aggressive Nationalism meant love for one own country and hatred of other countries.
• Each nation thought about its own national interests and did not care for the interests of other nations.
• Eg. France wanted to get back its provinces of Alsace and Lorraine from Germany.
• Italy wanted to get back the territory of Trentino, Trieste from Austria and Balkan states like Serbia
wanted their fellow nationalists who lived in other states should come together to form greater Balkan
state.
• Therefore military strength became synonymous with national prestige and every country begun to
increase her military power.
Imperialism

• Imperialism refers to the state policy or practice by which a powerful nation establishes its control over
another country, either by political pressure,infiltration,annexation or by outright wars.
• Once conquered, the country was claimed as a colony.
• Colonies provide raw material, cheap labour, agricultural land and trading ports to the imperial nations.
• Acquiring colonies would add to the power and prestige of these countries.
• The colonies was essential to their progress as they would provide raw materials for their industries
and markets for their finished products.
• Thus, aggressive nationalism and fierce economic competition filled the atmosphere with fear,
apprehension, mutual hatred and international tension.
Division of Europe

• Germany entered into an alliance with Austria-Hungary. In 1882 Italy joined the alliance and it came to
be known as Triple alliance.
• After the death of Bismarck,France was able to establish relations with Russia and England. The three
countries entered into the Triple Entente in 1907 to counter the triple alliance.
• Later Japan joined the triple entente. Thus Europe was divided into two hostile camps.
• Britain had created a vast British Empire by acquiring colonies in Asia and Africa. It grew rich from its
success in trade in foreign resources, markets, territories and people.
• Germany, Netherlands, Italy and USA too wanted to acquire colonies in Asia and Africa.
• This led to a scramble for colonies, and therefore, rivalries and wars.
• Rivalries between nations happened not just for colonies but for colonial trade and trade routes as well.
• These rivalries created suspicion, tension and wars, which finally culminated in the First world war.
 Sarajevo Crisis(Immediate cause)

• Archduke Francis Ferdinand, the heir to the throne of Austria- Hungary was assassinated at Sarajevo,
capital of Bosnia on June 28,1914.
• The assassination was organized by a secret society Called ‘Union of Death’ or ‘Black Hand’
• Formed by extreme Serbian Nationalists whose aim was to unite all Serbians into a single Serbian State.
• Austria served an Ultimatum on Serbia on July 23 making eleven demands.
• Serbia accepted most of the demands except those that would have led to the loss of her sovereignity.
• Austria declare war on Serbia on July 28, 1914.
• Russia started preparation for war to support Serbia.
• On August 1, 1914 Germany declared war on Russia; and on August 3, on France.
• Japan declared war on Germany to capture German Colonies in the Far east.
• Turkey and Bulgaria joined Germany.
• Britain, France, Russia and their allies were called the Allied Powers/Triple Entente
• Germany,Austria-Hungary,Italy and their allies were called the Central Powers/Axis Powers/Triple
Alliance
Results ( Treaty of Versallies)
• The victorious powers or the allies , met in a conference first in versallies, and later in paris.

• Though the number of countries represented at the conference was

27, the terms of peace treaties were really decided by Woodrow Wilson, President of the unite nations
, Lloyd George, Prime Minister of England and George Clemenceau, Prime Minister of France.

• On June 28,1919 The Treaty of versallies was signed.

Terms of the Treaty

1. The Treaty declared Germany guilty of aggression.

2. Germany need to pay 33 billion dollars as war compensation to victorious allies and had to supply
huge quantiies of coal to France,Italy and Belgium for 10 years

3. Germany had to cede her merchant ships to allies as compensation

4. Germany had to supply huge amount of coal to France, Italy and Belgium for 10 years.
5. The area of Rhine valley need to be demilitarized and the German territory to the west of Rhine
valley to be occupied by allied troops for 15 years.
6. Germany lost Alsace-Lorraine to France, Eupen-et-Malmedy to Belgium, Schleswig to Denmark
7. Danzig became a free port in the Polish territory
8. Germany ceded her pre war territories to Denmark,Belgium,Poland,Czechoslovakia and France.
9. Saar coal mines to be ceded to France for 15 years
10. Germany lost all her colonies to victorious allies – Britain,Belgium,South Africa and Portugal.
11. German colonies in the Pacific and the areas under her control in china were given to Japan.
12. German army was restricted to 1,00,000
13. German Navy was restricted to 15000 men and 24 war ships
14. The air force and submarines were totally banned.

Objectives of League of Nations

• To achieve international peace and security

• The member-states were not supposed to maintain huge armies, warships and destructive armanents.
• All the states of the world were prohibited from entering into any secret treaties and alliances.
• All states were to respect each other’s Independence.
• All states were to refer their mutual disputes,if any,to the League of Nations for a peaceful settlement.
• The member-states were to take necessary action as directed by the League against any State which
tried to disturb world peace and order.
• Apart from political functions, the League of Nations was supposed to promote cultural,social and
economic cooperation among the member-states.
 Chapter 12 Rise of Dictatorships
Reduced Syllabus
• Cause for the rise of Fascism in Italy and the rise of Nazism in Germany. Similarities between Mussolini’s
Fascist and Hitler’s Nazi ideologies.
Causes for rise of Fascism in Italy
1. Discontentment after the Treaty of Versailles
Italy joined the Allies in the First world war to gain territories of Turkey and Germany. But by
the Treaty of Versailles, she could get only Southern Tyrol and Trentino,and the coastal regions of Dalmatia.
She could get no part of the German and Turkish colonial empire.
2. Economic crisis
Italy suffered heavy losses in terms of life and property in the First world war.After the war, many soldiers
became unemployed. Trade and commerce were ruined leading to large scale employment. There was a
shortage of food grains.
3. Political Instability
Democracy was introduced in Italy for the first time in 1919. Elections failed to give a clear majority and as
a result, six coalition governments were formed between 1919 and 1922. They were unable to deal
efficiently with the problems of unemplyment, strikes and riots and this situation was effectively capitalized
by Mussolini , who promised to provide a strong national government.
4. Classs conflicts 5. Threat of Socialism or communism
The Socialists who included the Anarchists, the communists, and the social democrats created conditions
conducive to the growth of Fascism in Italy. Inspired by the Russian Revolution, the communists inflamed
the atmosphere with revolutionary ideas. Peasants took away the land from landlords; workmen organised
strikes, damaged machines and took hold of the factories. The communists began to devise new plans of
overthrowing the government and capturing power. People wanted a powerful leadership who could
establish peace and prosperity by ending lawlessness and insecurity prevelant in Italy.
6. Failure of League of Nations
It proved weak and failed to achieve its aims to maintain peace in the world. It failed to check the rise of
dictatorships. Had it acted well in time, the ambitious plan of Mussolini and Hitler would have not
materialised.
7. Leadership provided by Mussolini
He had a charismatic personality. His speeches praised the past glories of Italy and won the faith of the
countrymen. Mussolini was called ‘duce’ which means the leader.
Causes for the rise of Nazism
1. Humiliating Treaty of Versailles
Germans looked down the weimar republicwhich had signed a disgraceful treaty. Germany was
forced to cede large chunks of territory to France, Belgium,,Poland and Denmark.
Her overseas possessions (colonies) were divided by the allies among themselves.Germany was forced to
pay war repartations of 33 billion dollars. Germany army was reduced to 1 lakh. The terms of this treaty
were greatly resented by he Germans who eagerly looked for an oppurtunity to avenge the same.
2. Growing fear of communism
the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia, the communist influence in Germany increased considerably. The
communists organised themselves effectively and succeeded in capturing a number of seats in Reichstag.
Hitler warned the people that the communists of Germany wpuld became servants of their Russian masters
and would follow the dictates of Communist.
3. Economic crisis
As a result of the harsh terms of Treaty of Versailles, Germany had to suffer in agricultural production,
colonies, foreign investment, trade cntracts,etc. The foreign countries raised tariff against the German
goods.The number of unemployment people increased. The condition f farmers become miserable. By June
1931, debts on farmers had risen to $300 million. Hitler promised to condone the debts of farmers, and
promised capitalists that their industries would not be nationalised. He assured people that if they abide by
nazi ideology, the economic misery would come to an end and Germany would regain her lost glory.
4. Resurgence of Militant Nationalism
Germans preferred prestige and glory to liberty and freedom. They felt that only a strong man could restore
the past prestige of Germany and check the rising tide of communalism. When Hitler promised them all
glory , they welcomed him with open arms. 5. Anti-semitic propoganda
The Nazis described the Jews as traitors. They said that the Jews had conspired with the Allies during the
war and could again commit treason against Germany. They impressed upon government that their
hardship was due to the exploitation by the Jews,who dominated German economy.Due to this anti-
semitic propoganda many Germans rallied behnd the Nazi party.
6. Absence of strong opposition
The rise of Nazi party in Germany was faciliated by the absence of any strong opposition party.As a result,
the Nazi party did not encounter any effective resistance and its popularity achieved great heights.
7. Establishment of volunteer corps
under the treaty of versailles, German’s military force was considerably reduced and a large number of
German soldiers were thrown out of employment. Hitler roped in all these and organised them into
volunteer corps.
8. Charismatic personality of Hitler
He was shrewd politician and a brave soldier. He knew the art of moulding public opinion in his favour
according to he circumstances. He was gifted orator who captivated Germans by his emotional speeches.
This greatly appealed to the German people and they extended full support to Hitler and Nazi party.
Similarities between the ideologies of Nazism and Fascism
1. To have faith in totalarian rule.
2. To despise democratic political systems
3. To hold that the state is supreme and it could suppress the fundamental rights and freedom of
individuals.
4. To uphold one-party and one leader.
5. To believe in aggressive nationalism and imperialism.
6. To regard war as an instrument for furthering national intrests.
7. To uphold intensely nationalistic, anticommunist,anti-democratic rule.
 History Chapter 13 The Second World war
Revised Syllabus

• Causes (Dissatisfaction with the Treaty of Versailles, Rise of Fascism and Nazism, Policy of
Appeasement, Japanese invasion of China,
failure of League of Nations and Hitler’s invasion of Poland). Consequences (brief mention of defeat
of Axis powers, formation of the United Nations and cold war between two power blocs)

Dissatisfaction with Treaty of Versallies

• This treaty was based on the spirit of revenge and Germany was forced to sign the treaty.

• All the colonies were forcibly taken away from her and she was divided into two parts for the benefit
of Poland

• She was burdened with heavy war indemnity which she could never pay.
• Her military power was reduced
• The humiliation gave rise to the spirit of revenge and Germany started looking for an opportunity to
do away with the harsh treaty. But this was not possible without an aggressive policy and armaments.
Hence, the war became inevitable.
Rise of Fascism and Nazism

• Rise of Fascism

• Italy wanted to revive the glory of old roman empire.

• She joined the Anti-Cominterm Pact in 1937 and formed a ten year alliance with Germany in 1939.
• Mussolini established dictatorship in Italy.
• He opposed Treaty of Versailles.
• Italy demonstrated her imperialistic designs by attacking Abyssinia.
• The League of Nations failed to take any action against Italy, which exhibited the weakness of the
league.
• Rise of Nazism
• Hitler wanted to re-establish the prestige of Germany in the international field.

• He flouted the military causes in the Treaty of Versailles and declared re-armament.

• In 1938, he annexed Austria and dismembered Czechoslovakia.

• So both Hitler and Mussolini drove the countries of the world into another world war.

Policy of Appeasement

• Appeasement refers to the policy of conciliating an aggressive power at the expense of some other
country.
• It meant accepting the hostile demands of an aggressive nation to gain peace.
• Britain and France followed the policy of appeasement toward dictatorial countries like Germany and
Italy because they felt that the dictators had a real cause of grievances due to humiliating treaty of
Versailles and if their grievances are removed they would not disturb world peace.
• They, therefore, allowed Germany to rearm and to re-militarise the Rhineland and capture Austria
and Czechoslovakia.
• So without western countries’ policy of appeasement, Fascism or Nazism could not have survived so
long and would not have been able to unleash the Second World War.
Japanese Invasion of China

• In 1931, Japan intervened in Manchuria and, inspite of the league’s opposition, occupied it and set up
a government there.
• Japan also started an undeclared war against China in 1931.
• China appealed to league of nations to impose economic sanctions against Japan.
• Britain and France, the leading members of the league did not pay any attention to the appeal.
• Japan joined Berlin-Rome Axis to form the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo axis to further its policy of expansion
and conquest.
• In 1933, Japan left League of Nations and started occupying the british and American properties in
china.
• Japan entered into world II only to satisfy her hunger for more territories.
Failure of League of Nations

• The League suffered a early blow when USA did not join the League.
• Even those who joined were not interested in the principle of collective security.
• The League did nothing when Poland, with the backing of France, seized a part of Lithuania in 1920.In
1923, there was threat of war between Italy and Greece. Italy refused to submit and the dispute was
settled by direct mediation of Great Britain and France.Therefore in every crisis, the League was
either defied or ignored.
• The authority was flouted by Japan when it seized Manchuria.And by Italy when it captured Ethopia.
• The economic sanctions were of no use against a determined aggressor.
• Moreover the member states were not willing to apply economic sanctions as it affected their
economy as well.
• The League failed to maintain international peace and the countries of Europe lost faith in its
usefulness.
• The League of Nations did not have international army of their own.
Hitler’s Invasion of Poland(Immediate Cause)

• By Treaty of Versallies, Germany was divided into two parts in order to give a land route to Poland
upto the sea and port of danzig was given to Poland. Germany wanted to regain her lost territories.
• The City of Danzig was mainly inhabited by Germans and by occupying German corridor, Germany
could connect with East Prussia.
• Poland was accused of committing atrocities against Germans living there. So Germany signed a Non-
Aggression Pact with Russia in 1939.
• On Sep 1, 1939, Germany marched into Poland .
• France and Britain gave ultimatum to Germany.
• In reply, Germany attacked France.
• On Sep 3, England and France decalred war on Germany.
 Bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki

• The American navy and air force destroyed the Japanese fleet, but Japan was still firmly and strongly
established in China, Manchuria and other places.
• In 1945, the Japanese in the4 philippines formed a special force called ‘lamikaze’(the suicide air
corps) and steered an explosive-air laden plane into the side of an American ship.
• In July 1945, the first atomic bomb was detonated in the desert near Alamogordo, New Mexico.
• Days before the first bomb was dropped on Japan, American planes dropped leaflets warning about
the deadly weapon and urged the Japanese people and government to end fighting.
• On August 6, 1945, the first atomic bombs ever to be used on humans, was dropped on Hiroshima,
destroying half of the city killing thousands of people.
• Despite the terrible destruction, the Japanese still refused to surrender. On August 9,1945, another
bomb was dropped on Nagasaki.
• On September 2,1945, Japan surrendered unconditionally, bringing second world war to an end.
Consequences of second World War
• Defeat of axis powers
• At the end of war, Germany was divided into zones, each zone under the army of each of the allied
powers.
• (a) The Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) commonly known as West Germany was administered by
UK, France and the U.S with Bonn as its capital.It came under the capitalist ideology of the Anglo-
American and their allies and became part of the capitalist bloc.
• (b) The German Democratic Republic (GDR), known as East Germany was administered by the Soviet
Union with East Berlin as the Capital. It came under the influence of the political ideologies of
communist Russia and became part of the communist bloc.
• (c ) The German army was reduced and all her war material was snatched away from her. The Allies
tried the war criminals ans some stalwarts of the Nazi Party were executed. It brought about the end
of Nazism in Germany.
• (ii) Japan and Italy also became very weak. Unlike Germany, they were not divided into zones to be
governed by the conquering forces. The American army was to occupy Japan until 1952..After this
Japanese would resume sole control over their own affairs. Emperor Hirohito was left on the throne
as a constitutional monarch and the Japanese Parliament retained some of its law making powers. All
lands acquired or seized by Japan since 1895 were taken away.
• (iii) Both Japan and Italy were deprived of their conquests and colonies. Their military power was
reduced and they were forced to pay heavy war-indemnity. Fascism came to an end in Italy.
Formation of United Nations

• The horrors of two world wars and the failure of the League of Nations led to a meeting of the Big
three – Roosevelt (President of the USA), Churchill (Prime Minister of Britain) and Stalin ( Premier of
the USSR) at Yalta in February 1945. They resolved to convene a conference of the representatives of
all nations at San Francisco to draw up the ‘Charter of the United Nations’.

• This led to the formation of the United Nations Organisation on October 24,1945.

Cold War between two blocs

• During second World War, the USA and the Soviet Union fought together in cooperation with each
other. However the apparent harmony declined and ideological differences came to the forefront.
This state of tension between countries in which each side adopted policies designed to strengthen
itself and weaken the other without armed conflict, is known as the ‘cold war’
• Cold War is defined as an atmosphere when there is no armed struggle, but the rivals continue to
maintain their peace time diplomatic relations along with their hostility.
• Thus both continued to maintain diplomatic relations but treated each other with hostility. This led to
the division of the world into two power blocs.One bloc was led byb USA and the other by the
erstwhile USSR.
• The Democratic and Capitalist bloc: The bloc led by the USA, called the Western bloc or the american
bloc believed in liberal democracy based on capitalism .This bloc comprised Britain, France, belgium,
italy, Canada, Australia,the
Netherlands,Greece,Pakistan,Turkey,etc.They projected USSR as enemy of world peace and
communism a grave threat to freedom and liberty throughout the world.
• The communist bloc: The bloc led by the USSR, called the Eastern bloc or the soviet union bloc
believed in communism based on Marxist theory. The Soviet bloc countries considered the western
style democracy as a farce, meant only for the rich and upper middle class. Therefore, they wanted to
spread Communism in the world and bring about a change in the social system of all the countries of
the world.Thus by 1948, governments which owed allegiance to Moscow were established in Poland,
Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, and czechoslovakia. Though Yugoslavia and albania were not directly
linked to Russia as satellies, the governments of these two countries were also communist. Thus, the
whole Europe was divided into two power blocs
 Chapter 14-The United Nations
Syllabus
• United Nations
• The objectives of the UN
• The composition and any four functions of the General Assembly,Security Council and the
International Court of Justice.
United Nations
• Established on 24th October,1945.
• Headquarters- New York,USA.
• UN Flag- it is light blue in colour and portrayed in white at its centre is UN Emblem, a polar map of
the world surrounded by twin olive branches.Adopted on Oct 20,1947.
• Official Languages- Arbic,Chinese,English,French,Russian and Spanish.A speech made in any of these
languages is translated into other five languages but documents are written only in English and
French.
• Finances- The expenditure of the United Nations is met by the contributions made by the member
countries.
• Membership- on Oct 24,1945 only 50 countries were members but as of today it has 193 countries
as members. The last country to be admitted is South Sudan.
Objectives Of UN

• To maintain international peace and security

• To develop friendly relations among nations
• To achieve international cooperation in solving international economic,social,cultural,or humanitarian
problems.
• To be a centre for harmonising the action of nations
• Disarm
• Decolonise
• Develop
General Assembly- The Legislative/Parliament of UN
• Composition
All members of the UN are members of the General Assembly.
Each State has five representatives but each state has one vote.
Regular session - 3rd Tuesday in september and usually continues till third week of December.
At the start of regular session, the assembly elects a new President, 21 VicePresidents and the Chairman
of the Assembly’s six main committees.
The Presidency rotates among five groups of states: Africa, Asia,Eastern Europe, Latin America and
carribean, and werstern Europe and other states.
Special sessions are convened by the Secretary-General at the request of the Security council or by a
special request by a majority of members. Decisions on ordinary matters require simple majority and
decisions on important matters requires two-thirds majority.
Functions of General Assembly(Any four)
1. To make recommendations for the peaceful settlement of disputes.
2. To receive and consider reports from the Security Council and other organs of the United Nations.
3. To consider and approve the budget of the United Nations
4. To elect the non-permanent members of Security Council,the economic and Social Council and the
trusteeship council,and to elect the Judges of the International Court of Justice.
5. To appoint the Secretary-General on the recommendations of the Security Council.
The Security Council- The Executive
Organ/body
Composition
The Council consists of 15 members. It has five permanent member-China,France,Russia,Britain and the
United Nations of America.
The regional representation of ten non-permanent countries is (i) Afro-Asian countries-5;(ii) Latin
American countries-
2;(iii) West European and other countries- 2;(iv)East
European countries-1
The ten non permanent countries are elected by the General Assembly,by a two-third majority for a term
of two years.A retiring member is not eligible for immediate re-election.
The Presidency of the council rotates monthly,according to the English alphabetical listing of its member
states.
Veto Power

• The negative vote of a permanent member is called a Veto.The power of permanent countries to say
no is called veto power.By application of this power the permanent countries can reject any decisions
of the security Council.
• Decisions on ordinary matters require affirmative vote of 9 out of 15 countries.
• Decisions on important matters require affirmative vote of 9 including the affirmative vote of five
permanent countries.
Functions of Security council(Any Four)
1. To maintain international peace and security.
2. To investigate any disputes or situation which might lead to international friction.
3. To recommend method of adjusting such disputes or terms of settlement
4. To formulate plans for the establishment of a system to regulate armanents.
5. To call on members to apply economic sanctions.
6. To take military action against an aggressor.
7. To recommend admissions of new members.
8. To recommend to the General Assembly the appointment of the Secretary-General
9. They together with the assembly elect the Judges of International Court of Justice.
International Court of Justice- The Judicial Organ
• Composition
It is composed of 15 Judges elected for a term of 9 years by General Assembly and security council. The
Chief Justice is elected for a term of 3 years only.
It may not include more than one judge from any nationality.
Elections are held every three years for one-third of the seats, and retiring judges may be re-elected.
The Judges must possess qualifications required in their respective countries for appointment to the
highest judicial offices.
The court elects its President and Vice-President for a three year term and they are eligible for re-election.
Functions(Any four)
1. Voluntary Jurisdiction
2. Compulsory Jurisdiction
Ex: (a) disputes pertaining to interpretation of international law
(b) repartation,i.e compensation to be made for breach of an international obligation.
3. The only bodies authorised to request advisory opinions of the court are five organs and 16
specialized agencies of United Nations family.
4. Codification of international law.
5. Evolving procedures for peaceful settlement of disputes.
 Chapter 15- Major Agencies of the United Nations
Syllabus

• Major agencies of united nations:

UNICEF,WHO and UNESCO- ANY FOUR
FUNCTIONS ONLY
UNICEF
• Full form/Acronym- UNITED NATIONS CHILDREN’S FUND
Functions
1. It provides technical supplies,equipment and other aids, ranging from paper to textbooks
2. To equipments and medicines to health clinics
3. To pipes and pumps for bringing clean water to villages.
4. It provides help to children and mothers in emergencies arising from natural calamities,civilstrifes
and epidemics.
5. It makes effort to prevent diseases like tuberculosis,malaria,eye diseases and skin diseases,etc.
6. UNICEF was awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1965 and the Indira Gandhi Prize for Peace in
1989.
WHO
• Full Form/Acronym- WORLD HEALTH ORGANISATION
Functions
1. It gives important drugs needed for medical care.
2. The WHO launched a programme to immunise children against six major diseases-
Measles,Diphtheria.Tetanus,Tuberculosis,Polio and Whooping cough
3. It promotes research to cure and prevent diseases.
4. It works towards providing safe drinking water and adequate waste disposal.
5. It publishes health journals like ‘Bulletin of the World Health Organisation’ and ‘Public Health
Panaroma’
6. It aims at fighting diseases and preventing them from spreading.Malaria eradication programme
continues to be the world’s biggest health programme.
UNESCO

• Full form/Acronym- UNITED NATIONS

EDUCATIONAL AND CULTURAL ORGANISATION
Functions
1. In the field of Education
a. Removal of illiteracy
b. Emphasis on education of women and girls.
c. Financial assistance for the education of disabled children.
d. Organisation of festivals and book fairs at international and national levels.
Functions of UNESCO- Continued…

2. In the field of Scientific activities

a. UNESCO organises seminars and conferences of scientists of various countries and circulates
information through journals.
b. ‘Courier’ is the official monthly magazine of UNESCO. It’s Hindi and Tamil editions are available in
India.
c. It promotes research in the fields like geology,mathematics,physics and oceonagraphy.
d. It helps in correcting the imbalance in scientific and technological manpower that exists, because
90% of trained manpower is concentrated in the industralised countries.
Communication
a. It upholds the freedom of the press and independence of the media.
b. It has setup regional networks,trained technicians and deals with both hardware and software
aspects of informatics.
c. It improves the quality of Press,the films and video services.
d. It assists developing countries to develop communication.
Preservation of Cultural Heritage
a. UNESCO provides technical advice and assistance,equipment and funds for the preservation of
monuments and other works of art.
b. It has prepared a World Heritage List to identify the monuments and sites which are to be
protected.
c. It aims to protect the world inheritance of books,works of art and rare manuscripts.
d. It sends cultural missions to different countries so that there would be development of contacts
which may promote peace and prosperity.
 Non-Aligned Movement
Syllabus
• Brief meaning
• Objectives of NAM
• Names of the architects of NAM.
Meaning of Non-Alignment
• It is the international policy of a sovereign state according to which it does not align itself with any of
the power blocs and at the same time actively paticipates in world affairs to promote international
peace, harmony and cooperation.
Objectives of Non-Alignment
a. To eliminate all causes which could lead to war.
b. To protect the nascent freedom of the new-born independent countries of Asia and Africa from
colonial domination.
c. To oppose colonialism,imperialism and racial discrimination.
d. To advocate sovereign equality of all states.
e. To encourage friendly relations among countries.
f. To advocate peaceful settlement of disputes.
g. To oppose the use of force and the use of nuclear weapons.
h. To strengthen the United Nations as a organ of world peace.
Names of Architects of NAM

• Prime Minister Nehru of India

• President Joseph Broze Tito of Yugoslavia
• President Nasser of Egypt
• President Sukarno of Indonesia.
 The Union Executive
(a)The President
• Qualifications for election,composition of Electoral College,reason for indirect election,term of
office,procedure for impeachment.
• Powers : executive,legislative,discretionary and emergency (only the three types of emergencies
and circumstances leading to proclamation of these emergencies).
2. The Vice-President
• Qualifications for election and term of office and powers.
Qualifications for election for
President
1. Should be citizen of India
• Should be above 35 years of age
• Should be qualified for election as member of Lok sabha.
2. should not hold office of profit under the government. However the post of President ,Vice-President
or a minister of union or state is not considered office of profit.
Additional requirements
• A prospective presidential candidate is required to get his nomination paper proposed by atleast 50
electors and seconded by another 50 electors.
• The Presidential candidate has also to deposit a security of 15,000 while filing his nomination papers,
which stands forfeited if a candidate fails to get atleast 1/6th of the total votes.
Composition of Electoral College
• President is elected indirectly by members of an electoral college consisting of:
1. the elected Mp’s and Mla’s including National capital Territory of Delhi and the Union Territory
of Puducherry.
Reason for indirect election

• He could become rival centre of power to the council of ministers.

• Direct election could make him a nominee of the ruling party like the prime minister.Such a
President could not represent the constituent states of the Union.
• waste of time and money
• To show that he is only a nominal head and not the real head.
Term of office

• 5 yrs.
• He can resign his post before the expiry of the term by submitting letter of resignation to
vicepresident.
• He also can be removed by the process of impeachment , for the violation of constitution or
incapacity
• Death- In case of death or resignation of President, the new president must be elected with in six
months.Till then, the Vice-President acts as the President.
Procedure for Impeachment
1. Either house of parliament can level the charge as follows:
a. resolution which is moved after atleast 14
days notice in writing signed by not less than
1/4th of total members of house and
b. the resolution passed by a majority of not
less than 2/3rd of the membership of the house.
2. when a charge has been so preferred by either house of Parliament, the other house will
investigate the charge and the president has the right to appear and to be represented at such an
investigation.
3. As a result of investigation, if the charge is passed by majority of not less than 2/3 rd of the total
membership of the house, president will be impeached.
Powers of President
Executive Powers
1. Head of Union Administration-All executive orders are issued in the name of President.
2. Appointment of officials of state- He appoints
The Prime Minister and the council of ministers on Pm advice,the chief Justice and the Judges of
Supreme Court and the High Courts,The governors of states,The ltGovernors and the chief
commissioners of the union territories,The Attorney General of India,The Comptroller and Auditor
General of India,The Chairman and memvers of Union Public Service Commision, The chairman
and members of the economic commission.
3. Control over state Governments
4. Administration of Union territories and border areas.
Legislative Powers
1. Addresses the sessions of the Parliament- First session of every year and the first session after the
house assemble together after the general elections to the LokSabha.
2. Messages to Parliament-He can poewer to send messages to either house of Parliament on any
matter relating to Parliament.
3. Summons and Prorogue the house
4. Dissolve the Lok sabha
5. Nominate 12 members to Rajya sabha from among persons having special knowledge in
literature,science,art and social service
6. Assent to Bills– three options open in front of president when ordinary bills comes to him for
assent for the first time
a. may give his assent
b. may withhold the bill
c. send it back to the house with recommendations but if the bill is passed in the same
form,president have to compulsory sign the bill.
7. Promulgate ordinances– Definition – An temporary law made by President when both of the
house of parliament is not in session. It will have the same status as an Act of Parliament.
Conditions—
i. President is satisfied that the circumstances make it necessary to take immediate action.
ii. When both the houses of parliament is not in session.
iii. Ordinance must be laid before both the house of Parliament when they reassemble.if Parliament
do not approve them,it lapses.normal time to approve ordinances-6 weeks.
iv. Ordinances lapses if it is replaced by Act of Parliament
8. Assent to some state bills--circumstances- Governor may reserve some bills passed by the state
legislature for consideration of the President.
9. Formation of new states.
10. Changing of names of states
Discretionary powers
• Appointment of PM when no single party commands clear support of majority of loksabha
members.( in case of hung parliament)
• Appointment of PM in case of sudden death
• Appointment of PM, When the ruling party has lost majority in loksabha
• When vote of no-confidence has been passed against it,recommends the president to dissolve Lok
sabha,then it is at the discretion of president to either dissolve the house or ask another party to
prove majority in Lok sabha.
• The president can dismiss ministers in case the Council of Ministers loses the confidence of the
house but refuses to resign.
• The President may withhold his assent to a bill or may send it back for reconsideration of the houses,
if it is not a money bill.
• The constitution does not prescribe any time limit within which the President is to declare his assent
or refusal or to return the bill.By reason of this absence of atime limit, the President may simply keep
the bill on his desk for an indefinite time period. [ refereed to as ‘pocket veto’]
• The President enjoys the right to seek information from PM regarding the administration of the affairs
of the Union.
• A caretaker government at the centre can not take any major decisions. The President can restrain
such a government from taking such decisions.
• In case of state money bill reserved by Governor , President may either declare his assent or
withhold his asssent.
• In case of state non-money bill, President may instead of declaring his assent or refusing it, direct the
governor to return the Bill to the Legislature for reconsideration. In the latter case, the Legislature
must reconsider the Bill within six months and if it is passe again, the bill shall be presented
toPresident again. But it shall be obligatory upon President to give his assent in this case too.
Emergency powers
• 1. National Emergency
• Circumstances – if President is satisfied that a grave emergency exists whereby the security
of India or any part of its territory is threatened,either by war or by external aggresion or armed
rebellion. He cannot declare this emergency unless he has the approval in writing of the union
cabinet.
2.Breakdown of Constitutional emergency

• Circumstances- if president, on receipt of a

report from the governor or otherwise,is satisfied that the governance of the state cannot be carried on in
accordance with the provisions of the constitution.it is also called as president’s rule.
Financial Emergency
• Circumstances-If the president is satisfied,that the financial stability or credit of the country or any part of
it is is threatened or has occurred or is likely to occur.
The Vice-President

• Qualifications
A person seeking election as Vice-President, shall be
a) A citizen of India
b) has completed the age of 35 years; and
c) is qualified for election as member of the councilof states (Rajya Sabha)
d) He/she will not be eligible if he/she holds any office of profit under state or central government.
Term of office
• The vice-President shall hold office for a period of five years.
• He may resign by submitting resignation letter to President of India.
• He/she may be removed for the violation of constitution, be removed from the office by the process
of impeachment.
Powers of Vice-President

1. Chairman of Rajya Sabha: The Vice-President of India acts as the ex-officio Chairman of Rajya
sabha.
2. Taking over as the President: The Vice-President takes over the office of the President under
the following situations:
a. death of President,
b. resignation of the President,
c. removal of the President,or
d. When the President is unable to discharge his or her functions owing to absence,illness or any other
cause.
 3. Prime Minister and Council of Ministers
Revised Syllabus

• Appointment, formation of Council of Ministers, three categories of Council of

ministers,tenure,functions – policy making, administrative,legislative,financial,emergency. Position
and Powers of the Prime Minister( with reference to the President, the cabinet, the Parliament and
role as the Leader of the Nation), Collective and individual responsibility of the members of the
Cabinet.
• Distinction between the Council of Ministers and the Cabinet.
Appointment

• President appoints the Prime Minister.

• According to convention, the President invites the leader of majority Party or group in the Loksabha to
form the Government.
• The majority Party elect their leader to be appointed as Primeminister and President has to appoint
him as Prime Minister.
• If no Political Party secures an absolute majority in Loksabha, then President may have option in the
appointment of Prime Minister.
• President has to appoint who can prove that he has the support of parties to form the Government.
Formation of Council of Ministers

• Only the members of Parliament are appointed as ministers.

• In case a non-member is appointed as minister, he must be elected or nominated to the Parliament
within 6 months.
• Three categories of Council of ministers
i. Cabinet Ministers – Most important members of the council of ministers. They hold important Portfolios
like home, defence, etc.
Only the cabinet has the right to attend the meetings ii. Ministers of state – They may or may
not hold an independent charge of Portfolios. They generally attend meetings when matters
concerning their departments are being considered.
iii. Deputy Ministers – they assist the cabinet and council of Ministers. They take no part in
cabinet deliberations.
Term of Office

• The council of ministers are directly responsible to loksabha and can remain in office so long as they
enjoy the majority support in the house.If the Loksabha passes a vote of No-Confidence against the
Council of Ministers they have to resign collectively.
Powers and functions of the Cabinet
Administrative Powers
• 1. Policy Making: The cabinet formulates both the external and domestic policies of the Government.
• 2. Implementation of Policies: Once the policy decision is taken by Cabinet on any subject, it is
conveyed to the Minister of the state and the deputy minister of the concerned ministry. They work
out the details and pass it to the civil servants under that ministry to imlement the decision.
• 3. Coordinating the functioning of various ministers:The Cabinet coordinates the working of various
departments for the smooth implementation of government policies.
• 4. Appointments: All major appointments though made by President, are decided upon by the
Cabinet. The Cabinet chooses our ambassadors to other nations.
 Legislative powers of the Cabinet

• 1. Introduction of Bills: The Cabinet initiates almost 95 percent of the Bills. The legislative proposals
that the cabinet formulates are called Official Bills.
• 2. Amendment to the constitution: The Cabinet is instrumental in planning and moving the
amendment to the constitution.
• 3. Summoning the Houses of Parliament: Although the houses are summoned by President, initiatives
in this matter is taken by the Ministry of parliamentary Affairs.
• 4. President’s special addresses: The Cabinet prepares the President’s special address.
• Issuing ordinances: Cabinet also advises the President to issue ordinances when Parliament is not in
session.
Financial Powers

1. Budget: the Finance Minister prepares the Annual Budget and usually no changes are made in the
budget figures against the wishes of the cabinet.
2. Finances to the Government: The Cabinet is responsible for the expenditure of the government,
for presenting the demand for grants and also for raising neccesary income by various means
including taxation.
3. Introduction of money Bills: A Money Bill can be introduced in Lok Sabha.
Emergency Powers

• The President cannot declare a proclamation of General emergency under Aricle 352 without receiving
in writing the decision of the Cabinet to this effect. Similarly, the questions of Procalmation of Financial
Emergency and of President’s rule are also decided by the Cabinet.
Position and powers of the Prime
Minister
• President is the nominal head whereas Prime Minister is the real head of the nation.
• But in Parliamentary democracy, his deeds are closely judged not only by opposition but also by
members of his own party.
• If he tries to assume dictatorial tendencies, he cannot escape the loss of confidence of the Parliament
during the tenure as well as of the electorate in the following general elections.
Prime Minister and the President

• He is the principal advisor of the President

• It is on the advice of the Prime Minister that the
President summons and prorogues the Parliament
• President dissolves loksabha on the advice of Prime Minister
• The Prime Minister chooses the ministers and on his advice, President appoints them.
• He also advices President on the appointment of Judges of supreme Court, the Governors and
ambassadors.
• He is a link between president and the council of ministers.
Prime Minister and Cabinet

• He is the Leader of the Cabinet

• He has power to allocate Portfolios and to reshuffle the council of Ministers
• He has the power to select and dismiss ministers
• He has the power to direct and coordinate policy
• The Prime Minister resignation implies the resignation of the whole cabinet.
Prime Minister inside the Parliament

• He is the Leader of the Loksabha

• He is the Spokesperson of the Government

• He is the Defender of government policies

• He Intervenes in case of controversial issues.
Prime Minister as leader of nation

• When he speaks, the whole nation is supposed to be speaking through him.

• During the national crisis like war, even the opposition party supports him
• The prime Minister decides what kind of relation India would have with other countries
• The Prime Minister tries to protect the interests of the country in international forums.
• At the time of general election, it is the proposed prime minister for whom or against whom the people
vote.
• The Prime Minister is the ex-officio chairman of Niti Aayog and Atomic energy commission.
Collective responsibility
• Article 75(3) of the constituion states “the Council of ministers shall be collectively responsible to the
House of the People.’
• The Principle of collective responsibilty implies the following:
a. The decision taken in meetings of the cabinet are equally applicable to all ministers even though they may
differ in some policy
• All ministers jointly share the responsibilty for the governments policies and performance.The
minosters must function as a team.
• A vote of no-confidence against one minister is a vote against the whole ministry.
• All the ministers sink and swim together.
Individual responsibility

• The ministers are individually responsible to the president

• They hold the office during the pleasure of the President and may be dismissed by him on the advice
of primeminister.
• Each minister is answerable to Parliament for the department under his control
• It is obligatory for him to answer all the questions asked by Mp’s, regarding the functioning of his
department.
• Every minister is responsible for (a) Personal lapse (b) departure from official policy (c) breach of oath
of secrecy and so on.
Distinction between Council of Ministers and the Cabinet
 Civics Chapter 4 The Union Judiciary

The Supreme Court

Revised syllabus
• Composition, Qualifications of
Judges,independence of Judiciary from the control of executive and legislature;appointment;
Jurisdiction and functions: Original, Appellate, Advisory,
Revisory, Judicial Review and Court of Record.Enforcement Of Fundamental Rights and Writs.
Composition
• The Supreme Court consists of One Chief Justice and 33 other Judges.
• Number of Judges can be increased by law prescribed by Parliament.
Qualification of Supreme Court Judges

1. He is a Citizen Of India.
2. Has been for atleast five years a judge of High Court or two or more courts in succession
Or
Has been for atleast 10 years an advocate of
High Court or two or more courts in succession
Or
In the opinion of President, a distinguished Jurist.
Appointment of Judges

• Supreme Court Chief Justice is appointed by

President in consultation with Judges of Supreme Court and of High Court besides Council of
Ministers.

• Judges of Supreme Court is appointed by President in consultation with Chief Justice Of India.

• Generally the seniormost judge is appointed as Chief Justice.

Appointment of Ad Hoc Judges
• Appointed by Chief Justice with the consent of President and Chief Justice of High Court concerned.

• The Chief Justice, at any times may appoint the retired Judges of supreme court with consent of
President
Independence of Judiciary from the control of Executive
1. Appointment of Judges
Every Judge of Supreme Court is apppointed by President after consultation with the cabinet as well as the
Judges of the Supreme court and High courts
 2. Removal of Judges
A judge of can be removed by President only for prove d misbehaviour and incapacity. This charge needs to
be proved only by a joint addresss by both Houses of parliament and supported by two-third majority of
members presnt and voting.This can be done only after an allegation has been throughly examined by some
impartial tribunal.
3. Security of tenure
A judge can remain in office till he/she attains the age of 65 except he removed by impeachment.
4. Security of salries and allowances
Judges salaries and allowances shall not be changed to their disadvantage during their term of office. It can
be reduced only during financial emergency.Their salaries and allowances are charged on the Consolidated
Fund of India.
5. Freedom to announce Decisions and decrees 6. Punishment for contempt
of court 7. Full procedure over its procedure of work and establishment
8. No discussion in the legislature on the conduct of Judges
No discussion can be done in Parliament regarding the conduct of any judge or about discharge of his
duties except when there is a motion for his removal
9. Prohibition of practice after retirement
The Judges are paid handsome pensions but they are not allowed to practice after their retirement. This
has been done so that the judges are not obliged, during their tenure as judges, to any prospective
employer. Moreover if they are allowed to practice they might influence their former colleagues in the
judiciary.
Jurisdiction and functions

• Original Jurisdiction
• It means to hear and determine a dispute in the First Instance.
1. Centre-State Disputes
a) Between Government of India and one or more states.
b) Between Government of India and State or States on one side and one or more states on the other
side.
c) Between two or more states.(Inter-state disputes)

2. Protection of Fundamental Rights 3. Transfer of Cases

from Lower Courts
4. Interpretation of Constitution.
Appellate Jurisdiction
• It means the power to grant special leave to appeal against the judgement delivered by any court in the
country.
1. Constitutional Cases
All matters irrespective of the nature, where a certificate is issued by a High court that it involves an
important point of law and needs interpretation of the constitutuion
2. Civil Cases
If High court Certifies,
i. that the case involves a substantial question of law of general importance,
and ii. that the question needs to be decided by Supreme Court
3. Criminal Cases i. Cases with the certificate of High Court
where a certificate is issued by a High court that it involves an important point of law and needs
interpretation of the constitution
 ii. Cases without the certificate of the High court
a. Where the High court has reversed the judgement of acquittal given by the lower court and punished
the accused with a death sentence.
b. A case is withdrawn by the High court from a subordinate court and sentenced the accused to death.

Advisory Jurisdiction

• The Supreme Court has advisory Jurisdiction on any question of law or fact of public importance as
may be referred to it for consideration by President.
• The Supreme Court may be required to express its opinion in two classes of matters
i. Disputes arising out of pre-constitution treaties and agreements which are excluded from
original jurisdiction by article 131. ii. Any question of law may be referred if President considers that the
question is of public importance and it is necessary to obtain the opinion of Supreme Court.

Such opinion of Supreme Court is advisory and not binding on the Government.
Revisory Jurisdiction

• The supreme Court is empowered to review any Judgement or order made by it with a view to
removing any mistake or error that might have crept in the Judgement or order.

• It is because the Supreme Court is a court of record and its decision are of evidentary value and
cannot be questioned by any court.
• It is also because human judgement is falliable and apex court might rectify something that was
misjudged.
Judicial review

• The Supreme Court is the interpreter of the Constitution and its decision is final.
• It has the power to review the laws passed by Union or state Legislatures.
• The supreme court can declare it as null and void, if it is against letter and spirit of constitution or
contravenes any provisions of the constitution.
• The minimum number of judges to hear and decide a case involving interpretation of constitution
shall be five.
Court of Record

• A court of record is a court whose judgements are recorded for evidence and testimony/future
reference.
• The judgements are in the nature of
‘precedents’i.e.The High courts and other courts are bound to give similar decision in similar case.
• They are not to be questioned when they are produced before any subordinate court.
• The Supreme court shall have all the powers of such a court including the power to punish for
contempt of itself.
• The supreme court acts as the guardian of the constitution.
Enforcement of Fundamental rights

• Any citizen whose rights are violated may move the supreme court for the enforcement of the rights.
• The Supreme Court has the power to issue writs or orders
• The constitutuion prohibits the state from making any law which takes away or abridges the
Fundamental rights.
• The rights so guaranteed shall not be suspended except during a proclamation of emergency.
Writs
1. Habeas Corpus- it means ‘to have the body’
2. Mandamus- it means ‘we order’
3. Writ of Prohibition
4. Writ of Certiorari- it means “to be informed of what is going on”
5. Quo-warranto-it means “by what order”
 Chapter 5 & 6- The High Courts and Subordinate Courts
Revised Syllabus
• The High Courts
Composition, qualifications of Judges,appointment; Jurisdiction and functions:Original and Appellate.

Subordinate Courts
Distinction between Court of the District Judge and Sessions Court.
Lok Adalats: meaning and advantages.

Composition of High Courts

• Permanent Judges:
Each High court consists of a chief Justice and such other Judges as the President of India may appoint from
time to time.

• Adhoc (Temporary) Judges:

Adhoc Judges may be appointed for a temporary period not exceeding two years, for the clearance of
arrears of work in a High Court.

• Acting Judge:
When a permanent Judge is temporarily absent or unable to perform his duties, acting Judges can be
appointed. The acting Judge holds the office until the permanent Judge resumes his/her office.

Qualifications of High Court Judge

• He should be citizen of India

• Should not be over 62 years of age.
• Has been a Judge in subordinate court in the territory of India for at least 10 years;
or
Has been an advocate of High Court for atleast 10 years.
Appointment of Judges

• Chief Justice of a High Court is appointed by the President of India in consultation with the Chief
Justice of the Supreme Court and the Governor of the state concerned.
• Other Judges of the High Court are appointed by the President in consultation with Chief justice of
India, the Governor of the state and the Chief Justice of the High Court
Jurisdiction and functions

• Original Jurisdiction
The power of High Court to hear and decide cases at the first instance. It has original jurisdiction in the
following cases:
(i) Cases related to State revenue and its collection.
(ii) Cases regarding wills,divorce,marriage,company law and contempt of court
(iii) Every High Court has the power to interpet the constitution. This power is known as power of
judicial Review.
(iv) Enforcement of Fundamental Rights
Appellate jurisdiction
• It means that the High Court has the power to accept appeals against the decision of District courts.
• Civil Cases
In matters relating to land revenue,and
In cases where blatant injustice has been committed by any tribunal.
• Criminal Cases
1. Against the judgement of a Sessions Judge or an Additional Sessions Judge , where the sentence of
imprisonment exceeds seven years.
2. Against the judgement of an Assistant Sessions Judge, where the sentence of imprisonment
exceeds 4 years.
3. A sentence of death must be confirmed by the High Court before it can be carried out.
Distinction between Court of the District Judge

Lok Adalat

• Meaning
Lok Adalat means ‘People’s Court’
• Advantages of Lok Adalat
1. It delivers fast and inexpensive Justice.
2. It promote social justice by providing legal aid to weaker sections of society.
3. It reduces workload of other courts.
4. It works in the spirit of compromise and understanding. So both the parties feel satisfied.