doi:10.

1017/S0043933910000656

Uses and management of poultry litter

N.S. BOLAN1, 2*, A.A. SZOGI3, T. CHUASAVATHI1, 2, B. SESHADRI1, 2,
M.J. ROTHROCK JR.3 and P. PANNEERSELVAM4
1
Centre for Environmental Risk Assessment and Remediation, University of South
Australia, SA – 5095, Australia; 2Cooperative Research Centre for Contaminants
Assessment and Remediation of the Environment (CRC CARE), University of South
Australia, SA-5095; 3USDA-ARS, Coastal Plains Soil, Water and Plant Research
Center, 2611 W. Lucas St., Florence, SC, 29501, USA; 4Indian Institute of
Horticultural Research, Bangalore – 560 089, India
*Corresponding author: [email protected]

The poultry industry is one of the largest and fastest growing agro-based industries
in the world. This can be attributed to an increasing demand for poultry meat and
egg products. However, a major problem facing the poultry industry is the large-
scale accumulation of wastes including manure and litter which may pose disposal
and pollution problems unless environmentally and economically sustainable
management technologies are evolved. Most of the litter produced by the poultry
industry is currently applied to agricultural land as a source of nutrients and soil
amendment. However environmental pollution, resulting from nutrient and
contaminant leaching can occur when poultry litter is applied under soil and
climatic conditions that do not favour agronomic utilisation of the manure-borne
nutrients. This review examines the composition of poultry litter in relation to
nutrient content and environmental contaminants, its value as a nutrient source,
soil amendment, animal feed and fuel source, and cost-effective innovative
technologies for improving its value. Poultry litter provides a major source of
nitrogen, phosphorus and trace elements for crop production and is effective in
improving physical and biological fertility, indicating that land application remains
as the main option for the utilisation of this valuable resource. The alternative use of
poultry litter; as an animal feed and fuel source, is limited by contaminants, and
high moisture content, respectively. The review proposes best management practices
to mitigate environmental consequences associated with air and water quality
parameters that are impacted by land application in order to maintain the
continued productivity, profitability, and sustainability of the poultry industry.

Keywords: poultry litter; nutrients; trace elements; antibiotics; feed management; land
application

© World's Poultry Science Association 2010

World's Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 66, December 2010
Received for publication March 4, 2010
Accepted for publication June 2, 2010 673
Poultry litter: N.S. Bolan et al.

Introduction
The poultry industry is one of the largest and fastest growing agro-based industries in the
world. There is an increasing demand for poultry meat mainly due to its acceptance by
most societies and its relatively low cholesterol content. The poultry industry is currently
facing a number of environmental problems. One of the major problems is the
accumulation of large amount of wastes, especially manure and litter, generated by
intensive production. is voided by a layer as po Large-scale accumulation of these
wastes may pose disposal and pollution problems unless environmentally and
economically sustainable management technologies are evolved (Power and Dick,
2000; Kelleher et al., 2002; Sharpley et al., 2007).
Most of the manure and litter produced by the poultry industry is currently applied to
agricultural land. When managed correctly, land application is a viable way to recycle the
nutrients such as nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) in manure. However,
pollution and nuisance problems can occur when manure is applied under environmental
conditions that do not favour agronomic utilisation of the manure-borne nutrients
(Sharpley et al., 1998; Casey et al., 2006; Kaiser et al., 2009). The continued
productivity, profitability, and sustainability of the poultry industry will likely be
dependent on the formulation of best management practices to mitigate environmental
consequences associated with air and water quality parameters that are impacted by land
application, and the development of cost-effective innovative technologies that provide
alternative to land application of poultry wastes (Kelleher et al., 2002; Moore Jr., et al.,
2006; Szogi and Vanotti, 2009).
Confined animal production (i.e. beef and dairy cattle, poultry and swine) is the major
source of manure by-products in many countries, including the United States of America
(U.S.), Australia, and New Zealand. For example, total 2008 broiler production in the U.
S. accounted for approximately 8,882 million birds (USDA, 2008). It is estimated that
about 44.4 million tons of poultry manure was produced in that year, containing 2.2
million tons of N, 0.7 million tons of P and 1.4 million tons of K (McDonald et al.,
2009). Similarly, on the basis of 2008 broiler production (approximately 81 million
birds), it is estimated that approximately 591, 300 tons of broiler manure waste is
generated annually in New Zealand, which can supply around 15, 000, 6, 000 and 9,
000 tons of N, P and K nutrients, respectively (PIANZ, 2006).
Manure by-products have the potential for being recycled on agricultural land.
Beneficial use through land application is based on their ability to favourably alter
soil properties, such as plant nutrient availability, soil reaction (pH), organic matter
content, cation exchange capacity, water holding capacity, and soil tilth. Poultry waste
contains all essential nutrients including micronutrients and it has been well documented
that it provides a valuable source of plant nutrients (Kelley et al., 1996; Williams et al.,
1999; Chan et al., 2008; Harmel et al., 2009), especially for organic growers (Preusch et
al., 2002). Addition of poultry manure to soils not only helps to overcome the disposal
problems but also enhances the physical, chemical and biological fertility of soils (Friend
et al., 2006; McGrath et al., 2009). For example, continuous cultivation of arable soils
often results in the deterioration of soil structure leading to reduced crop yield. Addition
of poultry manure has been shown to improve the fertility of the cultivated soil by
increasing the organic matter content, water holding capacity, oxygen diffusion rate
and the aggregate stability of the soils (Mahimairaja et al., 1995a; Adeli et al., 2009).
Optimum use of manure by-products requires knowledge of their composition not only
in relation to beneficial uses but also to environmental implications. Environmental
concerns associated with the land application of manure by-products from intensive
animal operations include leaching losses of N in sub-surface drainage and to

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groundwater, contamination of surface water with soluble and particulate P, reduced air
quality by emission of greenhouse gases and volatile organic compounds, and increased
metals input (Williams et al., 1999; Ribaudo et al., 2003; Harmel et al., 2004; Casey et
al., 2006). Maintaining the quality of the environment is a major consideration when
developing management practices to effectively use manure by-products as a nutrient
resource and soil conditioner in agricultural and horticultural production systems (Sims
and Wolf 1994; Moore et al., 1995; Moore Jr. et al., 2006). Most of the environmental
problems associated with improper practices of land application of manure by-products
have centred on the contamination of ground and/or surface water with two major
nutrients, N and P (Sims et al., 2005). However, manure by-products may also
contain other potentially toxic trace elements, such as arsenic (As), copper (Cu) and
zinc (Zn), which, to date, have received less attention (Bolan et al., 1992; Jackson et al.,
2003; Epstein and Moss, 2006; Toor and Hunger, 2009). For example, poultry manure
addition is considered to be one of the major sources of As input to soils. In the
Delaware-Maryland-Virginia (Delmarva) peninsula along the Eastern shore of the US,
20–50 tons of Arsenic (As) is introduced annually to the environment through the use of
As compounds (e.g. Roxarsone) to control coccidiosis in poultry birds in the U.S.
(Christen, 2001). However, it is noteworthy that As compounds are not commonly
used to control coccidiosis in most countries including Australia and New Zealand.
To offset the environmental risks of manure land application, Edwards and
Someshwar (2000) pointed out that ‘to reduce the risk of offsite contamination, land
application guidelines should be developed that consider the total composition of the
manure by-products rather than only one component, i.e., N and/or P concentration’. On
the other hand, the concentration of trace elements in poultry litter and its by-products
could be minimized by controlling the quality of raw feed materials and reducing mineral
additives in poultry diet (Van Ryssen, 2008).
Air quality has become a major environmental concern of the poultry industry. Dust,
odours and bio-aerosols (e.g. microbes, endotoxins and mycotoxins suspended in air)
generated at production, manure storage facilities and during land spreading of poultry
litter constitute the most frequent source of complaints against animal-based industries
(Millner, 2009). Uncontrolled decomposition of manure produces odorous gases,
including amines, amides, mercaptans, sulphides, and disulphides. These noxious
gases can cause respiratory diseases in animals and humans (Schiffman and Williams,
2005). Ammonia volatilisation from manure creates odour problems, and it may also
contribute to atmospheric deposition and acid rain (Walker et al., 2000a; 2000b).
Furthermore, greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxides
are also released from manure handling and storage facilities, which are implicated in
ozone depletion and global warming. Improved manure handling and storage methods are
needed to reduce the emission of these gases (Aneja et al., 2006).
This review examines the composition of poultry litter in relation to nutrient content
and environmental contaminants, its value as a nutrient source and soil amendment to
improve soil fertility, alternative uses of poultry litter including animal feed and fuel
source, and cost-effective innovative technologies for improving the beneficial value of
poultry litter. Poultry litter provides a major source of N, P and trace elements for crop
production and is very effective in improving the physical, chemical and biological
fertility, indicating that land application remains as the main option for the utilisation
of this valuable resource. The review proposes best management practices to mitigate
environmental consequences associated with air and water quality parameters that are
impacted by land application in order to maintain the continued productivity, profitability,
and sustainability of the poultry industry.

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Poultry litter: N.S. Bolan et al.

Poultry litter production

The quantity of poultry litter produced in a broiler unit depends on the litter (i.e. bedding
material) management, and feed intake and its digestibility. A range of materials
including wood shavings, cereal straw, husk and paper clippings are used as bedding
materials (Swain and Sundaram, 2000). Three common practices are adopted for litter
management in broiler units (Bernhart et al., 2010). These include single use litter, partial
re-use and multi-use litter. The single-use litter involves the total clean-out of the house
after each flock and replacement of the bedding material. Partial re-use involves the
removal of litter from the brooding section for spreading on the grower section of the
house. New bedding material is then spread on the brooding section. The partially spent
litter is often composted for a few days to elevate its temperature to kill pathogens. Some
of the spent litter may be removed after each batch, and after 2 to 5 batches the house is
totally cleaned out. With the multi-use of litter, only caked material is removed (Sistani et
al., 2003) and the house is disinfected. The litter in the brooding section is either left
untouched or covered with 25 to 50 mm of fresh bedding material. The multi-flock litter
may increase the incidence of pathogenic microbes and parasites, and produces a spent
litter with a much higher concentration of nutrients (Kelley et al., 1996).
The amount of total solids (dry matter) excreted by the birds can be estimated from the
dry matter digestibility of the diet. Broiler chickens generally digest about 85 to 90% of
the dry matter of the feed (NRC, 1994). Broiler chickens consume approximately 2.5 to
3.0 kg of dry matter up to 35 days of age (typical first thin out) and 5 to 6 kg of dry
matter up to 49 days of age (typical final clean-out). On the basis of the dry matter
digestibility of the diet (87.5%), it is estimated that 0.34 and 0.63 kg of solid is excreted
by a 35 and 49 day old bird, respectively (FSA, 2007). At a moisture content of 90%,
total manure production will be around 4 and 6 kg for 35 and 49 days old birds,
respectively. The amount of any nutrient excreted can be calculated from the
difference between the amount in the feed and the amount assimilated by the bird. It
has been estimated that broiler chickens excrete approximately 55% of the total N, 70%
of the P and 80% of the K. The amount of feed spilt during feeding can significantly
affect the total amount of solid and nutrients remaining in the litter (Leytem et al., 2007).
The average daily fresh manure production for broilers is about 43 kg/1000 kg live
weight (ASABE, 2005). Converting this to the quantity of dry manure removed from a
typical broiler house, the amount is 6.9 kg/1000 kg live weight/day for broilers.
Furthermore, handling and storage factors also affect the actual quantity and quality
of manure/litter generated from various types of poultry units (Malone, 1992; Maguire
et al., 2006). Among these are feed composition and efficiency of feed utilisation, the
type of bedding material, the frequency of crust removal and total clean out operations,
the number of flocks in a house between replacement of the bedding material, the final
live weight of poultry and management practices. On a dry weight basis, poultry litter
production ranges from 0.7 to 2.0 tons/1000 broilers/flock.

Composition of poultry litter

The major components of poultry litter include the bedding material, feather, manure and
the spilt feed (Kelley et al., 1996; Tasistro et al., 2004). The litter contains plant nutrients,
such as N, P and K, trace elements, such as Cu, Zn and As, pesticide residues,
pharmaceuticals such as coccidiostats, endocrine disruptors and microorganisms. As
with other organic wastes, the moisture content, pH, soluble salt level, and elemental
composition of poultry manure and litter have been shown to vary widely as a function of

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 Poultry litter: N.S. Bolan et al.

types of poultry, diet and dietary supplements, litter type, and handling and storage
operations.

PLANT NUTRIENTS
The major plant nutrients in poultry manure include N, P, K, calcium (Ca), magnesium
(Mg) and sulphur (S) (Table 1). Some general observations on chemical composition of
poultry manure and litter include (Edwards and Daniel, 1992; Sims and Wolf, 1994; Toor
et al., 2006; Guo and Song, 2009): (i) the huge variability in nutrient concentration can
be attributed to a number of factors including feed use efficiency, bedding material used,
litter management practices etc; (ii) the total N and P contents of poultry manures and
litters are among the highest of organic amendments including manures and compost; (iii)
the total N and P contents are usually lower for poultry litter than for fresh manure, which
is attributed to both the losses that occur following manure excretion and the dilution
effect from combining manures with bedding materials that are low in nutrients; (iv) uric
acid and ammonium are the significant N components of poultry manures and litters; (v)
the use of poultry manure as a soil amendment for agricultural crops will provide
appreciable quantities of essential major plant nutrients (N, P and K), secondary
nutrients (Ca, Mg and S) and some of the trace elements (Cu, Zn and Mo); and (vi)
application of poultry manure based on crop N requirements is likely to provide more of
other nutrients (especially P) than is required by the crops.

Table 1 Nutrient contents of manures and composts (g/kg dry weight basis).

Nutrients Poultry manure compost Pig manure Mushroom Biosolid

Layer Broiler compost compost compost

Nitrogen 32.8 25.7 15.2 17.5 21.8

Phosphorus 10.8 6.7 6.5 7.5 10.1
Potassium 15.2 10.1 8.2 9.2 5.9
Calcium 18.5 16.2 4.2 21.5 19.7
Magnesium 6.2 3.5 3.7 5.2 4.2
Sulphur 8.5 5.2 3.4 3.5 7.0

Among these nutrients, N and P cause some environmental concerns. Four forms of N
are identified in poultry litter that include complex organic N, labile organic N,
ammonium and nitrate (Sims and Wolf, 1994; Sharpley and Smith, 1995; Diaz et al.,
2008). Complex forms of organic N in poultry litter include constituents of feathers, spilt
and undigested feed, and bedding materials. Labile organic N is largely uric acid and
urea. Uric acid in the fresh manure is rapidly hydrolyzed to urea by the uricase enzyme,
and the urea is subsequently hydrolyzed to ammonium by urease enzyme. Nitrate is
formed when the ammonium ions are oxidised during aerobic composting.
Phosphorus in poultry litter is about two thirds present as solid-phase organic P and
one third as inorganic P (Edwards and Daniel, 1992; Sharpley and Smith, 1995; Sharpley
et al., 2004). The amount of total P in poultry litter varies with the diet and bedding
material, and ranges from 0.3 to 2.4% of dry matter. Fractionation studies have shown
that a large proportion of P in poultry litter is in acid soluble fraction, indicating low
bioavailability (Mahimairaja et al., 1995b). According to Turner and Leytem (2004), acid
extractable P in raw broiler litter is dominated by inorganic (35 to 41%) and organic P
forms (58 to 65%). Inorganic phosphate species in poultry manure include dibasic
calcium phosphate, amorphous calcium phosphate and weakly bound water-soluble

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phosphates (Sato et al., 2005), while organic P in poultry litter is largely in form of
phytic acid salts (Turner and Leytem, 2004).
The amounts of major nutrients in the litter produced for a broiler unit with 100 000
birds and 6.5 flocks per annum are calculated based on the nutrient concentration values
given in literature (Table 2). The fertilizer equivalents (in the form of common fertilizers)
of the major nutrients in the poultry litter and the total maximum area of maize crop than
can be grown using these individual nutrients are also given in the table. It is important to
point out that both the total amount of nutrients in the poultry litter and the maximum
area of maize crop than can be grown using these nutrients depend on the nutrient
concentration of the litter. For example, if we use a N content of 35 kg/ton in the
litter, the total amount of N in the poultry litter generated in this broiler unit will be
around 234 500 kg (6700 x 35), which will be sufficient enough to grow a maximum of
1172 hectares of maize at the N application rate of 200 kg N/ha.
Table 2 Nutrient concentration and the estimated total amount of nutrients in the poultry litter for
poultry unit with 100, 000 birds.

Nutrients Concentration Total amount Fertilizer equivalent Area of

(kg/ton) (tons)* (tons)** maize (ha)***

Nitrogen 25.7 172 Urea (374) 860

Phosphorus 6.7 45 SSP (473) 1125
Potassium 10.1 68 KCl (136) 453
Calcium 16.2 109 Lime (272) 5450
Magnesium 3.5 23 Dolomite (121) 1150
Sulphur 5.2 35 Gypsum (194) 1167

* calculated for 6700 tons of litter

** Urea (46% N); SSP – Single superphosphate (9.5% P); KCl – Potassium chloride (50% K); Lime (40% Ca);
Dolomite (19% Mg); Gypsum (18% S)
***For maize 200 kg N/ha; 40 kg P/ha; 150 kg K/ha; 30 kg S/ha; 20 kg Ca/ha; 20 kg Mg/ha

TRACE ELEMENTS
Trace elements in poultry litter are mostly derived directly from the birds’ diet and
indirectly during manure collection. A number of trace elements are added to poultry feed
not only as essential nutrients but also as supplement to improve health and feed
efficiency (Table 3). Essential nutrient elements participate in a wide range of
enzymatic processes involving many aspects of physiological functions and the
intermediary metabolism of the organism. They act as catalyst or cofactor in enzyme
systems with their role ranging from relatively weak, nonspecific ion effects (metal ion
activated enzymes) to highly specific association (metallo-enzymes) in which the metal is
firmly attached to the protein in a fixed number of atoms per molecule. These trace
elements cannot be removed without the loss of activity and basically cannot be
substituted by another element (NRC, 1994).
Table 3 Trace element concentrations in poultry manure by-products and poultry feed (Bolan et al.,
2004).

No* Concentration (mg/kg)

As B Cd Co Cr Cu Mn Mo Ni Pb Se Zn

1 400 1800 2300

2 313 246 327
3 313 246 327
4 34.6 4.93 9.9 6.1 501 2.46 0 1.23 743

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 Poultry litter: N.S. Bolan et al.
Table 3 Continued

No* Concentration (mg/kg)

As B Cd Co Cr Cu Mn Mo Ni Pb Se Zn

5 0.57 - 2.0 6 30.7 166 5.0 - 0.38 158

6 9.01 0.42 17.1 96.8 5.4 3.62 378
7 0.46 1.06 4.57 64.8 7.1 8.37 459
8 43 51 3 6 - 748 956 6 15 11 718
9 19 2 8 6 19 271 14 13 252
10 0.48 7.3 54.3 465 7.69 7.0 2.3 550
11 390
12 <1.0 0.39 0.76 23 2.6 153
13 1.27 1.66 1.81 887 4.4 10.5 6980

*1. Poultry dropping; 2 & 3. Broiler litter; 4. Poultry litter; 5. Broiler litter; 6. Dried poultry waste from caged
hens without any litter; 7. Broiler/turkey litter; 8. Layer manure; 9. Poultry litter; 10. Deep-pit poultry litter; 11.
Poultry manure; 12. Layer feed; 13. Broiler feed.

Because of the intensity of production, a number of feed ingredients, including trace

elements such as As, Co, Cu, Fe, I, Mn, Se, and Zn, are used in poultry industry to
prevent deficiencies and diseases, improve weight gains and feed conversion, and
increase egg production in the case of poultry (Miller et al., 1991; Tufft and Nockels,
1991; Sims and Wolf, 1994; Moore et al., 1995; Powers and Angel, 2008; Burel and
Valat, 2009). Efficient feed nutrient utilisation using growth promoters is a major means
of reducing potential contaminants, such as N and P in poultry and swine manure
(Jongbloed and Lenis, 1998). However, since some of the growth promoters contain
metals, this practice is likely to result in elevated concentration of these elements in
manure by-products (Nahm, 2002). For example, Cu compounds, such as copper sulphate
(CuSO4) and copper hydroxide [(Cu(OH)2] have been (and remain so in some regions)
commonly used growth promoters in swine and poultry production units (Poulsen, 1998).
Since a major portion of the trace elements ingested is excreted in faeces and urine, the
concentrations of trace elements in manure by-products depend primarily on their
concentrations in the diet (Krishnamachari, 1987; Miller et al., 1991; Van Ryssen,
2008). Kunkle et al. (1981) noticed that Cu concentrations in poultry manure by-
products were linearly related to Cu added in the diet and were typically concentrated
3.25 times. Similarly, Mohanna and Nys (1999) noticed that by reducing dietary Zn from
190 to 65 mg/kg in broiler poultry feed, the body retention of Zn was increased by 8 to
20% with a consequent decrease of Zn concentration in manure by 75%. Introducing
highly viscous raw materials such as triticale, rye and barley at high levels in poultry
diets has been shown to reduce Zn retention, thereby contributing to increased level of Zn
in manure (Mohanna et al., 1999).
Trace elements used in animal health remedies also eventually reach the manure.
Addition of As to feed as an additive to control coccidiosis in poultry has resulted in
a seven-fold increase in As level in the litter (Morrison, 1969). Jackson and Bertsch
(2001) observed that more than 90% of As in poultry manure was in water-soluble form.
They have identified six As species in poultry litter and litter amended soils: the original
As chemicals, Roxarsone and p-arsanilic acid, used as the feed additive, and their four
metabolites - arsenate, arsenite, dimethyl arsenic acid and monomethyl arsenic acid. The
original As chemicals were identified as the major species indicating that they were
mostly excreted chemically unaltered. Christen (2001) obtained a direct correlation
between water-extractable As in soils and the amount of poultry litter applied,
implicating this material as a major source of As input in soils. As indicated earlier it

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is important to point out that while As is used widely in the US but it is not a common
coccidiostat in most other countries.
While the type of bedding material in broiler units may influence the litter dry matter
and other chemical properties, it has little effect on the metal concentration of the
resulting litter. Typically, for broilers approximately 30% of the litter is bedding
materials, which has trace element concentration at background levels for plant
material (Nicholson et al., 1999). However, recycled paper treated with boric acid has
received substantial attention as a bedding material in broiler houses (Worley et al,. 1999;
Grimes et al., 2002). With this bedding material, accumulation of boron (B) can occur
since Wilkinson (1997) observed that the B content in the manure by-products collected
from these houses could reach as high as 290-390 mg/kg, compared to 8-15 mg/kg in
conventional broiler units which use wood chips as bedding material.
The concentration of trace elements in manure can vary considerably depending on the
age of animal, type of ration, housing type and waste management practice. Although
such variation is normal, it makes quality assurance difficult, rendering it cumbersome to
use manures as an alternative to chemical fertilizers (Eck and Stewart, 1995). The
variation in chemical composition also causes uncertainties in predicting the reactions
and bioavailability of manure-borne nutrients and metals in soils.
Manure addition is increasingly being recognised as a major source of both essential
and non-essential element input to soils, with repeated applications having resulted in
elevated concentrations of metals in soil (He et al., 2009). Based on the dry matter
content and elemental concentration, Nicholson et al. (1999) estimated the typical metal
loadings from various manure sources at an application level of 250 kg/ha (Table 4).
Significant quantities of Cu and Zn were added through swine (2.2 and 1.6 kg/ha,
respectively), poultry (1.1 and 0.5 kg/ha) and cattle (1.0 and 0.3 kg/ha) manures.
Since Cu and Zn are essential for plant growth, optimum level of poultry litter
application is likely to meet the crop requirements of these nutrients. Application of
cattle and poultry manures represented also an important source of Cd metal to arable
soils (ca. 3-7 g/ha), although most of the Cd is typically added via atmospheric deposition
and phosphate fertilizer use.

Table 4 Estimated trace element loading (kg/ha) from ‘typical’ manure application at the 250 kg N/ha
rate (Nicholson et al., 1999).

Element Loading (kg/ha)

Cattle Swine Dairy Swine Broiler Layer

compost compost slurry slurry litter compost

As 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 <0.01 <0.01

Cd 0.003 0.002 0.002 0.001 0.003 0.007
Cr 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.03
Cu 0.2 1.5 0.3 1.7 0.2 0.5
Ni 0.03 0.05 0.03 0.05 0.02 0.05
Pb 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.05
Zn 0.7 2.1 0.9 2.3 1.1 2.9

Land application of manure by-products is traditionally based on N and/or P loading.

Hence the level of trace element loading through manure application depends on the
concentrations of both the trace element and the two major nutrients, N and P. Metals,
such as Cu and Zn are strongly bound to organic matter and the land application of
organic matter-rich poultry manure is likely to result in the accumulation of such metals

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in soils (Schomberg et al., 2009). Over-supplementation of Cu and Zn do not seem to

have direct environmental effects but are potentially phytotoxic (Alva et al., 2000; Novak
et al., 2008). The environmental risk of heavy metals such as Cu and Zn is largely
dependent upon the ability of the soil to adsorb these elements and the potential for
leaching or loss by soil erosion (Gupta and Charles, 1999).
The United States Environmental Protection Agency (US-EPA) regulations set ceiling
concentrations of each element that may not be exceeded if the sewage sludge is to be
land applied (Table 5). The US-EPA standards do not recognize differences in soil type
and plant species, and their ability to retain and precipitate these elements and
bioaccumulation potential (Ritter, 2000). The typical loadings of trace elements in the
USA through various sources are also given in Table 5. As expected, except for As,
sewage sludge would add more metals than commercial fertilizer and manure products.
Poultry manure would add the highest amount to As, manure products on the average,
would add about 1.6-13, 50-107, and 212-4490 times more As, Zn and Cu, respectively
than the commercial fertilizers, for a particular application rate of P. However, the poultry
litters generated in most other countries are unlikely to add such high levels of As and Cu
because these metals are not added in high concentration in the feed.

Table 5 US-EPA Part 503 land application guidelines for trace elements loading (kg/ha) from commercial
fertilizer, sewage sludge and from various manure sources.

Element Permitted Fertilizer Sewage Dairy Poultry Swine

sludge manure manure manure

As 2 0.003 0.043 0.006 0.054

Cd 1.9 0.001 0.311 0.001 0.008 0.0003
Cr 150 4.310 0.016 0.044
Cu 75 0.0004 4.025 0.350 0.086 1.796
Pb 15 5.479 0.004 0.019
Hg 0.85 0.025
Mo 0.90 0.003 0.042 0.013
Ni 21 0.004 0.017
Se 5 0.009 0.002
Zn 140 0.018 6.376 0.890 1.167 1.933

*Based on 100 kg P2O5/ha

Fertilizer (McBride and Spiers, 2001; grade 6-24-24); sewage (Caper et al., 1978; P = 1.46%); dairy (McBride
and Spiers, 2001; P = 0.803% for dairy); poultry (Jackson and Miller, 2000; P = 2.78%); swine (De Abreu and
Berton, 1996; P = 3.25%)

It is important to recognise that trace element loadings through manure application may
overestimate their actual net accumulation in soil, since a substantial portion of the trace
elements in manure originates in crop uptake or soil contaminating the manure, and are
therefore being recycled within a production system. Conversely metals in fertilizers,
imported feedstuff or sewage sludge represent de novo additions to the soil (McBride and
Spiers, 2001). In general, the behaviour and effects of metals added to soil in the form of
animal manure are essentially similar to that applied in the form of sewage sludge. It is
therefore prudent to consider adopting similar guidelines for manure application as have
been described for sewage sludge.

ANTIBIOTICS, COCCIDIOSTATS AND PESTICIDES

Antibiotics used in poultry production system include bacitracin, bambermycin,
chlortetracycline, dihydrostreptomycin, erythromycin, lincomycin, neomycin,
oxytetracycline, penicillin, spectinomycin, streptomycin, tetracycline and tylosin

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(Bhattacharya and Taylor, 1975). Similarly several chemicals are used to control internal
protozoan parasites that cause coccidiosis (Sims and Wolf, 1994). The excretion of the
coccidiostats sulphaquinoxaline and decoquinate has been studied in caged broilers fed
diets containing these two drugs (Hobson-Frohock and Johnson, 2006). Storage of broiler
excreta at 23°C for 9 days showed contrasting effects; the sulphaquinoxaline content
decreased about 40% with respect to initial content in the manure whereas the
decoquinate concentration remained unchanged. Both coccidiostats appeared relatively
stable when samples of excreta were dried in 1.0 cm thick layers in an oven at 200°C.
In layer operations, chemicals are often included in diets to control insects in the litter.
Examples of some larvicides include rabon, zoalene, unistat, nicarbazin, furazolidone,
and nitrofurazone and cyromazine (Bhattacharya and Taylor, 1975; Axtell, 1986; Sims
and Wolf, 1994; OSU, 2010). Some of these chemical residues have been measured in
poultry manure wastes (Table 6). The concentration of chemical residue found in poultry
litter is related to the amount, frequency, retention and stability of the chemical, and the
composting of the litter (Nahm, 2005; Karci and Balcioglu, 2009).
Table 6 Commonly used antibiotics, coccidiostats and larvicides in poultry production (Sims and Wolf,
1994).

Name Concentration

Material Chemical Common (mg/kg)

Antibiotic Amprolium Amprol 0.0-77.0

Chlortetracycline Aureomycin 0.8-26.3
Chlortetracycline Aureomycin 0.1-2.8
Neomycin sulphate Neomycin -
Nicarbazin 35.1-152.1
Oxytetracycline Terramycin 5.5-29.1
Penicillin Propen 0-25

Coccidiostat Amprolium Amprol -

Zoalene - -

Larvicide 2-Chloro-1-(2,4,5-trichlorophenyl) Rabon 196-580

vinyl dimethyl phosphate

The consequences of land application of poultry manure containing these chemical

residues have not been adequately evaluated. Decreases in the rate of decomposition of
the poultry litter and the crop responses to manure-borne nutrients resulting from the land
application of antibiotics- and coccidiostats-containing manures have been reported
(Sims, 1997; Nahm, 2005). It is important to point out that composting of organic
wastes including poultry litter is likely to reduce the concentration of most organic
pesticides in the manure product (Fogarty and Tuovinen, 1991; Kawata et al., 2006).
Although the use of antibiotics as growth promoters in poultry feed has been reduced
in the U.S. (Singer and Hofacre, 2006), the potential environmental risks of proliferation
and transport of antibiotic-resistant bacteria via land application of poultry is less
documented (Kelley et al., 1998; Brooks et al., 2009) than human health impacts to
antibiotic exposures (Powers and Angel, 2008).

ENDOCRINE-DISRUPTING COMPOUNDS
Endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs) are a group of compounds either synthesised
or naturally present in the environment suspected to have adverse effects in animals and

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humans. These EDC include several natural hormones excreted by the animal, and
include pesticides, herbicides, plant oestrogens, and other compounds that disrupt
endocrine systems (Powers and Angel, 2008). The EDC affect organisms by
interfering with the binding of hormones to their receptors or disrupting the endocrine
system by mimicking natural hormones (Colborn et al., 1993).
Broilers can produce and excrete EDCs in the form of steroid hormones. Research has
shown that broiler litter contains 17β-oestradiol, oestrone, oestriol, and testosterone that
can persist in poultry litter in measurable concentrations (Hanselman et al., 2003; Jenkins
et al., 2006). The impact of the discharge of these compounds on the environment is
poorly understood. In the U.S., a series of studies on land application of poultry litter to
meet the crop nitrogen requirements of Georgia Piedmont soils under conventional till
and no-till management (Jenkins et al., 2006, 2009a,b), showed that the hormones 17β-
estradiol and testosterone did not appear to impact their background levels in soil, surface
runoff, and subsurface drainage. These results and other studies indicate that both
oestradiol and testosterone might be mineralized once they are in contact with soil.
However, other studies indicated that fractions of oestradiol and testosterone appeared
to resist mineralisation (Filay-Moore et al., 2000; Jenkins et al., 2006).

MICROBIAL LOAD
Poultry manure contains a large and diverse population of viruses, bacteria, fungi and
protozoa. Microbial concentrations in poultry litter can exceed 1010 cells/g (Acosta-
Martinez and Harmel, 2006; Cook et al., 2008; Rothrock et al., 2008a), and gram
positive bacteria (i.e. Actinomycetes, Clostridia/Eubacteria, Bacilli/Lactobacilli)
account for nearly 90% of the microbial diversity (Lu et al., 2003; Enticknap et al.,
2006; Lovanh et al., 2007). While microbes perform a variety of different enzymatic and
metabolic processes within the litter environment, two microbial groups of special
interest to the poultry industry are nitrogen mineralizing microbes and pathogens.
Ammonia volatilisation results from the mineralisation of organic nitrogen in the
poultry litter, namely uric acid and urea, and more than half of the nitrogen in
poultry litter is lost as ammonia due to microbial activity (Brinson et al., 1994;
Moore et al., 1996). Culture-based work identified Bacillus spp. (Ritz et al., 2004)
and Arthrobacter spp. (Schefferle, 1965; Kim and Patterson, 2003) as the dominant
uric acid mineralising microbes in poultry litter. Based on DNA sequencing work, a
single, previously unidentified, bacterial group dominated the urea mineralising bacterial
clone libraries based on the urease enzyme (Rothrock et al., 2008b). These specific
microbial groups are present in sufficiently high concentrations (~1% of total
microbial concentration; Cook et al., 2008) to account for the high organic nitrogen
mineralisation rates in untreated poultry (Gale and Gilmour, 1986; Moore et al., 1995).
Fungi, specifically Aspergillus spp., were recently shown to mineralise these predominant
forms of organic nitrogen in poultry litter (Cook et al., 2008), and this fungal activity
must be taken into account.
Pathogens represent the second group of bacteria of importance to the poultry industry.
Culture- and molecular-based work has shown that poultry litter is a reservoir for several
zoonotic pathogens, including Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp., Campylobacter jejuni,
Listeria monocytogenes, and Clostridium perfringens (Williams et al., 1999; Terzich et
al., 2000; Line, 2002; Bull et al., 2006; Line and Bailey, 2006; Rothrock et al., 2008a).
Contact between the birds and the litter represents a major route of contamination, with
carcass contamination representing a dominant source of pathogen introduction into the
meat processing plant (Rigby et al., 1980a; Rigby et al., 1980b; Izat et al., 1988; De Boer
and Hahne, 1990). Pathogen destruction may be required in some situations prior to land

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spreading, a potential major source of pathogen introduction into the environment

(Millner, 2009).

Uses of poultry litter

AS A NUTRIENT SOURCE
Poultry litter is often used as an organic nutrient source in forage, cereal and fibre crop
production. The addition of poultry litter to tall fescue, orchard grass, bermuda grass has
been shown to increase dry matter production (Sims and Wolf, 1994; McGrath et al.,
2009). In some cases the amount of N applied was in excess of the amount recommended
for forage production, resulting in groundwater and surface water contamination through
leaching and surface runoff (Sharpley et al., 2007). Excessive application can cause
undesirable effects on forage crops and animals consuming the forage (Mcginley et
al., 2003). During a seven year study in which over 18 tons/ha of broiler manure was
applied annually to tall fescue used in a grazing study, Stuedemann et al. (1975) noticed
problems with grass tetany and fat necrosis in beef cattle.
Increases in corn response to poultry manure addition have been noticed in a number of
studies. In most studies, highest corn yields were obtained with the highest rate of
manure addition, but the efficiency of manure N recovery by the crop decreased
markedly as N rate increased, resulting in N leaching. For example, Sims (1987)
obtained three year average efficiencies for N recovery of 50, 37, and 36%,
respectively, for poultry manure application rates of 84, 168, and 252 kg potentially
available N. The potentially available N from manure was calculated as 80% of (NH4-N
+ NO3-N) plus 60% of organic N (Bitzer and Sims, 1988). Similar decreases in N
recovery with increasing N rate were observed in the case of fertilizer N application.
In some studies, excessive application of fertilizer N or poultry manure has been shown
to decrease corn yield, which has been attributed to adverse growing conditions (‘salt
injury’) resulting from high salt concentration in the soil (Sims and Wolf, 1994).
Fertilizer studies with cotton in the U.S. showed that poultry litter is a valuable source
of plant nutrients supplying N and metals Fe, Cu, Zn and Mn (Tewolde et al., 2005).
When poultry litter was applied in bands, N nutrition was more effective than regular
broadcast; it increased lint yield and improved cotton fibre quality (Tewolde et al., 2009).
Field experiments were conducted at Massey University, New Zealand to examine the
fertilizer value of freshly applied and residual poultry manure (Mahimairaja et al.,
1995a). Fresh poultry manure, obtained from a layer unit, was mixed with elemental
sulphur and phosphate rock and composted for five weeks under aerobic conditions. The
value of poultry compost as an N source for cabbage was compared with urea. Both the
compost and the urea were added at the start of the cabbage trial at a rate of 300 kg N/ha.
After the harvest of the cabbage, maize was grown in the same plot to examine the
residual value of the poultry manure. The harvestable fresh head yields of cabbage and
the dry matter yield of fodder maize are presented in Figure 1. Although the highest yield
of cabbage was obtained with the application of urea in combination with elemental
sulphur and phosphate rock, the yield was not significantly different from the yield
obtained by the poultry compost. The N use efficiency (kg fresh head yield per kg N
applied) was slightly higher for the urea treatment than for the poultry compost (195 vs.
139). The apparent recovery of applied N was higher with the urea treatment (58.6%)
than with the poultry compost (41.7%). There was no difference in maize yield between
the urea and the poultry manure compost treatments. This suggests that poultry manure
composts have a greater residual value than urea.

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140 Cabbage

Fresh head (cabbage) or dry matter (maize) yield (tonnes/ha)

Maize

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
Control Urea Poultry

Figure 1 Effect of urea and poultry manure on harvestable yield of cabbage and dry matter yield of maize
(Mahimairaja et al., 1995a).

AS A SOIL AMENDMENT
Continuous cultivation of arable soils results in the deterioration of soil structure
leading to reduced crop yield. For example, in the Manawatu region of New Zealand,
continuous cultivation of maize has resulted in the deterioration of the physical
conditions of the soils. A plant growth experiment was conducted in which the effects
of poultry manure on the physical fertility of the cultivated soil and the growth of maize
crop were examined. A soil that has undergone continuous cultivation of maize for 34
years and a pasture soil were used in the study. Poultry manure was compared with urea
at an application level of 300 kg N/ha (Bolan et al., 1992).
The addition of urea and poultry manure increased the dry matter yields of the maize
crop in both cultivated and the pasture soils (Table 7). In the pasture soil, there was no
significant difference in dry matter yields between the poultry manure and the urea
treatments. However, in the case of the cultivated soil, poultry manure achieved
greater yields than the urea treatment. Addition of poultry manure achieved similar
dry matter yields in the pasture and the cultivated soils. The results indicated that
improving the chemical fertility status of the cultivated soil alone through chemical
fertilizer input is not enough to achieve the potential maximum yield of maize crop in
these soils.

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Table 7 Effect of urea and poultry manure (PM) addition on dry matter yield of maize and soil properties.

Pasture soil Cultivated soil

Properties Control Urea PM Control Urea PM

DM yield (g/pot) 130 158 155 70 120 161

Organic matter (g/kg soil) 55 57 85 25 27 79
Bulk density (kg/m3) 1060 1060 935 1125 1125 960
Water holding capacity (g/kg ) 355 357 580 217 217 560
Oxygen diffusion rate (cm3/min) 21.4 18.5 26.4 10.2 8.2 25.3
Aggregate stability 35.6 34.5 41.2 12.2 13.5 40.5

The soil data (Table 7) indicated that the addition of poultry manure decreased the bulk
density, increased the organic matter content, water holding capacity, oxygen diffusion
rate and the aggregate stability of the soils. The effect of poultry manure on these
physical properties was more pronounced in the cultivated soil than the pasture soil.
These results indicate that the addition of poultry manure improved the physical fertility
of the cultivated soil leading to increased maize growth. Compost products, including
poultry litter, are used commonly as a mulching material for agricultural and horticultural
crops to conserve soil moisture and to protect the surface feeding roots from drying
during the summer periods (Eneji et al., 2008; Agbede and Ojeniyi, 2009). Similarly the
application of poultry litter has been shown to improve the biological fertility of mine
tailings. Organic manures, such as poultry litter, are increasing being used in the
rehabilitation of disturbed land resulting from mining and other industrial activities
(Franzluebbers and Doraiswamy, 2007).

AS AN ANIMAL FEED
Poultry manure, either on its own or when mixed with feed grains, has been found to
be a valuable feed for cattle and fish. Ruminants are able to utilise the urea nitrogen (uric
acid) in poultry manure (Smith and Fries, 1973). However, the presence of foreign
materials, such as plastic and glass, and feathers affects the digestibility of poultry
waste and hence it is important to remove these from the litter before using it as a
feed. It is also important to maintain low ash content. When large quantities of soil are
removed with the litter, the ash content increased dramatically. It is recommended that
poultry litter with ash contents exceeding 28% should not be fed to cattle (Williams et al.,
1999).
From a hygiene perspective, unprocessed poultry waste contains potential pathogenic
microorganisms such as Clostridium, Salmonella and Enterobacter spp. Hence proper
processing to reduce the number of these microorganisms or render the waste free of
pathogens is required (McCaskey and Anthony, 1979; Kawata et al., 2006). In addition,
as noted above, feed additives such as antibiotics, arsenicals, and coccidiostats are added
in poultry diet, which can be excreted as waste by-products. Furthermore, some of the
fungal species that are indigenous to the manure or litter can result in the production of
mycotoxins. Pathogenic microorganisms can be destroyed by chemical, fermentation,
ensilation or heat processing (McCaskey and Martin, 1988; Cook et al., 2008).
Although disease problems have not been reported from feeding poultry manures to
farm animals under acceptable conditions but Cu toxicity has been found to be a
problem, especially in sheep. When an excess of Cu is added as a growth promoter
to poultry diets, it is excreted in high concentration in the manure since Cu is poorly
absorbed in the bird's digestive system. Sheep are less tolerant than other livestock

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species to high dietary levels of Cu when fed broiler litter (Fontenot and Webb, 1975;
Sharma et al., 2005).
Processed chicken manure and litter have been used as a feed ingredient for almost 40
years in the U.S. These contain large amounts of protein, fibre, and minerals, and have
been deliberately mixed into ruminant feed for these nutrients. Normally, this animal
waste is used by small farmers and owners of beef and dairy herds as a winter
supplement for cows and weaned calves. While the practice of feeding poultry
manure to animals seems unpleasant, the use of this product is safe as long as it
meets certain specifications listed in Table 8. For, example, the Association of
American Feed Control Officials (AAFCO) has established ‘Standard Names and
Definitions’ for three processed poultry waste products used as an animal feed as
follows (FDA, 2009):
• Dried Poultry Waste: a processed animal waste product composed primarily of
faeces from commercial poultry, which has been thermally dehydrated to moisture
content not in excess of 15%. It must contain not less than 18.0% crude protein,
and not more than 15% crude fibre, 30% ash, and 1% feathers.
• Dried Poultry Waste-non protein nitrogen (NPN) Extracted: a processed animal
waste product composed primarily of faeces from commercial poultry which has
been processed to remove part or all of the equivalent crude protein and non
protein nitrogen (NPN) as urea and/or uric acid, and which has been thermally
dehydrated to a moisture content not in excess of 15%. It must contain not less
than 11% crude protein, and not more than 15% crude fibre, 30% ash, and 1%
feathers.
• Dried Poultry Litter: a processed animal waste product composed of a processed
combination of faeces from commercial poultry together with litter that was
present in the floor production of poultry, which has been artificially dehydrated
to a moisture content not in excess of 15%. It must contain not less than 18% crude
protein, and not more than 25% crude fibre, 20% ash, and 4% feathers.

Table 8 Specifications for using poultry manure as an animal feed and the variation in some of the
characteristics.

Characteristics Specifications Variation

Broiler Layer Limits Broiler Layer

Moisture (%) 12 12 Maximum 10-24 56 - 87

Crude protein (%) 24 22 Minimum 10-26 5 - 24
Uric acid CP (%) 60 60 Maximum 40-60 50 - 80
Fat (%) 1.5 1.5 Minimum
Fibre (%) 15 15 Maximum 5 - 25
Ash (%) 15 25 Maximum 10-26 7 - 15
Feathers (%) 1 1 Maximum
Calcium (%) 3.5 8 Maximum 1.5-3.0 5 - 12
Phosphorus (%) 1.5 2 Minimum 1.2-1.8 1.5-2.9
Sodium (%) 0.5 0.5 Maximum
Silica (%) 0.5 0.5 Maximum
Copper (%) 0.005 0.005 Maximum 0.002-0.035 0.001-0.007

The AAFCO specifications require that processed animal waste products do not contain
extraneous materials such as metal, glass, nails or other harmful matter. They must be
free of pathogenic organisms, pesticide residues, parasites, or drug residues, which could

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be harmful to animals or could result in residues in human food products or by-products

of animals at levels in excess of those allowed by State or Federal statute or regulation.
If a product contains drug residues, then the label must contain the following statement
in bold face type: ‘Warning: this product contains drug residues. Do not use within
15 days of slaughter and do not use 15 days prior to or during the food production
period of dairy animals and laying hens.’ If the product contains 25 mg/kg or greater
of Cu, the following statement in bold face type is required: ‘Warning: contains high
levels of copper: do not feed to sheep.’ According to AAFCO using adequately
processed poultry waste in animal feed may not be aesthetically pleasing but it is
safe, nutritionally valid, and environmentally sound.
Although poultry litter has been found to be more valuable as a feedstuff than as a
fertiliser, the use of poultry waste as a feed ingredient is becoming a less common
practice within the livestock industry. The public perception of the concept of
coprophagy (animal consumption of faecal material) contributes to the limited use of
this practice as a major means of recycling poultry wastes. It is also likely that concerns
about infection by enterohemorrhagic strains of E. coli, and the perception of
transmission of neurodegenerative disease such as scrapie, Creutzfedt-Jacob disease
(CJD), and bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) will naturally discourage the
practice of feeding farm animals with any waste derived from animal-based industries
(Williams et al., 1999).

AS A FUEL SOURCE
Poultry litter can be burnt directly as a fuel source to produce heat energy. One of the
problems with using poultry litter as a fuel source is its relatively high moisture content.
The moisture content should be less than 15% in order to achieve the maximum heat
energy during burning. Alternatively, the anaerobic digestion of poultry waste yields
biogas, a combustible gas composed of approximately 60% methane, 38% carbon
dioxide, and mixture of water vapour, ammonia and hydrogen sulphide. Biogas (also
known as ‘producer’ gas) may be used as an energy source for burning as heat or as fuel
for internal combustion engines to generate electricity. Both the burnt ash material and
the post-anerobic digested solids may be used as fertiliser and animal feed supplement
(Liedl et al., 2006; Blake et al., 2007). Few producers, however, utilise anaerobic
digestion as a method of poultry waste treatment because of unfavourable economics,
low biogas yield for litter-based systems and technical operational difficulties (Williams
et al., 1999).
Poultry litter combustion has received major attention as a method to produce heat and
electricity at large centralised facilities (Kelleher et al., 2002; Turnell et al., 2007;
Fibrowatt, 2008). In the search to make electric power from renewable ‘green’
sources, a number of states in the US have turned to thermal conversion of biomass.
For example, Minnesota produces over two million tons of turkey and broiler waste —
the fuel for ‘poultry power.’ Now some Minnesota turkey farmers are working with a
British company (Fibrowatt) that built a manure-fired power plant in central Minnesota in
2007 (Fibrowatt, 2008). The plant burns nearly half a million tons of poultry litter every
year, generating 50 Megawatts of electricity that will be sufficient enough to supply
40000 households.
Similarly, there is a proposal to build a poultry litter-based power plant in Western
Australia. On the basis of the Fibrowatt experience, it is possible to produce
approximately 0.700 Megawatts of electricity by burning around 7000 tons of poultry
litter produced in the proposed broiler plant. This will be sufficient enough to supply
around 900 households. However, a limitation to the adoption of this technology is the
high capital investment and public concern for potential emission of particulate matter,

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nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, and sulphur dioxide from large centralised
combustion facilities burning poultry litter (Turnell et al., 2007). Nevertheless, it is
possible to utilise the litter as a fuel source to produce hot water, which will be
useful for a poultry processing unit.

Improving the value of poultry litter

Fresh poultry waste is difficult to handle due to its high moisture content and odour. With
the introduction of barn system (confined production), it is now possible to produce
relatively dry manure. Another important problem of poultry waste is the loss of N during
the storage, drying, handling, and subsequent land application (Mahimairaja et al., 1994;
Adeli et al., 2009). The loss of N occurs mainly through ammonia volatilisation and
denitrification during handling and through nitrate leaching after application to land.
Gaseous losses of N are of particular concern because they not only reduce the
fertiliser value of poultry waste, but also form atmospheric pollutants, and deteriorate
the environmental health. Excessive application of fresh poultry manure also results in
the accumulation of ammonia in soils causing injury to seedlings and roots. Thus, poor
management of this valuable resource could be damaging to crops and also leads to
pollution of surface and groundwaters.
Appropriate technologies, which are environmentally viable and economically feasible,
are needed for efficient management of poultry waste. This can be achieved through
proper composting of the manure and the appropriate feed management practices.

COMPOSTING
Manure by-products undergo a number of treatment processes that include in-situ
biological pond treatment, composting, and specific chemical treatment. Aerobic
composting is most commonly practiced to overcome some of the problems
associated with the handling and disposal of poultry manure. It reduces the bulkiness
of the waste and yields a stabilized product suitable for handling and land application.
Composting eliminates animal and human pathogens and could reduce the risks of
polluting groundwater. Development of appropriate methods of composting poultry
waste with suitable amendments could greatly reduce the nutrient losses and at the
same time helps to minimise environmental pollution.
Use of amendments, such as straw, peat, woodchip, paperwaste, elemental sulphur and
zeolite helps to reduce the N losses during composting of poultry waste. Aerobic
composting with cereal straw, which contains readily decomposable carbon, is most
effective in reducing the N loss (Preusch et al., 2002). Nutrient-rich ecofriendly
compost can be prepared by composting poultry waste with phosphate rock and
elemental sulphur. This can be used as a valuable nutrient source especially for
organic farming practises. Addition of small amount of elemental sulphur reduces the
pH of the compost, thereby reducing the volatilisation losses of ammonia (Mahimairaja et
al., 1993). It also enhances the dissolution of rock phosphate and enriches the compost
with P and S nutrients (Mahimairaja et al., 1995b). Use of alum and zeolite to reduce
ammonia volatilisation as well as P solubility of poultry litter has provided encouraging
results (Kithome et al., 1999; Delaune et al., 2004; Guo and Song, 2009). The potential
to use such amendments not only addresses environmental concerns but also improves
the housing environments for the birds and workers by reducing ammonia concentrations,
as well as improving the N:P ratio of the manure for crop utilisation. Hence it forms an
economically viable option for poultry growers (Moore et al., 1996; Sharpley et al..
2007).

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Although composting is basically aimed at achieving a stable manure product, it may

also affect both the total content and the speciation of metals in manure by-products. For
example, Sistani et al. (2001) observed that composting decreased Zn content in poultry
manure. Moore et al. (1998) observed that treatment of poultry manure with alum
[Al2(SO4)3] resulted in the immobilization of Cd, Cu and Zn, thereby decreasing their
concentration in soil solution.

FEED MANAGEMENT
Improving feed efficiency and health of animals that minimises the incidence of disease
outbreaks is an important consideration in intensive, confined animal production systems
(Nahm, 2002). Efficient nutrient utilisation using growth promoters not only reduces the
cost of production but also provides a major means of reducing potential contaminants,
such as N and P in poultry manure. However, since some of the growth promoters
contain metals, this practice is likely to result in elevated concentration of these
elements in manure by-products. Precision formulation and feeding of diets to meet
but not to exceed the nutritional requirements will likely be a viable component of
waste management strategies.
Nutrient excretion in poultry manure results mainly from inefficiencies associated with
digestion and metabolism. Addition of feed supplements and modifying feeding
programme to improve nutrient efficiency can result in significant decreases in the N,
P and odour of poultry manures (Nahm, 2002). Examples of these methods include (Selle
and Ravindran, 2007; Silversides and Hruby, 2009): (i) addition of synthetic amino acids
and reducing protein contents in the feed have resulted in a decrease in manure N
contents by 10 to 27% in the broiler units; (ii) enzyme supplementation has resulted
in a 12 to 15% reduction in the dry weight of broiler manure; (iii) phytase
supplementation has resulted in the reduction of P in poultry manure by 25 to 60%;
(vi) formulation of diet matching the requirements has reduced the N content in manure
by 10 to 15%; (vi) phase feeding reduced N and P in the manure by 10-33%; (v) use of
highly digestible raw materials in feed has reduced the N and P excretion by 5%; (vi)
certain feed manufacturing techniques (reducing particle size and pelletising) can
significantly increase dry matter digestibility, leading to reduced manure production;
(vii) use of alternative coccidiostats, such as ‘ionophores’ (instead of arsenical
compounds) can achieve drastic reduction in As level in poultry litter; and (viii)
similarly the use of non-metal containing growth promoters helps to reduce the
concentration of metals, metals such as Cu and Zn in poultry litter.

Best management practices for the beneficial use of poultry litter

There is an urgent need to formulate strict regulations governing the safe disposal and
handling of poultry waste in order to minimise the environmental impact. Management of
poultry waste must be integrated into a broader nutrient management programme in
agriculture. Guidelines on specific land application, optimal loading rates, and
permissible limits of nutrients, heavy metals, antibiotics, and coccidiostats in poultry
waste, are needed. Research-based information on the transformation and plant
availability of nutrients and heavy metals in poultry wastes is needed for efficient
management of this resource as a nutrient resource and soil amendment. Recycling of
poultry waste in fish and cattle feed and in power (electricity) generation should also be
given consideration for efficient and profitable management of poultry waste.
The components of an effective management programme for the agricultural use of
poultry litter include (RIRDC, 2009): (i) site selection; (ii) production and collection; (iii)

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storage, handling and treatment; and (iv) transport and land application. Site specific
optimisation of each of these components is essential to maximise the beneficial use of
litter resources, thereby avoiding the pollution of the nearby environment (Sims and
Wolf, 1994).
Management programmes for poultry litter must reflect both the potential value of the
litter as a resource and a realistic appraisal of the negative effects litter constituents may
have on the environment. High transportation costs and lack of distribution infrastructure
are some of the reasons why a comprehensive approach to poultry litter management be
developed to take advantage of all beneficial end uses for the diverse waste products of
this industry.

SITE SELECTION
• Site location for a poultry unit should be based on the facilities for production,
storage and treatment of wastes and the suitability of the soils on the site for land
application of litter.
• Proximity to streams, ponds, and drainage pathways and an understanding of
groundwater hydrology are taken into consideration.

COLLECTION AND STORAGE

• A waste management plan that aims to reduce the volume of waste production will
facilitate the ease and efficiency of the operations of the plan.
• Litter collection should be closely linked to storage capacity so that these resources
are protected from unfavourable weather conditions and maintained in good
physical conditions enabling easy application.
• The unfavourable economics of litter transportation often result in limited
distribution of nutrients throughout the farm, causing a build up of some
nutrients (e.g., P) to excessive levels in the field at short distances from the site
of waste generation.

TREATMENT
Composting is the most common treatment aimed at achieving a stable organic manure
product. It also achieves partial or complete elimination of microbial pathogens.
• Compost areas need to have an impermeable base to avoid leaching and possible
groundwater contamination.
• The composting site should be in an elevated area or a bunding may be required in
order to prevent extraneous runoff entering the pile and becoming contaminated.
• The compost pile should be protected from rain in order to overcome leaching of
nutrients and contaminants, and from wind to overcome the problems associated
with odorous gases.
• Nutrient rich runoff from the compost piles should be collected in a sump or dam
and may be reused.
• Compost pile need to be carefully managed to avoid dust and odour emission. If
the compost is too dry the process will be slowed and excessive dust may be
generated. If the compost becomes too wet, it may become anaerobic and result in
excessive odour emissions. Optimum moisture content is around 50 - 55% (wet
basis).

LAND APPLICATION
• Timing of land application of poultry litter should be aimed at maximising crop
recovery of nutrients and closely related to production patterns and storage
capacities.

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Poultry litter: N.S. Bolan et al.

• Poultry compost should be added during the active growth of the crop or
immediately before planting. For example, application of poultry manure during
fall and winter, when crops have not been able to utilise nutrients is normally not
encouraged.
• Application should be based on balanced nutrient requirements of the crop.
• Litter should be incorporated into soil; this will reduce the gaseous losses of N and
the runoff losses of nutrients and contaminants in litter.

ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING
Environmental monitoring is an important component of best management practices to
achieve both sustainable production and environmental protection when poultry litter is
applied to land. Environmental monitoring includes regular analysis of manure samples,
maintaining accurate records of all activities in the farm, and regular soil and drainage
water sampling and their analysis for nutrients and other contaminants.

Conclusions
Poultry litter is a good organic source of nutrients for raising crops, such as maize.
However, the loss of N through ammonia volatilisation is a major issue during handling
and land application of poultry litter. These losses can be minimized through proper
composting process in the presence of organic amendments, such as cereal straw.
The success of utilisation of poultry litter as a valuable nutrient source and soil
conditioner depends on developing technologies to produce uniform value-added
products, and design of equipment for uniform waste product field application.
Response of pasture, arable and horticultural crops, and silviculture species to poultry
waste applications and their beneficial effects on soil physical and chemical properties
should be examined in order to maximise the utilisation of poultry litter. The
bioavailability of nutrient and heavy metals and their movement into surface water
and groundwater as influenced by the loading rate of poultry litters need to be studied
further, and site specific best management practices for safe and beneficial utilisation of
poultry manure for sustainable production with minimum impact on environment should
be developed. This will allow technologies that provide alternative to land application of
poultry wastes to be developed.

Acknowledgements
The senior author thanks CRC CARE for providing funding (No 2-3-09-07/08) to
undertake research on landfill site remediation as part of the review was derived from
this project.

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