TOPIC 1 CHILD DEVELOPMENT IN THE UPPER PRIMARY

What is human development?

Human development refers to certain changes that occur in human beings from conception to death.
It applies to changes that appear in orderly ways and remain for a reasonably long time.
Most of the changes during human development refer to growth and maturation.
Maturation: this refers to changes that occur naturally and spontaneously and that are to large extent
programmed
Growth: this refers to an increase in size, weight, or degree of intellectual capacity.
Aspects of human development
Aspect development characteristics Implication on learning and
teaching
1. Physical  Changes in the body size, (a)On learning: When the body
development weight, and height grows different parts grow within it
eg limbs, the brain, which is critical
in learning due to improved child’s
body coordination.
(b) On teaching: The teacher
design and involve learners in some
physical tasks to facilitate physical
skills like manipulative skill.
2. Social  Changes in the way an (a) On learning: Children who go to
development individual relates to others school already socialised in the
lower classes may find school life
easier since they will be able to mix
with others and learn from others.
(b) On teaching: The teacher
should design and involve learners
in many group tasks to sharpen their
social skills e.g communicating skills
3. Emotional  Changes in the individual’s (a) On learning: This helps learners
development personality and emotional to build health relationships with
understanding. peers and teachers which helps
successful sharing of ideas for
successful learning.
(b) On teaching: The teachers
should engage learners in guidance
and counselling to guide them in
emotional control.

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 4. Cognitive  Changes in thinking (a) On learning: This helps learners
development abilities to develop better understanding and
retention of what is learnt.
(b) On teaching: Teachers should
plan and involve learners in tasks
that will promote critical thinking in
learners to promote further cognitive
development

5. Moral  Changes in the ability to (a) On learning: This will help

development judge right or wrong learners to treat others fairly they
interact in the process of learning.
(a) On teaching: teachers should
plan and involve learners in tasks
that will enhance moral development
in learners eg value clarification.

Principles child development and their implications on the teacher

Principle: Children grow at different rates
Implication: Teachers should expect diversity among their learners in all areas of development. Eg
some learners will understand academic concepts easier than others due to their differences in brain
development and social experiences.
When teachers are aware of diversity in among learners they will find better ways of managing their
class for effective learning such as mixing learners of different intellectual ability to ensure maximum
learning.
Principle: Child development is relatively orderly ie human beings develop other capabilities before
others eg crawling before standing, at school addition before multiplication
Implication: a teacher who knows the level of development at which the learner is in all areas of
development, he/she will plan appropriate activities resulting in effective teaching and learning.
Principle: Child development takes place gradually. This principle alerts teachers that learners have
problems in the learning process.
Implication: Teachers have patience in order to guide learners through until they achieve a particular
challenge eg failure to read and write
Factors that influence child development.
The basic causes of child development are genetic factors(heredity/nature) and
environmental factors(nurture).

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 1. Nature:
Natural factors are those inherited by the individual child from one’s parents from
conception to birth. Genetic factors are responsible for growth of body and brain
parts.
a. Genetics;
Genetic factors refer to the inherited characteristics from the mother and
father. The genes control the physical, mental and other body parts. Genes
also affect character and Intelligent Quotient(IQ) of an individual. When
mutation (alteration) occurs during gene multiplication or cross of genes
during fertilization, mental disability might occur. An individual has no control
of genes.
b. Maternal nutrition;
This refers to what an expectant mother eats during pregnancy.
When a mother has poor nutrition, the growth of the foetus’ physical body and
brain cells is affected and may result in poor health and deformities including
slow cognitive development.
To ensure the proper development of the child, a mother should eat balanced
diet which will provide the right food groups.
c. Mother’s health;
Mother’s health is also important in ensuring proper child development. A
sickly mother may infect the foetus’ development.
Expectant mothers should visit the doctor in order to ensure that the child’s
healthy condition is good. They should also exercise regularly and rest
adequately
Nurture:
Nurture refers to factors experienced after birth with referenced after birth with reference
to the environment. Environmental factors affect the development of social, emotional
and cognitive experiences.
a. Child’s nutrition and fitness;
Food is essential for baby’s growth. This start with breastfeeding which good for
child development as it supplies all nutrients and antibodies needed by the baby.
There is need for adequate calcium and protein for the child to ensure healthy
body with strong bones and teeth.
Malnutrition causes retardation child development which may later develop poor
child’s cognitive functions. Exercises are also important in ensuring proper child
development.
b. Family;
Family is a socially recognized group of individuals who may be joined by blood,
marriage, or adoption and form an emotional connection and an economic topic
of society.
The family is the first place for a child to learn how to socialise as it ensures that
children learn the society’s values, beliefs, attitudes, knowledge and skills. Child
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 development depends on what the family trains them in order to become useful
citizens.
c. Peers.
Peers are an integral part of child development in the behaviour primary since
they can influence the development of the child positively or negatively.
Peer cultures can be beneficial when a child is able to fit within the environment.
Some peer groups have contributed positively to learner’s lives by influencing the
member’s motivation and achievement in the school.
Motivation and achievement may be seen among children whose friends are stable,
supportive, socially competent and mature. .
Characteristics of learners in upper primary
According to Piaget, the child develops concrete operational element where the child
engages in hands on thinking and recognizes the logical stability of the physical. The
following are some of the characteristics;
1. Ability to solve conservation problems
 The child develops an understanding that something stays the same in quantity
though its appearance changes.
 It is an understanding that redistributing a material does not affect its mass,
number, volume or length.
2. Ability to classify things
 The child is able to identify the categories, to relate categories or classes to one
another and use the information to solve problems.
 Learners are also able to group objects according to dimensions that they share.
 They are also able to subgroup hierarchically so that each new grouping will
include all previous subgroups
3. The ability to seriate things
 The child the ability to arrange items along quantifiable dimensions, such as height or weight.
 The ability to conserve, classify and seriating at this stage means the learner has finally developed
a complete and very logical system of thinking.
 At this stage, learners can imagine different things and arrangements however they are not able to
reason about hypothetical, abstract problems involving many factors at once.
Implication on the teacher:
 Teach using concrete objects
 Involve learners in activities involving seriation, classification of objects.
 Involve learners involving classification of objects based on various dimensions.
 Involve learners in hypothetical abstract problems with less factors at a time.
Learning needs for learners in upper primary
There are several definitions for learning needs which include;

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  Leaning needs are drives or quests that spur an individual to undertake training for achievements
of an aim.eg oral expression, numeracy skills, communicative skills.
 Learning needs are the necessity every student might have during a learning process.
 Learning needs refers to the gap between the current level of learners’ knowledge and skills and
the level of skills and knowledge that is required for learners to perform a task.
 Learning needs are education services that must be offered to prevent the situation from becoming
dire.
Examples of learning needs in the upper primary.
 Retarded mental development
 Early maturation
 Social support
 Emotional support
 Material support (poverty)
 Correct sexual reproductive health information
Ways of identifying learning needs.
 Observation
 Assessing
 Conducting interviews
 Conducting documentary analysis
 Conducting focus group discussion
Effects of the learning needs on the learners
 Stress and anxiety
 Loss of interest in school
 Increase in school dropout rate
 Increase in drug and substance abuse
 Increased juvenile delinquencies
 Increased premarital pregnancies
 Child marriages
What teachers should do to meet some of the learning needs.
 Engage learners in guidance and counselling to make them develop self-awareness.
 Engage learners’ parents in meetings to make them develop awareness of learners needs
 Vary teaching methods and resources to meet the cognitive needs of learners
 For learners who are mentally retarded, proceed slowly in logical steps, give continuous
assessment, provide room for more practice and provide enough time.
 For learners who are early matured cognitively, give them more tasks that are challenging.
 Support learners by providing physical needs personally where possible or using programs like
SIP/SIG.

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Topic 2: TEACHING SKILLS IN UPPER PRIMARY
Why does teaching in upper primary require thorough preparation?
 It can be complex and challenging because learners at this stage are more critical
 They begin to think logically and solve problems based on concrete situations.
Comparing and contrasting the use of teaching skills in lower and upper primary.
Teaching skill Observation in lower primary Observation in upper primary
Planning -Mostly physical activities and very -Both physical and mental activities
short mental activities as learner have since learners are developing critical
short attention span. thinking
-other subjects use lesson notes in -In upper primary, lesson plans are
lower primary eg languages used
-Teacher should plan more work
because learners are critical.s
Introduction -use of reviewing of previous lesson is -Some techniques like songs are rarely
rarely used since retention level is used in the introduction.
very low. -review of previous lesson since
learners have high retention rate
Explanation Very brief explanation supported by Brief explanation which could be longer
illustration because they have short at times since the content has more
attention span and low level of complex ideas that require thorough
understanding. clarification
Illustration Use coloured and less detailed Use of more detailed illustrations
illustrations
Questioning Use of mostly low order questions Use of thought provoking questions in
since learners have not yet developed relation to logical thinking which
logical critical thinking. learners develop at this stage.
Reinforcement
Variation More variations required since Variations needed but learners can
learners have short attention span spend quite a longer time on an activity
Closure Use of activity eg song, use of lesson Lesson summary by the teacher,
revision questions, lesson revision questions, written
lesson summary by learners to be
presented orally
Class Management Use of written classroom rules since
most learners can read and write
Chalkboard use Less points written since learners are More points written since learners are
not involved in a lot of written activities also involved in taking summary of
main points

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Topic 3: TEACHING AND LEARNING METHODS IN THE UPPER PRIMARY.
What are teaching methods?
-These are ways of presenting the content of the curriculum
Or; These are ways of conducting instructional activities during teaching and learning process.
What is the importance of knowledge of child development in relation to choice of teaching and
learning methods?
It will help the teacher to adapt instructions, teaching and learning to suit learner’s development level.
What should be the main aim of teaching and learning methods?
Promoting independent working and a sense of responsibility in the learners.
How can teachers achieve this main aim?
 Teachers plan creatively in order to cater for needs of learners.
 Teachers should give learners the opportunity to explore and experiment for them to develop new
understanding on concepts being taught.
 Teachers should give learners challenging activities
Why should teachers in the upper primary emphasise use learner centered critical thinking
strategies
 Leaners in this stage are able to demonstrate logical thinking and systematic manipulation of
symbols which are related to concrete objects.
 Their thinking becomes less egocentric with increased awareness of the external events which
involves concrete references.
 They have systematic thinking and are able to formulate hypothesis and think about abstract
relationships and concepts
 Their concentration span is high therefore they can work on challenging activities.
How to increase learner involvement in teaching and learning and implication for learning for
teaching.
Teachers need to:
 Make sure that groups of learners with different abilities are formed.
 Use hands on experiences to help learners understand concepts.
 Use real objects such as visual aids or models for easy understanding.
 Use familiar examples for more complex ideas
 Give opportunities to learners to tackle tasks that are increasing in level of difficult to facilitate
understanding of new concepts with previous concepts.
 Present problems that require logical and critical thinking for learners.
 Make sure that they are always prepared adequately before they go to class to teach in order to
achieve increased learner involvement.

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Some of the teaching and learning methods for upper primary
1. K-W-L (Know-Want to Know-Learn)
This an activity that can be used to structure a whole lesson
It asks learners to think of what they already know about the topic of the lesson, raise questions
about it and find answers to those questions.
Group size: six to sixty
Time required 45 minutes to multiple periods.
Procedure
 Write a three columned table on a chart or chalkboard.

K (What I know) W ( What I want to know) L (what I have Learnt)

 Ask learners to mention what they know about the topic and record under the K column
 Ask learners to think questions they have about the topic. write their questions under the
W column
 Display the chart or dot not erase the table on the chalkboard proceed to teach according
to the scheme of work and activities from teacher’s guides.
Or let learners read a text or lesson presentation and ask them to any other interesting
ideas they have learnt and record them under the L column.
 Ask learners to find out from W column what has been covered and not covered at the end
of the topic.
 Ask the learners to make a research on the work not covered during the topic or provide
them with additional information.
Strengths of the method:
 It assists learners to develop critical thinking skills
 It encourages learners to ask vital questions
 Learners are able to reflect on the lesson
 Learners are given the opportunity to argue and contribute during knowledge during
knowledge building.
 It promotes learners to think about questions to ask
 It helps learners to think about what they would like to learn
 It promotes investigative skills in learners
Challenges;
 It may not benefit learners if not well structured
Tips for K-W-L method
The method can be used for a whole topic which covers several periods therefore remember to use the L
(what have you learnt) part of the method the day you have finished the topic
.

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2.Quick write;
This involves learners writing a brief reflection of a topic.
Group size; any size
Time required; 5- 10 minutes
Lesson stage; at the beginning, in the middle or at the end of the lesson.
Procedure;
 Tell learners you want them to write very briefly about a topic you are going to give
them. They are to write within the given time without stopping.
 State the topic
 Time the learners as they write.
 Let learners keep the papers in their journals or you may keep the papers for their
assessment.
Strengths of the method;
 It keeps learners as they write down ideas during the lesson
 It enhances writing skills in learners
 It promotes reflective skills
Challenges;
 Learners may some ideas as thoughts are presented in a hurry.
3 Predicting from term;
This is a method that is used in the anticipation phase of the lesson to encourage learners to think along
the lines of a text they are about to hear or read.
Group size; it is best done in pairs but, can also be done individually.
Resources needed;
-chalkboard on which to write the terms
-cards or reading boards for display to the learners.
Procedure;
 Before the lesson the teacher chooses five to six terms that point to the key concepts, events or
main characters.
 The teacher writes the terms on the chalkboard and tells learners that the terms will appear in the
text.
The teacher tells the genre/style of the writing they are about to read or hear and may explain how
the genre will constrain the kind of events or information they should expect.

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Strengths of the methods;
 It provokes critical thinking in learners.
 It motivates learners to learn as they compare their prior knowledge with the new knowledge.
Challenges;
 Shortage of resources eg books.
Predicting from terms (another version)
Procedure;
1 The teacher writes terms on the chalkboard and tell learners that the terms are from a text, story or case
study.
2 the teacher asks learners to write a story using the provided terms
3 Learners write the story
4 Teacher asks some learners to read the developed stories
5 Teacher asks some learners to read the actual story from the book.
6 Ask some questions from the story they have read.
Strengths;
 It promotes creativity in learners.
 Helps learners to develop writing skills.
 It arouses learners’ curiosity before reading the story.

4. FIELD TRIP/ EDUCATIONVISIT

Field trip/ educational visit is a teaching method that involves learners working outside the confines of the of
the classroom to gain practical experience and knowledge through first hand observation.
Field trip can be;
- observational where learners observe the teacher carrying out activities things taking place.
-participatory where teacher prepares activities for learners to do in individually or in groups, under
supervision or independently using resources in the field.
Field trip does not have to take place far away from the school. School premises, surrounding places and
communities are ideal considering the cost with distant field trip.
A teacher must survey the environment to see if the opportunities it offers are educational in nature.

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Rationale for using field trip.
It helps learners to learn from firsthand experience through observation and application of ideas generated
in the classroom
What stage of a lesson?
Lesson development.
Time required: this depends on the nature of task and teacher’s careful planning. Teachers may utilize
available time including learners’ after school time.
Resources required; these are also determined by the nature of the task
Procedure.
1. Be clear on the purpose of the field trip
2. Set the tasks to be done in the field and allocate time to each activity
3. Pre-visit the field trip location and pretest the tasks to assess the practical feasibility
4. Ensure that all necessary materials to be used are available.
5. Brief learners about the objective of the visit and also what activities they are supposed to do.
6. If the field trip is within the school premises, the lesson can commence in the classroom and take the
learners out at the appropriate time. Alternatively, the teacher can travel with the learners to the field trip
site and undertake the lesson.
7. Supervise learners and ensure they are observing carefully and taking down notes where necessary.
8. Provide opportunities for learners to ask questions.
9. Discuss the information gathered from the fieldtrip.
Strengths of field trip;
 It enables learners to gather firsthand information.
 Learners learn in an environment of real life situation.
 Learners develop and improve their observational application, evaluation, reasoning and
practical problem solving skills.
 Field trip provides good links to learners’ daily lives in their communities.
Challenges of fieldtrip;
 It demands a lot of time
 It requires a lot of arrangements and organization
 May be prone to eventualities
 Sometimes requires parental consent before learners can be taken out.

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Differences between fieldtrips and educational visits;
 In a field trip, the class teacher is a resource person while in an educational visit an expert in the
field is the resource person.
 In a field trip the class teacher prepares a lesson a lesson plan while in an educational visit a
lesson plan is not

.
5. FUTURES WHEEL
This is a structured brainstorming method used to organise thinking about the future events,
issues, trends, and strategies.
Futures wheel is a simple but powerful technique for drawing out people’s minds and ideas.
It also leads to thinking about consequences, actions, or issues for the future.
What stage of the lesson? Any
How long? 20 minutes
What is required? Chalkboard, flip.
Procedure;
1 Write the name of the trend or event in the middle of a piece of paper as it has already happened
–it helps to focus on and imagine what this future looks like.
2 Think of and write primary impacts or consequences of this event/ trend in separate ovals around the
central oval and connect it to the centre with a single.
3 Finish all primary impacts before moving onto secondary impacts.
4 Identify the secondary impacts of each primary impact and write these in ovals and join them to the
primary impacts with a double line (or you can use a different colour. This forms a second ring of the wheel.
5 Finish all secondary impacts before moving on to the tertiary impacts.
6 continue this ripple effect, increasing the number of lines or colours used to join the ovals, until a useful
picture of implications of the event or trend is clear.
Strengths;
 Helps learners to think through how an issues may unfold or the consequences of an event or
strategy thoroughly.
 Helps learners to critically think in a more complex manner.
 Helps learners to identify relationships and unintended consequences
Challenges;
 It is a complex
 It is limited by knowledge and perceptions of learners.

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  It requires that the learners should have some knowledge of the subject area before it is used.

6. MIND MAP
This a method that helps learners to visualize ideas linked around a central key area.
Procedure;
1 Provide a key word central idea, or a task to the learners. Examples; animal species in Malawi.
2 Let them write the word/ idea in the middle of the chalkboard, or on a chart or a piece of paper. Ask them
to circle the central word/idea.
3 Ask learners to identify sub-categories in the central key word and arrange them around it. Example
mammals, reptiles, water animals, insects, birds as sub-categories.
4 Ask learners to find sub-categories to the sub-categories in level one.
NB -Mind mapping can be done in whole class, in groups, in pairs and individually.
-Mind man is different from futures wheel in that it shows links between concepts while futures wheels help
learners to think through possible impacts or consequences of current trends or potential future events.

7. BALL BEARING
This is a method that helps to help learners understanding and summarizing of a text.
Procedure;
1 Let learners count 1-2-1-2-1-2. Let the twos form a circle that is surrounded by the “1s” on the outer
circle. Ask the learners to face each other such that each learner in the inner circle faces another in the
outer circle.
2 Hand out a written text to each learner. Tell learners to read the text silently and to prepare an oral
summary individually.
3 (a) Let each learner in the inner circle present his summary without looking at the text.
(b) thereafter let the learners in the outer circle complement the summary. No discussion is allowed, just
oral presentations of summary.
4 Let the inner circle move two, three or four learners clockwise to a new partner in the outer circle.
5 Let the learner in the outer circle give a summary as captured during the first pair presentation, the n let
the learner in the inner circle complement.
6 Repeat procedure (steps 3 to 5) if necessary for learners to understand the text.
7 consolidate the activity by either asking questions or asking some learners to summarize.

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Strengths;
 Every learner is actively involved in the lesson
 It promotes reading skills among learners
 It also promotes critical thinking as learners summarize main points.
 Learners’ skills of listening, speaking and summary writing are promoted.
Challenges;
 It may not benefit the learner if he doesn’t know how to read.
Tips for successful use of this method in a large class.
- Take the learners outside for them to form several circles to make sure every learner is
accommodated.

9 WORK STATIONS/ BUS STOP

These refer to different spots of the classroom on which a sequence of tasks are presented for learners to
discuss in groups
questions, tasks or text are written on pieces of paper set at each station, or on charts posted on walls or
written on the chalkboard.
Different groups of learners work for few minutes at different stations and rotate until all groups have
worked at all the stations.
What is it for?
To get learners to discuss and respond to a set of question that leads to learning of knowledge or skills
How long? Not more than 20 minutes
What stage of the lesson? During lesson development.
Resources needed; space, chart papers, chalkboard, texts which could be discussed.
Procedure;
1 Identify a topic or an issue to be summarized from several perspectives to different groups eg in English,
verb tenses
Group1 writing sentences using past simple tense
Group 2 writing sentences using past progressive tense
Group 3 writing sentences using past perfect tense
Group 4 writing sentences using past perfect continuous tense.
2 Post the task/ question for each station, group learners and direct them to the different stations and
remember to allocate to spend at each station.
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3 upon arrival at the station, each group works on the task and writes comments for the question and
moves to the next station. Teacher monitors the group’s progress as they rotate.
4 when the groups return to their original station, let the learners synthesise responses contributed by other
groups.
5.Select volunteer groups to make presentations to the whole class.
Strengths;
 Learners are actively involved in the lesson
 It promotes team building, fosters debate, and encourages consensus as learners work together.
Challenge;
 It requires adequate space.

10. JIGSAW.
This is a cooperative learning method that makes learners depend on each other to succeed.
It breaks the class into groups and breaks assignments into pieces that the group assembles to complete
the task.
After reading their area of specialization members from different groups meet to discuss their topic and
return to their original groups
Group size; 9 to 90 learners
Home group are best kept to four or five members.
Expert groups are also kept four to five members.
This means that when using jig-saw, a teacher has to assign extra learners randomly to the expert groups
so that the sizes of expert groups remain the same.
Procedure;
1 Define the topic to the class for discussion
2 Define the class into groups of four to five learners each depending on the size of the class. With a large
class the teacher can have more than one expert group. Choose a leader for the group. Assign each
learner a number (1-5) in each jig-saw group.
3 Assign each learner/number a topic in which he/she will become an expert. The topic should be subtopics
of the main topic.
4 Let the learner with the same number from different home groups for new groups which are called expert
groups. Choose a leader for the expert/specialist groups.

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6 Provide expert/ specialist groups with materials and resources necessary to learn their subtopic. They
should not have access to the materials by the other specialist.
Give them time to study and become familiar with their material. Let the specialists discuss their topic such
that each member understands it.
7 Reassemble the original jig-saw groups
8 Allow the specialists to teach what they have learned to the rest of the group. Encourage other group
members to ask questions for clarifications as specialists from different groups present.
9 Take turns until all specialists have presented their new materials.
10 Give an assessment activity at the end to check learners’ understanding.
Strengths;
 All learners are actively involved in the lesson.
 A large amount of work may be covered within limited time.
 It teaches learners to cooperate, solve problems, listen to others/make a presentation and think
reflectively.
Challenges;
 It requires adequate preparation, enough resources and thorough monitoring.
Tips for successful use of this method;
 Prepare the questions for discussion by the expert groups in advance
 Give the learners in the expert group materials to read, or tell them a story, give them a stimulating
experience for them to come up with information.
 The number of expert groups should much with the number with the number of subtopics.

11. GALLARY TOUR

This is the method that will help learners to share ideas in groups and appreciate views of other groups.
Procedure;
1 Introduce a common topic to the whole class
2 Divide the learners into groups and give each group a task to do. (should be similar task)
3 Ask each group to analyze/work/solve the task.
4. Ask the groups to record their responses on a chart paper or any other piece of paper.
5 Let each group display their work (preferably on the wall or any other suitable place)
6 Ask the groups to go round, observe other groups galleries and add important points, taking note of
differences (no presenter at the gallery)

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7 Ask some individuals to comment on what they have observed from the gallery tour.
8 Consolidate by highlighting correct responses.
Strengths;
 All learners are active in the lesson
Challenges;
 It requires adequate space.

12. GALLERY WALK

This a method that will help learners to share ideas in groups and present them to other groups.
Procedure;
1 Introduce a topic with a number of subtopics/ subcategories eg Environment, pollution, causes of
pollution, effects of pollution, consequences of pollution and prevention of pollution.
2 Divide learners into groups (number of groups depend on number of tasks)
3 Assign each group a different task to do.
4 Let each group record their responses on a chart paper or any piece of paper.
5 Let group display their work on the wall or any other suitable place.
6 Ask each group to choose a presenter who will stay at each gallery ready to present to the visiting
groups.
7 Ask the groups to go round visiting the other galleries in a clockwise direction listening to the
presentations by the presenters, commenting, asking questions and where necessary making additions.
8 Ask the presenters to form their own group and present to each other as the rest of the learners visit any
gallery or join group of presenters to gather more information
9 Consolidate by highlighting correct answers and clear misconceptions.

13. MAKING A STAND

This is a method that encourages learners to decide and justify their decision; getting a quick overview on
different opinions in group.
Procedure;
1 Decide on a question on which learners are supposed to make a stand. Writ on the chalkboard.
2 Write possible answers to the questions on posters: Yes, Partially, No, I’m not sure. Fix the posters or
papers to the walls leaving enough space I between them.

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3 Ask learners to walk towards the poster/paper that corresponds to their opinions.
4 Optionally; ask some learners in each group to explain and justify their decisions.
Strength;
 Learners are given an opportunity to express their views freely
Challenges;
 Shy leaners may not participate

14. DEBATE
This a method that gives learners an opportunity to practise making claims and defend them even when
others defend different claims.
Debate has key elements which are; working with claims, reasons, and arguments; debating ideas without
attacking people.
A good debate should help learners to exhaust the main points on an issue for learners to be well informed
in making decisions.
Debate is dynamic activity based on constructive contradictions. Learners are forced to find arguments on
both sides. That is they will have to confront their own beliefs and entertain arguments against them
Group size; debate is done with the whole class
Resources; the debate requires no resources
Time required; can be conducted in 20 to 30 minutes.
Procedure;
1 Prepare a binary question (a question with Yes or No answer)
2 Let learners think about the question and discuss it freely. They may write down their response on a
piece of paper and share with a partner in order stimulate more ideas.
3 Ask the learners to divide into groups according to their thinking about the question. Let them go to either
side of the class and those who are mutual should be on the middle group.
4 Explain the two rules of the debate.
-learners should be rude to each other. (teacher should explain what this means)
- if a learner hears an argument and would like to change minds, hey are free to walk to the other side or to
the middle)
5 Give learners four to five minutes to decide why they are in each side. Then ask them with sentence that
state their position. Let learners choose someone to say that sentence.

18
6 Let one person from each group including the undecided group state that groups position.
7 Thereafter let anyone on any team to say things in response to what other team has said, or more
reasons to support their own point of view
8 Monitor the activity ensuring that there are no negative attacks on persons, asking for clarification,
offering one or two ideas from the devil’s advocate position and encouraging learners to change sides if
persuaded to.
9 After 10 to 15 minutes, ask learners to summarize what they have said.
10 Debrief the debate by reviewing the ideas and arguments that came to light. Alternatively ask the
learners to write an argumentative essay, writing what they believe and why.
Strengths;
 It motivates learners to learn.
 It helps learners to develop listening and speaking skills
 It helps learners to develop courage in speaking at a public
 It helps learners to develop opinions and defend them
Challenges;
 If not well managed it may get out of hand and lose it value as a lesson
 It requires thorough preparation for it to succeed
Tips: as the debate proceeds the teacher should model the behaviour of changing sides with Pantomime:
by looking thoughtful for a moment after someone offers a good argument, and moving to the other side.

15. CARD COLLECTION AND CLUSTERING

This is a method that involves use of cards to gather ideas from learners especially where a diversity of
answers is expected.
This method can be used with both small and large class.
Due to the shortage of resources, cards can be made from scrap paper, old cardboard boxes, soap
wrappers or any other alternative locally available resources.
Rationale; to collect and classify ideas from learners within a short time in order to make them visible for all
learners.
What stage of a lesson? Any.
How long? 10 to 15 minutes.
Resources required; Chalkboard, pieces of paper.

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Procedure;
1 Ask a question or write the question the chalkboard or on a big piece of paper.
2 Explain clearly what learners required to think about the question and come up with some ideas.
3 Give three cards or pieces of paper to and ask learners to write one idea, question, or answer in or more
key words on each cards.
4 Write a sample card first to make sure every learner understands and follows the example and remind
them to write only one idea on each card.
5 Give learners time to think about the question and writ their answers on the cards individually.
6 Collect the cards and ask one or two learners to come in front and read out each card
7 Cluster those that may belong together on a chart or on the board.
8 When all cards are put up, let the group make suggestions on possible headlines for the clusters
9 Ask learners to comment on the result, which may involve reviewing and revising the clusters and their
headlines again if needed.
Tips; for younger children, instead of writing ideas, they can draw pictures to represent their ideas which
can be clustered later on.
Strengths;
 Every learner gets involved in the lesson
Challenges;
 It requires adequate resources for it to work.

TEACHING AND LEARNING RESOURCES FOR

TOPIC 4:

UPPER PRIMARY.
Teaching and learning resources are materials that teacher uses during teaching and learning to facilitate
learning.
Most learners in the upper primary are experiencing pre-puberty and are in adolescent stage. They are
advanced in major aspects if child development.
This advancement in development makes it difficult for teachers to develop suitable teaching and learning
resources that can meet the diverse needs of learners.

20
Teachers must know exactly what resources are available and where to find them, if they are to improve
the quality of activities and lessons.
Learners in the upper primary need resources that will;
-improve their manipulative skills
-raise interest and curiosity.
Since individuals learn differently, it is important to relate the topics to learning styles that different learners
are inclined to in order to promote learning.
Learners in upper primary are able to follow complex resources and interpret them accordingly.
Teachers need to consider diversity in age, intellectual ability and learning styles as they plan for their
materials that can be used in lesson delivery.
Interest centres and storage of teaching and learning resources.
A good classroom environment need to have things that can enhance learning such as; good furniture,
talking walls and interest centres.
What are interest centres?
These are areas in the classroom which a teacher uses to encourage learners’ activity and choice.
Examples of interest centres;
Science corner, nature table, expressive arts table, shopping corner and wall news board.
The science corner:
This is part of the class which has scientific displays and the nature table.
The nature table: this a place within the science corner where natural resources are displayed.
Differences between the science corner and the nature table.
In the science corner both artificial but scientific and natural objects are displayed while on the nature table,
only natural objects are displayed.
The science corner is broader in that it includes the nature table while the nature table is a component of
the science corner. (found within the science corner)
Guidelines in making the nature table:
1 -Use four short poles or pillars of bricks to support the top part of the nature table.
-Place a flat board of carton or plaited grass to make a flat surface.
-Display four to five specimen only at a time with guiding questions for learners.
2 – nature table can also be made by suspending a rack in the air of the science corner.

21
 -Tie strings on to the four corners of the rack of board.
-The ropes are then tied to the roof poles to suspend it.
Note: The height of the nature table is dependent on the height of the shortest learners in the class. This is
to make sure that every learner has an access of the displays on nature.
Care of science corner, nature table and classroom displays.
 Keep the science corner and nature table clean by remove dust all the time
 Remove decaying specimens and replace with fresh specimens.
 Have a variety of specimens. All specimens should be natural not artificial.
 Do not overcrowd specimens on the display.
 Learners can be assigned to clean and take care of the interest centers.

Use of Information and Communication Technology in upper primary

 ICT helps learners to develop inquisitive and manipulative skills further.
 ICT helps to add variety to everyday modes of teaching and learning.
 ICT helps to make learners more interested as they interact with such resources which are
electronic in nature.
 ICT helps learners to obtain a lot of information within a short time.
 There is flexibility as they interact with such resources.

TOPIC 5: ASSESSMENT
Definition:
Assessment is the process of measuring the learner’s behaviour.
It involves identifying the level of learner’s knowledge and understanding of a topic.
Purpose of assessment;
a Diagnosis.
Teachers assess learners to find out what the learners already know, what they are able to understand and
what they are able to do. Learners are also assessed to find out if they are learning what is being taught
b Evaluation
Teachers use assessment to find out if the teaching of a particular topic was effective or not.
This helps them to take actions such as re-teaching the lesson, or using new strategies in order to ensure
that all learners are learning.
c Guidance

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Teachers use assessment to guide learners in choosing courses for tertiary education or career paths,
based on their current performance in schools.
d Prediction
Assessment can be used to determine potential abilities of a learner and predict probable future success in
school or outside the school.
e Selection
Teachers use assessment to determine which learners are suitable to be promoted to a higher level or
class.
f Grading
Assessment is used to determine marks or scores and grades for learners according to their performance.
This is common with the national examinations eg Malawi School Certificate of Education(MSCE) or the
Primary School Leaving Certificate of Education(PSLCE).
Types of assessment;
1 Formative assessment
This is a process in which the teacher assesses learners in order to find out what they already know,
understand and what they can do.it is done during the lesson.
Apart from assessing to find the starting point, teachers assess on a day to day basis to monitor the
learning process against given success criteria.
This is also known as assessment for learning.
For example, a teacher may ask questions at the beginning of the lesson to find out what learner know
about a particular topic and continues to ask some questions during the lesson presentation to find out if
learners are following what the presentation process.
Other ways of conducting assessment for learning are;
Peer assessment, self-assessment, assignment, class exercises and teacher made tests.
Importance of formative assessment
 It helps teachers to build a profile of the learners in terms of their performance in class
 It gives teachers and learners the feedback and information about whether the learning objectives
are being achieved.
 It provides information in areas for development and areas where the student has strengths and
potential. Eg learners to identify areas to focus for them to improve.
 It is a source of motivation for learners as it helps to draw their attention towards learning.
2 Summative assessment
This the process in which the teacher assesses the learners at the end of the of the topic, unit, or term.

23
It is also called assessment of learning
It is done at the end of a teaching period such as end of lesson, topic, mid-term, end of term or year to
measure overall achievement of learning outcomes.
The two types assessment together make up continuous assessment.
Advantages of continuous assessment
 It integrates teaching learning and assessment
 It promotes understanding of concepts
 It provides immediate feedback to both teachers and learners
 It encourages one to one (teacher to learner) interaction
 Gives learners equal opportunity to succeed academically and in life
 Consolidates positive interactions between the teacher and the learners
 Reduces tension and examination fever
 Reduces number of learners repeating the same class
 Encourages remediation and enrichment
 Helps the teacher to develop his/her own assessment methods, items and tools
 It is easy to transfer learner’s performance information from one school to another
 Assessment items focus on supporting the learners to learn
 Provides an opportunity to assess psychomotor and effective domains.
Challenges faced by teachers in continuous assessment.
 More demanding when the class is too large
 Accurate record keeping is also more demanding when the class is too large
 It requires careful balance between actual time of teaching and assessing to be done within the
allocated time.
 Can be resource demanding if not planned
Forms of Assessment
Forms of assessment are means through which an assessment is administered.
Specifically, teachers are able to get assessment results on various domains such as knowledge, skills,
values and attitudes.
i Written forms: These are done through writing eg multiple choice questions and essay type questions
ii Oral forms: These are done verbally eg learners in standard one can be assessed orally by reading
words or text.
iii Practical work: These are assessments that are done by performing an activity. Eg conducting an
experiment in a laboratory, sewing an article in Expressive Arts and construction of nursery beds in
agriculture.
iv Behaviour: This done by observing performances using checklist eg performances on traditional
dances and staging a play in Expressive Arts.

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TOPIC 6: ASSESSMENT TOOLS
What are assessment tools?
These are items that help the teacher to generate, record and store evidence of learner achievement.
Types of assessment tools
1 Assessing tools;
These contain the set of assessment tasks to be administered to the learners. Eg questionnaires, interview
schedule, rating scale.
2 Grading/ Scoring tools:
These help the teacher to place the learner into an achievement level according to how he/she responded
to the assessment tasks. Eg scoring rubric, checklist, marking key (marking scheme), task sheet.
3 Recording tools:
These are documents that help the teacher record the achievement levels for the learners.
4 Storage tools:
These are tools used to keep the assessment items and learner’s assessment work safely

(A) Assessing tools

i Questionnaire:
-This is a document that asks the same question to all individuals from whom you want to get information. It
consists of a set of questions on a particular topic which can be printed and sent through mail or given to
the learners.
-The questionnaire may begin with the background information of the learner such as sex, date of birth,
number of year school completed followed by the actual question
-Questionnaire may be used when the teacher would like to gather specific information about the learners
in relation to the learning and teaching process.
ii Interview schedule:
This consists of question to administered orally and oral answers by the participants or the learners. In
most cases interviews are conducted with one person at a time but it is also conducted in groups.

25
Note:
 When assessing learners using interviews a teacher should have a list of questions that he/she will
be using to carry out the interviews.
 The teacher should also ask questions in the same format to all the learners.
iii Rating scale:
A rating scale is tool which has a list of observable behaviours, characteristics, or qualities, that are judged
against a range of responses for each item. A rating scale is similar to an observation checklist since it is
used frequently to record the results of observation only that it has a range of responses.
It can be used easily when teachers are collecting self-observation or self-report information.
Rating scales can take different forms.
iv Tests
These are one of the most common assessment tools used in schools.
Types of test items.
1 Short answer questions:
Learners are provided with questions to answer by providing brief answer eg
(i) What is the capital city of Malawi?
(ii) What must be added to 4 to make 10?
(iii) Kodi Mose adalandira malamulo angati kuchokera kwa Mulungu?
(iv) 2x4=
2 Completion questions:
Learners are given incomplete tasks to complete eg
Copy and complete the following
(i) 4, 5, 6, ___________
(ii) The book is_______ the table.
(iii) Mwayi ali _____ mzake.

3 Matching:
Learners are given two sets of options for them to weigh, discriminate and match.eg
Match the type of root in column A with the plants in column B

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Figure 6.1
Column A Column B
Tap root cassava
Fibrous root bananas
Adventitious roots maize
Tuberous root groundnuts
onion
ferns

Note that the number of items elements in column A and B should not be the same to prevent learners from
working out he last answer by substitution
4 True/ False statements;
These are items where learners are given a statements to critically examine if they are true or false.eg
Say whether the following are true or false
(i) The capital city of Malawi is Mzuzu (True/False)
(ii) Tobacco is a cash crop (True/False)
(iii) 15-7=6 (True/False)
(iv) Njoka ndi dzina la nyama (Zoona/Zonama)
5 Multiple choice questions;
These are test items in which learners are provided with alternative responses from which they select the
correct one. Good multiple choice questions should be carefully constructed and clear instructions should
be given.
The question or the opening statement is called a stem. The wrong answers are called distractors and the
correct answer is called the key.eg
(i) 13x9=
(a) 23
(b) 19
(c) 21
(d) 22

(ii) The opposite of small is____.

(a) Tall
(b) Big
(c) Many
(d) Few

27
 (iii) What is the highest mountain in Malawi?
(a) Dedza
(b) Zomba
(c) Mulanje
(d) Hora
6 Essay type of questions:
These are questions on a particular topic which learners respond in continuous writing
They are good for assessing high order abilities like; application, synthesis, evaluation and organization.
Essays can be:
 Restricted/close where guide lines are given as guide to what learners should include when
writing he essays or
 Unrestricted/open where no guidelines are given such that learners can write any idea as long as
it is relevant to the topic.
Planning a test
One the aspect in planning a test is why you want to give a test ie do you want to;
 Sort learners according to their ability
 Establish levels of mastery
 Make the test formative so as to diagnose learners’ problems guide and future instruction
 Make it summative so as to determine grades to be reported to parents.
The following points are good guide when developing a test
1 What to test; this focusses on the content
2 How much emphasis to give to each success criteria
3 what type of questions to use.
4 How much time to allocate for the assessment
Blooms taxonomy and test item formulation
When formulating tests, it is important to consider the type of thinking skills you wish to assess. The levels
of thinking skills according to Benjamin Bloom, that must be considered are;
1 Knowledge;
This involves to recall whatever was learnt. Common action verbs used include; define, label, identify, list,
locate, name and match.
2 Comprehension;
This involves ability to demonstrate understanding of what was learnt. Common verbs used include; collect,
describe, discuss, explain, gather, paraphrase, re-write, read, re-tell, review, summarise.

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3 Application;
This involves use the knowledge and skills learnt in a new situation or on new things. Common action verbs
used include; calculate, choose, determine, estimate, illustrate, measure, organise, select, solve, use.
4 Analysis;
This involves breaking down materials into parts for better understanding. Common action verb used
include; categorise, classify, compare, contrast, differentiate, edit, examine, hypothesise, interpret.
5 Synthesis;
This involves putting together parts to form a new or different whole thing. Common action verbs used
include; assess, critique, debate, evaluate, judge, justify and revise.
6 Evaluation;
This involves judging the value of a material. The common verbs used are, assess, critique, debate,
evaluate, judge, justify and review.

Table of specification/test blue print/ assessment plan

This is a table which specifies what to measure or assess
This table also helps the teacher to decide on how much emphasis to place on each success criteria.
Steps to follow in order to produce a test specification table.
 Count the number of topics taught
 Workout the total number of success criteria on each topic the value in each box represents the
number of success criteria on a particular topic addressing a specific cognitive level.
 Fill out the boxes by working out the number of success criteria on each level of the Blooms
Taxonomy.

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See figure 6.2 below
Topics / Animals Human Reprodu- coordination Cooking Digestive Total
Cognitive levels Plants skeleton tion methods system

knowledge 1 2 3 - 2 1 2 11

Comprehension 2 4 - 1 - 2 1 10

Application 3 - 2 2 2 4 - 13

High level - - - - 3 1 2 6

Total 6 6 5 3 7 8 5 Grand
total 40

 To come up with a test blue print, you need to convert the number of success criteria in each box
into percentages.

30
 See figure 6.3 below
Topic / Plants Animals Human reproduction coordination Cooking Digestive Total
Cognitive skeleton methods system
level
Knowledge 1 2 3 - 2 1 2 11
2.5% 5% 7.5% 5% 2.5% 5% 27.5%
comprehension 2 4 - 1 - 2 1 10
5% 10% 2.5% 5% 2.5% 25%
Application 3 - 2 2 2 4 - 13
7.5% 5% 5% 5% 10% 15%
High level - - - - 3 1 2 6
7.5% 2.5% 5% 15%
Total 6 6 5 3 7 8 5 Grand
15% 15% 12.5% 7.5% 17.5% 20% 12.5% Total
40(100)

(B) Grading tools

(a) Scoring rubric;
A scoring rubric is a way of evaluating learners’ work, often in table form which indicates the given criteria
or characteristic for performance for each achieved grade from a particular assessment activity.
Scoring rubrics are used where awarding of scores is subjective eg in essays and composition.

31
Eg
See figure 6.4 below.

Class: Standard one

Term: Two
Learning area: Numeracy and Mathematics
Topic: Addition
Success criteria: Add any two numbers with sum not exceeding 10
Assessment type: Practical exercise
Assessment items: 8+2= 3+5= 10+0=
9+1= 3+6=
Scoring rubric
4-Excellent 3-Achieved 2-Partially achieved 1-Needs support
The learner models The learner models The learner models The learner models
addition of 4 to 5 addition of 3 problems addition of 2 problems addition of 1 or less
problems correctly correctly. problems correctly.

(b) Observation;
An observation checklist is a set of prepared questions that help to evaluate a learner participating in an
assessment activity.
The checklist helps the teacher to objectively appraise performance of all learners because the same set of
questions is used when evaluating every learner.
This tool is used when learners are performing hands on activities or are participating in group work.

32
Eg see figure 6.5 below

Class: std 7
Term:1
Learning area: Agriculture
Success criteria: Learners must be able to construct nursery beds correctly
Assessment type: Observation
Assessment activity: learners will make nursery beds in groups of four.
Observation checklist;
Are learners able to: YES NO

 Make beds with the right dimensions

 Level the nursey bed properly

 Raise the edges of the nursery bed to trap water

NOTE: Tick the ones that can be observed on finished nursery beds.

(c) Marking scheme/ key:

These are tools used to mark analytical scoring learning area/subjects areas objectively. Unlike the scoring
rubric, the marking scheme does not have the criteria for the four achievement levels. Rather the teacher
adds up the scores from all the assessment items.
Example; Draw a diagram of the respiratory system and label the following parts; lungs, bronchus,
bronchiole (6 marks)
 Reasonable size (1mark)
 Use of pencil (1mark)
 Correct marking ie use of straight lines not arrows (1mark)
 Each correct part labeled (3marks)
(Total 6 marks)

33
C Recording tools
i Attendance and performance register;
This is used to record achievement level of learners in different learning areas. This register must be kept
up to date, secure, easily accessible but confidential.
There are two types of assessment results to be recorded;
(a) Scores from continuous assessment activities such as observations, class exercises, quizzes and
homework.
(b) Results from formal tests which are given at specified intervals such as; mid-term and end of term
tests.
Both sets of results have to be considered when computing overall score and grade for a leaner.
Figure 6.6
AGRICULTURE RESULTS
NAME S O N
CA E G J F M C E G A M J J C E End
OF TI X R A X R A X Yr
LEARNER T A T2 T2 A T3 T3 gr
1 T1 T2
AFICK 70 65 60 62 75 72 70
JOHN
BANDA 80 82 85 90 82 86 88
TIMOTHY
CHAPITA 77 70 64 45 56 64 34
FRAZER

SAMBANI 74 64 58 60 73 75 89
MARIA
JABULANI 56 65 45 68 76 43 62
ZIONE
BANDA 90 54 57 75 45 87 67
AGNES

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INTERGRATION OF FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT AND SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT IN PRIMARY
SCHOOLS.
At the end of the academic year, the learner’s final grade will be a combination of end of year tests
and an average grade achieved throughout the year.
Advantages of including the continuous assessment scores in the final score and grade.
 When learners know that their daily efforts will be taken into consideration at the end of the year,
they work hard throughout the year.
 A final grade that includes performance of the learner throughout the year gives a true reflection of
the learner that when you use end of year tests only.
 Even if a learner fails to satisfy required end of year test score, consideration of his/her
performance throughout the year could make her pass.
Processing of end of term and end of year results
Calculating monthly grade for a learning area;
Teachers can administer several tests in a month but at the end one grade should be indicated in the
progress record book. Therefor teachers need to indicate only the average score for a learning area in a
month.eg figure 6.7
Tawina got the following scores in March
Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4
50% 60% 58% 70%

Her monthly score for Chichewa is (50+60+58+70) / 4= 61

The figure 6.8 below gives a summary of the information about weighing the scores
Primary section Weighing Remark
Infant 100% Find the average score for each learning
Formative area
Junior 60% formative assessment and 40% For terms 1 and 2 just find the average of
From end of year test the monthly scores for that term
Senior (section 40% from formative assessment 60% For terms 1 and 2 just find the average of
standards 5-7) from end of year test the monthly scores for that term

Senior (standard 8) 40% from formative assessment and For term 3 its National
end of terms 1 and 2 examinations(PSLCE)

The raw scores are translated into levels ranging from 1to 4 as in the figure 6.9 below.
Level of Percentage of fulfilment Level of satisfaction of requirements
achievement of requirements

35
 4 (Excellent) 80 -100 Learner’s performance has satisfied the
requirements
3 (Good) 60 -79 Learner’s performance has satisfied most
requirements
2 (Average) 40 -59 Learner’s performance has partially satisfied the
requirements
1 (Needs support) 0 -39 Learner’s performance has not satisfied the
requirements

Examples;
1 Infant section; see figure 6.10
Limbikani Ndabwera Standard 1
Lear Jan Feb Mar Term April May Jun Jul Ter Aug Sept Oct Nov Term Year
Area 1 2 3
Mat 78 93 90 87 88 95 77 80 85 85 90 92 75 85.5 85.7
Chi 42 50 59 61 67 58 70 74 65 54 66 60.5
Eng 48 54 50 62 54 44 59 52 45 65 68 54.6
B/K 98 90 92 89 91 88 87 94 90 89 98 91
R/E - - - - - - - - - - - -
Ex/ 74 78 68 90 65 73 85 54 78 56 89 74.5

Find Limbikani’s Mathematics score for each of the three terms and the calculate the end of year score
and grade
(i) Term 1 (ii)Term 2 (iii) Term 3 (iv) End of year
78+93+90 88+95+77+80 85+90+92+75 87+85+85.5
261/ 3 = 87 340 / 4 = 85 342 / 4 = 85.5 257.5 / 3 = 88.8
NOTE; According to the guide lines summarized in Table 6.8 the average monthly scores for each term is
integrated into the end of term score for each term using the same formula for standard 8 learners except
for the third term when they sit for the National examinations.
D Storage tools
(i) The learner’s profile
This is a deliberate collection of learner’s own work for future reference. It can be stored by the teacher or
the in the folders, boxes or envelopes or any other means of storage.
Each learner has one portfolio with sections representing each learning area or subject. The learner’s
portfolio should contain evidence of achievement collected from different learning areas or subjects. These
include exercises, essays, models and written tests.

36
(ii) The teacher’s portfolio;
This is a purposeful collection of all assessment tasks or items as well as assessment instruments.
The items in the teacher’s portfolio will act as evidence that indeed an assessment was administered
Eg The teacher’s portfolio may contain; exercises, scoring rubrics, observation checklists, other
assessment records, papers, tests and their marking schemes.

Communicating the assessment results

It is important for teacher to communicate assessment results promptly to all stake holders such as
parents, guardians, ministry officials and other stakeholders.
The main goal of communicating assessment results is to help children learn.
Assessment results are communicated using report cards.
When parents and guardians see the results of each term, they should sign the report cards and return
them to the teachers. (See the Sample of a report card)

37
Sample of a report card
NTHANDA PRIMARY SCHOOL
NAME OF LEARNER: ………………………………………………………............ STANDARD: ………....

LEARNING AREA SCORE GRADE TEACHER’S REMARKS

MATHEMATICS
ENGLISH
CHICHEWA
EXPRESSIVE ARTS
LIFE SKILLS
SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENT
STUDIES
AGRICULTURE
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
BIBLE KNOWLEDGE/
RELIGIOUS STUDIES
Teacher’s overall remarks:
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Teacher’s signature: ……………………………………………..
Head teacher’s remarks: …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Head teacher’s signature: ……………………………………………………………
Promoted / Repeat
The learner is promoted from standard…………. to ……… or the learner should repeat standard ………………
Date of report: ……………………………………………………..
Next term begins on: …………………………………………….
Seen by the parent:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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TOPIC 7 ASSESSMENT OF LEARNERS IN LOWER AND UPPER PRIMARY
Children understand things differently therefore teachers need to use a broad range of assessment
approaches that cater for
 different child cognitive development stages
 individual differences
Ways of assessing learners in lower and upper primary
Teachers need to prepare simple assessment tasks for learners in the lower primary because it is difficult
for them to complete complex written assessment as those in the upper primary.
Eg Teachers can give learners in lower primary classes few written tasks.
Other effective ways of assessing learners include;
1 Effective questioning;
This involves teachers creating a safe classroom environment for learners to feel free and safe to
participate in question answering.
In this method the teacher has also a role to encourage learners to develop their communication skills,
through listening and responding.
Instructions should be simple and clear.
2 Teacher observation
It involves teachers assessing learners as individuals, with a partner or a group.
Observations can be;
 formal whereby the teacher uses an observation checklist which has behaviours and practices
against which learners are assessed.
 Less formal this where by the teacher use an observation checklist to observe learners’ behavior
outside classroom activities, like in co-curricular activities.
Observations can also be both formative and summative and can provide evidence to confirm to the
teacher what the learner can do.
Observations can also inform the teacher about learners’ learning and their future needs.
3 Peer and self-assessment
Peer assessment involves learners assessing each other’s work and giving constructive feedback.
Self-assessment involves leaners making judgement about their own learning and achievement and
deciding how to progress in their learning.

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Disadvantages of peer assessment
 Learners may be lenient when assessing work of friends
 Learners may make errors
Importance of peer and self-assessment.
It gives an opportunity for learners to celebrate their successes as they may identify peer’s work which they
consider worthy praising.
Oral assessment
Learners are assessed verbally.
Written assessment;
Tasks are done by writing
Research
Learners carry out research to get information on a particular question.
Experiments
Learners carry out experiments
Practical work:
Learners perform an activity physically eg making an abacus.
Factors to consider when assessing learners in upper and lower primary.
 Learners in lower primary have challenges in logical thinking while those of upper primary are able
to think logically
 Learners in lower primary understand concrete objects better than abstract concepts
 Learners in lower primary have limited memory span than those in the upper primary.
 Learners in the lower primary can work on a simple task while those of the upper primary are able
to work on complex tasks
 Learners in lower primary have difficulties in performing some tasks such as drawing, measuring,
researching and evaluating.
 Learners in lower primary do not have the ability to solve conservation problems.
 Writing skill is not fully developed in learners in the lower primary learners therefore require short
sentence tasks.
TASK.
1 Why should teachers assess learners differently in upper and lower primary?
2 Explain any three factors teachers should consider when assessing learners in upper and lower primary?
3 How can a teacher relate ways of assessment to knowledge of child development?

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4 Explain the difference between peer assessment and self-assessment?
5 Give any two disadvantages of peer assessment?

TOPIC 8: INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

The concept of inclusive education
Inclusive education is the process of finding better ways of responding to diversity. It is about learning how
to respond to different learners’ needs.
This will help people to see differences positively as a motivation for fostering learning amongst learners.
Principles of inclusive education
 Identification of barriers in removal of barriers in learning
This involves collecting, collating and evaluating information from a wide variety of sources in
order to plan for improvements
 Inclusion is also about presence, participation and achievement of all learners
Presence is concerned with where the child is educated and how the child attend
Participation relates to the quality of their experiences in the classroom. Therefore, the views of
the learners themselves must be incorporated.
Achievement is about learning outcomes across the curriculum and not merely test or
examination results.
 Inclusive education involves a particular emphasis on those groups of learners who are at risk of
marginalization, exclusion or underachievement
This indicates moral responsibility of the teachers to ensure that all groups of learners “at risk”
are carefully monitored, and where necessary, steps are taken to ensure their presence,
participation and achievement in the education system.
 Inclusive society further focuses on modifying terms to suit the current trend of disability friendly
language preferred and approved by the organization that promotes the rights of the people with
disabilities known as Federation of Disability Organisations in Malawi.
Terminologies have changed to focus on the person and not the disability eg a child with
disability and not a disabled child.
What is an inclusive school?
It a one that values all learners and staff equally, increasing participation of learners in the classroom and
reducing exclusion and that restructures its cultures, policies and practices so that they respond to the
diversity of learners.
The goal of inclusive education is to ensure that all children are educated in the same school and in
the same class.

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Characteristics of inclusive education
 Involves and support all learners. That is giving appropriate help to all learners to suit the
various learner differences. Eg individual equal attention to all learners in response to various
challenges
 Incorporates more than just placement or physical presence of the learner. True inclusion will
ensure that learners with various educational needs are actively participating in classroom
experiences and their views are incorporated. Eg encouraging learners with emotional difficulties
and are withdrawn, to answer questions.
 Fosters change in approaches and teaching strategies. It is about recognizing and respecting
the differences among all learners and building on similarities. ie this means that teachers must
accept that differences are inevitable in people such that they should just focus on common learner
attributes that can promote effective learning in all learners. Eg a teacher can demonstrate
recognition of the presence of a visually impaired learner by adapting and modifying resources for
the learner with the VI to use.
 Focuses on overcoming barriers in the system that prevent it from meeting the full range of
learning. This means teachers should find ways of finding solutions to situations in schools and
classes that can prevent learners with diverse needs to learn effectively. Eg constructing wide door
frame to allow learners who use wheelchairs to enter and leave the classroom easily.

CASE STUDY
A teacher at the mainstream school had a class with learners of diverse learning needs that included
learners with visual and physical impairments. The teacher usually segregated learners with visual and
physical impairments from participating in some class activities. When the teacher was teaching physical
education, he would leave them to keep clothes of other learners.
1 How would you describe the teacher in the study?
2 What do you think the learners with impairments feel when discriminated from participating in the
activities?
3 Describe situations that discriminate or exclude learners from participating in class or school activities?
4 Discuss ways of avoiding situations that are discriminatory and exclusionary?
5 Role play a teacher with inclusive tendencies.

The concept of special needs education

Special needs education is specially designed instruction to meet the unique needs and abilities of diverse
learners (Heward, 2000)
It refers to individualised support that gives learners with special educational needs and disabilities the
extra help they need to access the extra help they need to access the general curriculum.

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Example of support in special needs education can be.
Physical therapy, speech therapy and language therapy, a behavior plan, environmental accommodations,
curriculum adaptations and many others.

Assumptions of special needs education

 Learners with special educational needs can have their needs addressed outside the mainstream
/ general education in special schools or resource rooms with specialized personnel.
 Teachers are required to modify teaching, learning and assessment resources, curriculum,
instruction and mode of delivery to meet individual learning needs.
Therefore, as all teachers in special schools are specialists, the curriculum is modified according to the
ability of the individual learner.

Advantages of special needs of education

 Children learn physical and social skills in an environment that understands and accepts them.
 They have access to trained staff, equipment and specialized services.
 Learners have a chance to improve the skills that increase participation in more integrative
situations.
 Individual attention is easy to get
 Learners are able to meet individuals with the same disability
 There is specialization on the part of the teachers
 There is low teacher low teacher / pupil ratio.
 The needs of individual learners are met as learners learn at their own pace.

Disadvantages of special needs of education

 It promotes segregation as it isolates learners from a wider community of the school and the
society
 Learners face challenges to transfer skills from specialized to general settings.
 There is a general loss of links with the community and poor preparation for future life.
 High maintenance costs as learners live in boarding schools.

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TOPIC 9: LEARNER DIVERSITY IN THE CLASSROOM.
What is learner diversity?
Learner diversity refers to variations of abilities and differences found among any group of learners in a
given setting
Having a diverse group of learners means recognizing that people are unique in their own way.
Learners in the classroom may differ in cultural, socio-economic, language, religious, ethnic, racial gender
and ability groups.
Examples of learner diversity are;
 Learners who have learning difficulties in reading, writing or remembering what has been taught.
 Learners who have hearing difficulties who require sign language for communication.
 Learners with visual difficulties who need assistive devices and adaptive materials such as braille.
 Learners living in poverty.
 Learners with healthy or emotional difficulties.
 Learners who are faster than other learners.

1 Learning difficulties
Definition of learning difficulties.
This is the delay in a child’s mental or developmental capacity (MOEST 2005)
It includes communication difficulties, physical and health impairments, emotional / behavioural difficulties
and intellectual difficulties.
The gifted and talented learners are also in this category because they require special attention from the
teacher since they may disturb the class having completed their tasks faster.
Characteristics of learners with learning difficulties
 Difficulties in speaking or learning to speak late.
 Difficulties to remember things / poor memory.
 Trouble in understanding social appropriate social behaviours.
 Inability to connect actions with consequences(fearlessness).
 Difficulty in problem solving or logical thinking.
 Slower in learning or mastering new information and skills.
 Poor academic performance.
 Have attention problems (easily distracted)
 They are hyperactive (over-active, doesn’t stay in one place for long)
 Have poor motor abilities (poor motor coordination)
 Show withdraw behavior

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  Show aggressive behavior (tantrums, hitting, kicking, insulting, fighting).

Ways of supporting learners with learning difficulties

Suggestions for assistance How to provide the assistance

 Proceed slowly in logical steps  The best example here would be breaking the task into
steps like when teaching perimeter of a rectangle
2(l + b) show the steps as follows
l+ b + l + b
2l +2b by grouping like terms
2(l + b) by dividing 2 into 2l and 2b

 Grade learning tasks to match with  For fast learners give them more tasks / challenging
learners’ level of understanding tasks

 Use real objects that a learner can feel and handle eg

 Vary teaching, learning and
stones rather than using much paper and pencil work.
assessment resources

 Give continuous reinforcement

 Examples reinforcements like verbal such good, thank
you, social like smiling, waving, shaking hands.
 For fast learners consider giving them more tasks or
challenging tasks which an example of activity
reinforcement.

 Provide room for practice

 Do on activity at a time and complete it.

 Provide enough time  Give the learners untimed tests that can be written until
they finish or tests with period breaks of about 30
minutes and let them continue

 Be time conscious  Make lessons timely eg do one activity at a time and

complete it before starting a new one

 Seek early medical attention

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2 Visual impairment
Definition of visual impairments
This is reduced vision caused by eye disease, accidents or conditions present at birth.
Categories of visual impairments
- Total blindness
- Low vision
Characteristics of leaners with visual impairments
 Red eyes
 Painful eyes headaches
 Frequent mistakes when copying from the chalkboard, text or work.
 Bumping into objects when walking
 Discomfort in bright
 Handwriting off the lines
 Difficulty to read
 Skipping of words, letters or lines when reading
 Blurred or double vision
 Poor eye-hand coordination
 Confusing letters or words that look alike
 Problems in distinguishing pictures in books, which the rest of the class can be manage
 Getting confusion with details on maps and diagrams
 Tilting the head towards one side or closing or covering one when performing visual tasks
 Blinking excessively or rubbing the eyes
 Moving the head when reading rather than the eyes when reading
 Unusual fatigue after completing a visual task
 Fear of heights and poor balance when moving
 Spacing letters and words unevenly
 Clouding of pupils or papillary opening
 Tearing eyes when focusing an object
 Failure to recognize familiar people from a distance

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Ways of supporting learners with visual impairments
Suggestions for assistance How to provide the assistance

 Use sense of touch (tactile activities)  For learners with total blindness / deafblind,
they learn through touching like reading braille
text
 Use raised diagrams  Raised diagrams used for a learner to touch to
feel shape or part of a diagram eg raised
diagrams to teach parts of a fish

 Speak clearly –use audible and clear voice,

 Verbal description (voice projection) speak at a normal pace

 Use larger size of objects or print for  Objects should be enough or use large print
learners with low vision

 Use correct colours of objects and pictures  Write with white chalk on black chalkboard
with good contrast for learners with low  Some learners prefer using red colour to black
vision or blue

 Orientation them on how to find facilities within

 Train learners on orientation and mobility the classroom/ school environment such as
toilets, play areas, teachers’ desk.

 Place the learner in an appropriate position  Position the learner where he/ she could be
able to see. It could be at the back, in front or
near a source of light like the window

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3 Hearing impairments
Definition of hearing impairments
It is the loss in the hearing ability caused by genetic or environmental factors.
Environmental factors could be diseases (measles, cerebral malaria), strong drugs (eg quinine), noise
pollution, infections (otitis media) or age related.
Types of hearing impairments
- Hard of hearing
- Deaf
Characteristics of learners with hearing impairments
 Ear discharge (pus coming out of the ear)
 Malformation of the outer ear (no pinna)
 Appear less intelligent than intelligent quotient (IQ)
 Have speech problem
 May emphasise wrong syllables in words
 Mispronounces words
 Often asks for repetition/ appears not to listen or comprehend
 Watches teachers or speakers intently trying to grasp words
 Offers little in discussion, appears shy
 Follows direction better after being shown rather than being told
 Fails to comprehend what is said
 Fails to carry out verbal instructions
 Make grammatical errors that do not reflect good language
 Capping he ear
 Does not enjoy being read to.
 Raises a hand but giving a wrong answer
 Has difficulties with abstract concepts presented auditory
 Relies heavily on picture cues
 Speaking with louder voice or softer voice than usual

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Ways assisting learners with hearing impairments
Suggestion for assistance How to provide the assistance

 Use gestures sign language or an interpret  Use of gestures like beckoning to mean come
here
 Use of speech reading techniques  Some examples of speech reading techniques
include asking the learner to repeat the words
like “was”. Helping the learner to use the words
like “mother” correctly.
 Present oral work before written work for the  When teaching the words like “father”
learners to speech read pronounce the word first for the learner to lip-
read. Then write the word on the chalkboard.
 Give more time to the learner to express ideas  Take time to listen to what the learner is trying
to say
 Place the learner in an appropriate position  Position the learner where he / she could be
comfortable to hear. It could either be at the
back or in front

 Use a lot of TALULAR  Use pictures and names for identification /

concept formation eg picture of a man with the
word man
 Early identification and intervention  Referring children who are showing sign of
hearing impairments so that before the problem
 Provide remedial teaching becomes complicated and difficult to treat.

 Involve the learners in the lesson

 Use games and songs

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4 Deaf blindness
Definition of deaf blindness
It is a condition where a person has impairments of both vision and hearing.
Note; Not all deafblind persons are totally blind deaf and totally blind, some have residual (partial) vision
and hearing which can be used for functional purposes.
Causes of deaf blindness
 Premature birth (birth before 37 weeks of pregnancy)
 Infection during pregnancy such as rubella (German measles)
 Genetic conditions such a CHARGE syndrome or down syndrome
 Cerebral palsy (a problem with brain and nervous system that mainly affects movements and
coordination
 Health problems caused by drinking alcohol drinking during pregnancy.
Characteristics of deaf blindness
 Appear to be withdrawn and isolated
 Lack of the ability to communicate with his or her environment in a meaningful
 Lack of curiosity
 Are defensive to being touched
 Have extreme difficulty in establishing and maintaining interpersonal relationship with others
 Have feeding difficulties and / or unusual sleeping patterns
 Exhibit frustration, social and cognitive development because of the inability to communicate
 Moving meaninglessly in the environment
Ways of assisting learners with deafblind

Suggestions for assistance How to provide the assistance

 Use tactile methods or augmentative  Use raised diagrams for the learners to
alternative communication (AAC) touch and feel
 Modify questions that require that require
labeling parts of an object, for example
name parts of a flower.

 Use pictures to express wishes

 Use of picture to express wishes. eg show a
picture with a learner sleeping to mean it is
time to sleep.

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A sample observation checklist for identifying some learner diversity e.g To find out if a learner has
Hearing Impairment
No Item Yes No Comments

1 Is the learner not responding when spoken to?  Does not turn the head to the source of
sound
2 Is the learner mispronouncing words? 

3 Does the learner cap his/ ear? 

4 Is the learner relying heavily on picture on

picture clues
5

A lesson observation tool to find out if the teacher is following inclusive practices in a lesson

No Observation items Yes / Remarks

No
Teacher preparation:
Detailed lesson plan with focus on;
 Availability of varied teaching and learning
resources
 Availability of varied methods
 Time allocated to activities
Lesson presentation:
 Involve learners with diversity in the class
 Demonstrates awareness of individual needs
 Use of speech and gestures
 Use teaching, learning and assessment
resources
 Sound projection as good
 Legibility of handwriting
 Involve volunteers and non-volunteers
 Involves diverse learners in the lesson
(reading, group work, questions
presentations

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 Ability to organise individual learners’ activity
 Seating arrangement accommodating
learners with diverse needs

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