GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS

WHAT IS A GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM?

• A computer based system that is used to store and
manipulate geographic information (digital thematic maps
representing geographic features and their attributes).

• A system for the collection, storage and analysis of objects

and phenomena where geographic location is an important
characteristic or is critical to the analysis.

• A system of hardware, software and procedures designed to

support the capture, management, manipulation, analysis,
modeling and display of spatially-referenced data for solving
complex planning and management problems.
WHAT IS A GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM?
 Components of GIS

A full GIS requires:

• Hardware (computers and peripherals)
• Software
• Data
• People
• Training
 WHY USE GIS?
• Large quantities of data can be maintained and retrieved more
efficiently and quickly.
• The data are in a form that is more physically compact than
that of paper maps.
• Diverse spatial data and corresponding attribute information
can be integrated into a single analysis very quickly.
• New information can be derived.
• Scenarios, models and "what if" scenarios can be developed
by making refinements to the analysis and is only practical
when done on a computer.
• Multiple spatial and non-spatial data sets can be integrated
using a GIS which cannot be effectively completed with
manual methods, drafting systems or some CAD.
• Diverse procedures can be integrated, combined and
automated, some with very little analysis support.
 ATTRIBUTE DATA
• Attributes describe the geographic phenomena
in question.
– Number of lanes in the road
– Width of a road
– Height of the forest canopy
– Population of a country, state, city, county, or block
– Rock type
– Vegetation type or cover
– Name of a city, road or water body
– Depth of water body
– Carrying capacity of soil
– Soil type and characteristics
 APPLICATIONS OF GIS
• Urban Planning
• Hydrological Modeling
• Land Use and Land Cover Mapping
• Geographic Analysis of Age, Income, etc.
• Vegetation Mapping
• Managing Fisheries
• Crime Mapping
• And … construction and infrastructure management
 SPATIAL LOCATION
• Data in a GIS must have a georeferenced (spatial) location;
each item must be referenced to a geographic coordinate
system, such as:

• LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE

– 34o43'48" North
– 87o12'29" West
• UNIVERSAL TRANSVERSE MERCATOR
– 408,000 m. East
– 3,864,000 m. North
• STATE PLANE COORDINATES
– 1,710,000 ft.
– 350,000 ft.
 GIS FUNCTIONS
• Input
• Management
– Management of the Spatial Data
• Transform spatial data files, edit them and assess
their accuracy.
– Management of the Attribute Data
• Edit, check and analyze the non-spatial data.
• Integrated Analysis of Spatial and Attribute Data (main
power!!)
• Output Formatting
– Preparation of the analysis results for display.
 DATA INPUT AND OUTPUT
• Data entry is usually the major bottleneck in
implementing a GIS. The initial cost of building the
database can be up to 5 to 10 times the cost of the
GIS hardware and software.
• The creation of an accurate database is critical to
the operation of the GIS.
• Accurate information can only be generated if the
data on which it is based were accurate to begin
with.
• "Garbage In = Garbage Out"
• For a database to be used, maintained and
updated, the database must be well-documented.
(Metadata)
 DATA ENTERED INTO A GIS

• Spatial Data represents the geographical

location of the features.
• Non-Spatial (Attribute) Data provide the
descriptive information like the name of the
street, salinity of the lake, or type of tree
stand.
• To perform geographic analysis, these two
data types must be linked together.
 METHODS OF DATA INPUT
• Keyboard
• Manual Digitizing
• Scanning
• Purchasing Digital Data
• Coordinate Geometry (COGO)
• Remote Sensing
 EXAMPLES OF DATA SOURCES
• REmote Sensing On-line Retrieval System (Natural Resources Canada)
http://www.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca/

• Canadian Geospatial Data Infrastructure http://geodiscover.cgdi.ca/

• DMTI http://www.dmtispatial.com/

• Geomatics Canada http://geomaticscanada.com

• PGGQ or Quebec government geomatics plan

http://www.pggq.gouv.qc.ca/english/index.jsp

• Geogratis http://geogratis.cgdi.gc.ca/

• National Air Photo Library (Centre for Topographic Information)

http://airphotos.nrcan.gc.ca/collection_e.php
 REMOTE SENSING AND GIS

• Remote Sensing is the science of obtaining

information about objects or phenomena without being
in physical contact with them.
• Data is collected from sources such as satellites and
airplanes.
• Applications of remote sensing include oil exploration,
geology, land use and land cover analysis, land use
planning, crop estimates, crop production monitoring,
reservoir water management, flood and damage
analysis, forest assessment, and change detection
analysis.
 REMOTE SENSING RESOLUTIONS

• Spatial Resolution is the ability of a sensor to

render a sharply defined image or the
smallest object that can be seen by a sensor.
• Spectral Resolution refers to the dimension
and number of specific wavelength intervals
in the electromagnetic spectrum to which a
given sensor is sensitive.
• Temporal Resolution is how often a given
sensor obtains imagery of a particular area.
 DATA QUALITY
• Demanding higher levels of data quality than
actually needed quickly becomes a significant
unnecessary expense when it is applied to the
entire GIS database.
• Unfortunately, the quality of geographic data is
usually examined only after incorrect decisions
have been made.
• Producers of geographic information are
increasingly being held liable when their products
are found to contain errors.
• Data quality standards, appropriately designed,
implemented, tested and reported can protect the
data producer and the data user.
SOURCES OF ERROR IN A GIS DATABASE
• Data Collection
– In situ data or field measurements (Equipment / procedures)
– Existing source maps
– Analysis of remotely sensed data
• Data Input
– Operator error
– Equipment error or accuracy
– Errors in natural boundaries translated to a digital database
• Data Storage
– Insufficient numerical precision
– Insufficient spatial precision
• Data Analysis
– Inappropriate class intervals
– Boundary errors
– Error propagation caused by multiple overlays
• Data Output
– Scaling accuracies
– Inaccuracy of output device
– Instability of the output medium
• Use of Result
– Information may be incorrectly understood or used
 OVERVIEW OF DATA QUALITY
• The objective of dealing with inaccuracies should
be not to eliminate it but to manage it.
• The highest accuracy possible will not be any better
than he least accurate input overlay.
• No map is 100% correct.
• Accuracy must be reported with confidence levels.
• Accuracy assessment can be an expensive
procedure, but a necessary one. Costs must be
weighed against the benefits from greater accuracy.
 GIS MANAGEMENT

• Data is of no value unless the right data can

be in the right place at the right time.
• Depending on the quantity of data and the
performance needed from the database
system, simple forms of organization may
suffice.
• However, in most GIS, the quantity of the
data is large enough that the form and
performance of the database are critical to
the overall performance of the system.
 TIME AND GIS
• The time component is not explicitly stated,
however it is critical.
• Geographic information describes a phenomenon
at a location as it exists at a specific point in time.
• If the area is changing rapidly, this information is
quickly out-dated.
• If this occurs, the data may be unsuitable for
making decisions that require the current status of
the land.
• Older data may be useful when monitoring
historical trends or changes in land use or land
cover through time (time series data).
 DATA MANAGEMENT
• A GIS database is a collection of information about
items and includes the relationship among the
items.
• A database management system (DBMS) is a set
of programs that manipulate and maintain the data
in the database.
• For an organization to function effectively, it
requires accurate and timely information.
• The objective in collecting and maintaining
information in a database is to relate facts and
situations that were previously separate
 SPATIAL DATA MODELS
• There are two fundamental approaches to the
representation of spatial data: The Raster Model
and the Vector Model
• Spatial information is represented in both models
using homogeneous units.
• In the raster approach, the homogeneous units are
cells.
• In the vector approach, the homogeneous units are
points, lines, and polygons.
• Each approach works best in situations where the
spatial data is to be treated in a manner that closely
matches the data model.
Vector and Raster Representation

Vector Raster
 Vector Data Model
Y Linex4,y4
Point Polygon
x7,y7 x6,y6
x1,y1 x3,y3
x5,y5 x4,y4

x2,y2
x8,y8 x3,y3
x1,y1 x1,y1
x2,y2

ID Population Area Density

1 156,478 424 396
2 106,857 690 155

+
.. .. .. ..
.. .. .. ..
 Vector Data Model
• POINTS
– Used to represent geographic phenomena at a particular
point or a map feature that is too small to be shown as an
area or line. (e.g., electrical poles, water intake sites,
sampling locations)
• LINES
– Used to represent map features that are too narrow to be
shown as an area or features that have no width. (e.g.,
lake shore, contour, road, state or county boundary,
streams, transmission lines, pipelines)
• AREAS (Polygons)
– Used to represent geographic phenomena that covers a
region; enclosed by line features and represented in GIS
by a polygon. (e.g., the extent of a city, a forest stand,
census tracts, sales districts, counties, states and
countries, lake or pond)
THE TOPOLOGICAL VECTOR DATA MODEL
• The topological model is the most widely used
method of encoding spatial relationships in a vector
GIS.
• Topology is the mathematical method used to
define spatial relationships. For example, left and
right polygons.
• Contiguity (spatial relationship of adjacency) and
connectivity (pathways or networks) are spatial
operations that are well-suited for topologically
structured data models.
 THE RASTER (Grid) DATA MODEL
• The space is regularly divided into cells.
• The area that each cell represents defines the spatial resolution
(the smallest area on the ground displayed in the data file).
• The position of geographic features is only recorded to the
nearest cell.
• The raster data model should be used for phenomena that
exhibit a high spatial variability. For example, a topographic
surface (elevation) is best depicted in a raster format, as is
satellite imagery.
• A point is represented by a single cell, a line by several cells
with the same value forming a linear group, and an area by a
clump of cells having the same value.
• Each cell in a raster file is assigned only one value and the
value in the cell indicates the attribute its represents. Different
attributes are stored in different data files.
 Definition of a Grid

Cell size

Number
of
rows
NODATA cell
(X,Y)
Number of Columns
Numerical Representation of a Spatial Surface

Grid

Triangulated Irregular
Contour and flowline
Network
 Approximate Representations of a Field in GIS

Regularly spaced sample points Irregularly spaced sample points Rectangular Cells

Irregularly shaped polygons Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN) Polylines/Contours

from Longley, P. A., M. F. Goodchild, D. J. Maguire and D. W. Rind, (2001), Geographic Information Systems and Science, Wiley, 454 p.
 Raster Generalization

Largest share rule Central point rule

 Points, Lines and Polygons in Cells

Points as Cells

Line as a Sequence of Cells

Polygon as a Zone of Cells

Example: Digital Elevation Models (DEMs)
A DEM defines a matrix of identically-sized square cells.
Each cell holds a numeric value that measures elevation for
that unit of space.
 Topographic Slope

• Defined or represented by one of the following

– Surface derivative z
– Vector with x and y components
– Vector with magnitude (slope) and direction (aspect)
 GIS ANALYSIS

• A GIS uses spatial analysis functions to

provide part of the answer to the question
"What is best?". However, what a GIS cannot
answer is the human value judgments that
define the goals and values of an
organization.
• The art and science of using a GIS is to
know who to combine functions to answer
the questions with the available data.
 Examples of GIS Spatial Analysis

• Overlaying
 NEIGHBORHOOD OPERATIONS
Neighborhood operations evaluate the characteristics of the
area surrounding a specified location
• Search: Typical numerical functions include total, average,
maximum, and minimum
• Line-in-Polygon - identify lines that fall into a certain polygon
• Point-in-Polygon - identifying points that fall into a certain
polygon
• Topographic Functions - surface characteristics (the relief)
of an area including the slope and aspect.
• Interpolation - the procedure for predicting unknown values
using the known values of neighboring locations; the data
are assumed to behave in a spatially predictable manner
over the map.
• Contour Generation - requires predictions for missing values
of elevation, crime rates, housing values.
 Examples of GIS Spatial Analysis

•Buffering
Example of Buffering
 CONNECTIVITY FUNCTIONS
• Contiguity analysis- evaluation of the characteristics of spatial
units that are connected.
• Proximity - a measure of distance between features; for
example, a buffer zone.
• The distinguishing feature of connectivity functions is that
they use functions that accumulate values over the area being
traversed. This requires that one or more attributes be
evaluated and a running total kept.
• Network - a set of interconnected linear features that form a
pattern or framework; commonly used for moving resources
from one location to another.
• Spread - used to evaluate transportation time or cost over a
complex surface; also used to define drainage basins by
spreading from a point and allowing movement only to adjacent
cells with the same or lower elevation.
 Examples of GIS Spatial Analysis
• Network Analysis
•Find the shortest path between two points

B
Application: ROAD CONSTRUCTION COST

• The GIS is used to generate the road construction

cost data layer that shows the cost of the roadway
construction at each location in the study area.
• Factors:
– The slope of the terrain,
– The type of soil material, and
– The type of land cover
• Rules are used to calculate the construction costs
for each terrain condition.
• These values are used to produce the construction
cost data layer.
OUTPUT: Visualization with Maps
GIS Integration
 Examples of GIS Applications

Transportation Management Resource Management

 Examples of GIS Applications

Environmental Management Disaster Management

 WHAT DISTINGUISHES A GIS FROM CAD,
DBMS OR COMPUTER MAPPING?
• SPATIAL SEARCHES (e.g., Buffer Zone Generation)
– Show all the items within 1 km of all secondary roads
– Show all items within a 50 m of a wilderness area
– Show all customers within 100 km of one office location
• OVERLAY OPERATIONS
– Show all areas that are on well-drained soil, have contiguous areas
greater than 10 acres, are zoned "industrial," and have existing
warehouses.
• The ability to integrate georeferenced data.
• Often GIS is confused with cartographic systems that store maps in
automated form.
– The main function of a cartographic system is to generate computer-
stored maps.
– The main function of a GIS is to create new information by integrating
data layers and to show the original data in different ways, from different
perspectives.
 LAND INFORMATION SYSTEMS
• The term Land Information System (LIS) refers to a
GIS that includes land ownership with information
on the uses, values, and distribution of resources.

• Source information at a scale of 1:1,000 to

1:10,000
 APPLICATIONS OF LIS

• Maintenance of tax and parcel information

• Analysis of changing land use
• Scheduling of road maintenance activities
• Maintenance of utility inventories
• Management of watersheds
• Emergency vehicle routing
 Examples of Spatial Integration of
Infrastructure Management Systems

• Expert system for bridge type selection

• Network-level bridge maintenance
management
• 3D GIS and virtual reality modeling for bridge
management
• Mobile infrastructure management systems
Network-level Lifecycle Bridge Management
Systems (NL-BMSs)

Planning
Design
１ ４
Construction
５ Network Bridge
２ ６ Monitoring
level lifecycle
７ bridges stages Maintenance
３ ８
Demolition

NL-BMSs
(Integration of databases and models)
 GIS-Based NL-BMSs

Design
Database
GIS
Inspection
Database
Databases
Maintenance
Database Applications
• Expert systems
• Condition assessment
• Condition visualization
• Maintenance planning
• ...
 GIS Data

Administrative Bridges National roads Prefectural roads

borders

Local roads River River borders Soil

centerlines
 Road Alignment Selection

Candidate
Route A
B

Height (ft) Bridge Tunnel Bridge Tunnel Bridge

Mile
Longitudinal Section of Route A
Location and Type Selection of a New Bridge

Based on bridge length, soil types, river cross section, etc.

LOCATION B
LOCATION A LOCATION C

RIVER BED

PARK
 Extracting Soil Properties

+
 Comparison between Bridges at Locations A and C

Continuous Continuous truss Continuous

noncomposite noncomposite
Steel girder steeI girder
Location A

Continuous noncomposite Continuous noncomposite Continuous noncomposite

Location C Steel girder Steel girder Steel girder

Location Bridge length (m) N values of Soil Total assessment

(Left ,Middle, Right) (cost, driving comfort,
landscape)
A 306 30, 30, 30 8.2

C 382.5 30, 30, 50 5.3

Visualization of Maintenance Planning

District border
Rrivers
Routine maintenance
Repair
Rehabilitation
Replacement
 Dimensions of GIS Databases
• 2D GIS: points, lines, and polygons

• 2.5D GIS: Digital Elevation Models (DEMs)

Triangulated Irregular Networks (TIN)

• 3D GIS: contains 3D data structure representing both

the geometry and topology of 3D shapes, and
allowing 3D spatial analysis.

• 4D GIS: 3D GIS + changes over time

TIN Representation of a DTM
EXAMPLE OF 3D GIS

JD-UC97 MISC#2-JR 7
Project about Population Density

Population
2.17 mil.
Nagoya
Station
Area

25km
326 km2

Population density
66 pers./ha

24km
Population Landscape
(1995) 1,000 pers./ha

center Rail
crossings

Total: 2.17 mill. 0 2.5 5

Center: 73,000 Kilometers
Rail crossings: 302,000
GIS for Visualizing Urban Models
Using 3D-GIS for Modeling Highways

Adding height
attributes

Adding piers
Extruding
 Classification of Bridge Pier Shapes
T Inverse-L Column Y Frame Π Irregular
Side
C.S.
From 2D GIS to 3D Virtual Reality Models