Journal of Criminal Justice 77 (2021) 101865

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Journal of Criminal Justice

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jcrimjus

A sexual frustration theory of aggression, violence, and crime

Adam Lankford *
Department of Criminology & Criminal Justice, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL, United States of America

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Background: Sexual frustration is a common experience for many people; it is one of the biggest frustrations in
Sexual frustration some individuals' lives; and it has been cited as a cause of immoral behavior for centuries. However, it does not
Sex drives feature prominently in any leading criminological theories.
Aggression
Methods: This review builds on findings from frustration-aggression, strain, self-control, and sexual selection
Violence
Crime
theories—along with research on a wide range of sexual and non-sexual behaviors—to propose an overarching
sexual frustration theory of aggression, violence, and crime.
Findings: Sexual frustration is not only a problem for those who are “involuntarily celibate”; it also affects many
people who are sexually active. Frustration arising from unfulfilled desires to have sex, unavailable partners, and
unsatisfying sexual activities appears to increase the risks of aggression, violence, and crime associated with
relief-seeking, power-seeking, revenge-seeking, and displaced frustration.
Conclusion: Although sexual frustration does not provide a sufficient explanation for aggression, violence, or
crime on its own, understanding its influence on behavior is important. Specific recommendations are offered to
facilitate theory-testing and future research.

1. Introduction psychological and qualitative dimensions of sexual frustration, and fails

to account for the option of masturbation. Additionally, because most
Although sexual frustration has been cited as a cause of immoral acts crimes are committed by males, embracing the “dam-bursting” view of
for centuries (Caluya, 2013; Kanin, 1967; Karras, 1998; Weeks, 1985), it sexual frustration could be perceived as excusing males based on their
does not feature prominently in any leading criminological theories of biology or blaming females for failing to please them. Either would be
this era (Akers, Sellers, & Jennings, 2020; Snipes, Bernard, & Gerould, highly offensive.
2019). One reason might be that past perspectives on this subject have However, the possibility that sexual frustration increases the risks of
been so naïve. In Europe during the Middle Ages, it was widely believed aggression, violence, and crime should be easy to accept. If purely
that for men, sexual pressure “builds up and has to be released through a psychological frustrations and strains have these effects—as is well
safety valve (marriage or prostitution), or eventually the dam will burst, established in the literature (Agnew, 1992; Berkowitz, 1989; Breuer &
and men will commit seduction, rape, adultery, and sodomy” (Karras, Elson, 2017; Brezina, 2017; Marcus-Newhall, Pedersen, Carlson, &
1998, p. 6). Similar beliefs can be traced through the centuries and Miller, 2000)—similarly intense frustrations with a biological compo­
remain influential today (Caluya, 2013). nent may be even more impactful. For instance, someone could start
This perspective misrepresents how the male body functions, does with the same amount of frustration about wanting a material object and
not account for sexual frustration among women, implies sexual frus­ wanting lunch. However, only the latter is likely to prompt hunger pangs
tration inevitably grows as time passes since last having sex, ignores or stomach rumbling. When someone is described as “hangry” (i.e.,

* Corresponding author at: Department of Criminology & Criminal Justice, The University of Alabama, P.O. Box 870320, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487-0320, United States
of America.
E-mail address: Adam.Lankford@ua.edu.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2021.101865
Received 27 August 2021; Received in revised form 29 October 2021; Accepted 1 November 2021
Available online 9 November 2021
0047-2352/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A. Lankford Journal of Criminal Justice 77 (2021) 101865

hungry and angry), it is based on this interaction of biology and psy­ influences sex offending and extreme violence, but not more common­
chology. And sure enough, multiple studies have found associations place crimes that similarly involve anger, jealousy, risk-taking, low self-
between hunger and aggression (Gailliot, 2013; Gailliot et al., 2007; control, or lack of empathy for one's victims.3
MacCormack & Lindquist, 2019). Similarly, sleep deprivation, which is This paper offers an overarching sexual frustration theory of
another frustration with a biological element, has been shown to reduce aggression, violence, and crime. The rationale for developing it involves
self-control (Meldrum, Barnes, & Hay, 2015) and increase aggression several considerations. First, whether one believes sex is a basic physi­
(Kamphuis, Meerlo, Koolhaas, & Lancel, 2012). ological need, as Maslow (1943) suggested—or merely something peo­
With sexual frustration, the corollary for hunger pangs may be sexual ple want—sex drives are more primal and universal than many other
arousal.1 Sexual arousal can involve many parts of the body, including motives. They exist across species, in every culture and era, and in nearly
the sensory organs (eyes, ears, mouth, nose, skin), the endocrine system every human being, whereas many other goals are culturally defined.
(hormones), the genitals, and the brain. Merely seeing, smelling, hear­ For some people, sexual frustration is arguably the biggest frustration in
ing, or touching another person may alter hormone levels (Law, 2011; their lives, and for many others, it is a recurring tension (ADL, 2020;
Miller & Maner, 2010). And this may occur even if the individual was Blanchard, 1995; Cottee, 2021; Hoffman et al., 2020; Kanin, 1985;
not consciously thinking of sex, even if the physiological response was Kassel, 2020; Stevens, 1995).
not desired, and even if the exposure occurred in a non-sexual context (e. Second sexual frustration, as a concept, is far more complex and
g., a meeting at work or class at school). It seems obvious that sexual multifaceted than is typically assumed. It is not only a problem for vir­
frustration can occur when people are fully or partially aroused, but it gins or people who are involuntarily celibate (i.e., "incels"). Almost
can also occur when they are not sexually aroused at all. In the latter everyone with sexual desires has experienced some type of sexual frus­
cases, the frustration may be primarily psychological, but biological tration, and many people experience it frequently. Readers might
factors could still have an influence. Regular sexual activity appears to therefore benefit from a careful elucidation of this variable.
boost the immune system, improve sleep, reduce pain and stress, lower Third, sexual frustration may help answer what Snipes et al. (2019,
heart rates and blood pressure, and confer other health benefits (Rob­ p. 331) describe as “the single most important fact that criminology
inson, 2013; Ueda, Mercer, Ghaznavi, & Herbenick, 2020). This suggests theories must be able to explain”: why males commit more crimes than
people who are not having sex are more likely to experience physio­ females. Of course, females also experience sexual frustration, and it
logical strains that could affect their behavior. On the opposite end of may increase their risks of aggression and crime as well. However, males
the spectrum, sexual frustration that leads to compulsive or hypersexual not only commit the vast majority of crimes, but they also tend to have
behavior may also have negative effects on the brain and body (Voon much higher sex drives, according to data from more than 200,000 re­
et al., 2014), much like other addictive behaviors in which the brain's spondents across 53 countries (Lippa, 2009). Males probably experience
reward system is abused (Volkow, Koob, & McLellan, 2016). more sexual frustration as well, as demonstrated by their greater interest
In addition, because sexual frustration also involves people's in casual sex with strangers and higher rates of pornography use, pros­
emotional responses to not getting what they desire, it may have even titution use, and masturbation (Hooven, 2021). This suggests a strong
larger effects on bad behavior than hunger and sleep deprivation. correlation between sexual frustration and crime that fits the empirical
Whereas eating and sleep are essentially support functions that keep the evidence on differences between males and females.
body operating, sex is believed to have evolved as mammals' primary Fourth, it should be emphasized that sexual frustration may play an
drive because it is required for reproduction (Dawkins, 1976; Rebellon, important causal role in a much wider range of behaviors than is
Barnes, & Agnew, 2015). Furthermore, sleep is less contentious: it is commonly recognized. Sexual frustration does not only affect conduct
essentially free; it is enjoyed equally by paupers and princes; it does not related to sex: it can potentially affect many non-sexual decisions and
require investment, commitment, or a partner; and it recurs after reg­ actions as well. This does not mean it is the sole cause; people rarely
ular, predictable intervals. And although competition for food can be engage in complex behaviors due to a single factor. However, without
quite violent in some contexts, most people in developed countries can the influence of sexual frustration, a significant number of aggressive,
purchase food that tastes good, regardless of their social status, violent, and criminal acts may not have occurred.
appearance, or likeability—and eat as often as they choose.2 By contrast, In the following sections, this paper will (a) build upon findings from
legal sex is highly competitive. It cannot be purchased (with a few ex­ frustration-aggression, strain, self-control, and sexual selection theories;
ceptions); it requires a consenting partner; it is more available to those (b) explain how sexual frustration can arise from unfulfilled desires to
deemed attractive or desirable; and it typically requires investment (e.g., have sex, unavailable partners, and unsatisfying sexual activities; (c)
dating) or commitment (e.g., a relationship). present evidence that sexual frustration can lead to aggression and crime
Due to these differences, we might expect sexual frustration to have associated with relief-seeking, power-seeking, revenge-seeking, and
the most significant consequences. Accordingly, hunger and sleep displaced frustration; (d) offer recommendations for theory-testing and
deprivation are almost never cited as modern causes of crime. But there future research.
are clear examples in which sex offenders, serial killers, mass murderers,
and terrorists have specifically cited sexual frustration as a reason for
their actions (Blanchard, 1995; Bryden & Grier, 2011; Cottee, 2021;
Hoffman, Ware, & Shapiro, 2020; Kanin, 1985; Lankford, 2013; Masters,
1993; Stevens, 1995). It seems unlikely that sexual frustration only 3
Many sex offenders, serial killers, mass murderers, and terrorists who
admitted their sexual frustration committed less extreme crimes before the
attacks that made them notorious, and it was not certain at that point that their
1
Hooven (2021) suggests that when a male rat and estrous female rat are put behavior would escalate as it eventually did. As examples: Jeffrey Dahmer was
in a cage together with a barrier between them, this “appetitive” phase of sexual arrested for indecent exposure, disorderly conduct, and resisting arrest; the
desire is “like being really hungry and then having someone put a plate of your 2007 Virginia Tech shooter had a history of stalking women; the 2014 Isla Vista
favorite food in front of you, the smells wafting up your nose, with your hands shooter assaulted a man whose date he envied, and the 2018 Parkland shooter
tied behind your back” (p. 184). threatened to kill his ex-girlfriend's new partner. This suggests sexual frustra­
2
A 2010 report on the “Global Burden of Disease” found that over-eating has tion can play a role in more common crimes, even if most people who commit
become a bigger problem than under-eating (Hamzelou, 2012) them do not eventually engage in extreme violence.

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A. Lankford Journal of Criminal Justice 77 (2021) 101865

2. How can a sexual frustration theory build upon prior work? is multifaceted. In the short term, following one's urges and giving in to
temptation may reduce frustration, but in the long term, not developing
An overarching sexual frustration theory must start somewhere, and the ability to delay gratification seems to make things worse. Accord­
theories on frustration-aggression, strain, self-control, and sexual se­ ingly, people with low self-control may actually experience a lot of
lection provide a strong foundation to build upon. However, although sexual frustration. Much like frequently yelling does not indicate a lack
these theories explain a wide range of behaviors, none explain the po­ of anger, frequently having sex may not suggest a lack of sexual frus­
tential effects of sexual frustration on their own. tration, but rather the opposite (Seto, 2019). Although some people
Frustration-aggression theories focus on how blocked goals, desires, certainly become sexually frustrated because they rarely or never have
or actions can produce frustrated feelings. The negative emotion of sex, others may be sexually promiscuous because they have high levels of
feeling frustrated can then lead to aggressive inclinations and behaviors sexual frustration that they often seek to relieve (Bryden & Grier, 2011).
(Berkowitz, 1989). This is clearly applicable to sexual frustration, which Along these lines, current understandings of sexual desire suggest it
can also result from a blocked goal (e.g., the desire to have sex soon). is powerfully influenced by how the brain and body interact with the
Research on frustration-aggression links has shown the aggression can environment (Ariely & Loewenstein, 2006; Both, Everaerd, & Laan,
be directed towards a target perceived as responsible for the problem or 2007; Marieke et al., 2020; Seto, 2019). Some people have more
towards other, random targets (Marcus-Newhall et al., 2000). With powerful sex drives than others, but the strength of those drives are
sexual frustration, this could include the person unwilling to have sex, affected by both internal and external factors (Seto, 2019). And when
others who interfered with sexual goals, or random targets struck by people are exposed to exciting or arousing stimuli, that typically in­
displaced aggression. Despite the clear relevance of frustration- creases their sexual desire (Ariely & Loewenstein, 2006; Both et al.,
aggression theory to sexual frustration, however, this theory has pri­ 2007; Marieke et al., 2020). Therefore, if people with low baseline levels
marily been used to analyze psychological experiences, and may not of self-control are more prone to be “peeping toms,” to view pornog­
fully account for the biological element of sexuality. raphy, to visit strip clubs, or to touch themselves sexually whenever they
A broader array of negative experiences is covered by general strain feel the urge—which would be consistent with their behavioral profi­
theory. Strains are believed to come from: (1) the failure to achieve a le—they may also experience more sexual frustration, even if they are
positively valued goal, (2) the removal of positively valued stimuli, or more promiscuous. If this paper's theory applies to people with low
(3) the presence of negatively valued stimuli (Agnew, 1992). Sexual baseline levels of self-control, it would require that sexual frustration
frustration could involve all three types. For instance, it could be asso­ plays a causal role in some of their aggression, violence, and crime.
ciated with failing to have sex (a blocked goal), being dumped by a Regardless of people's baseline levels, however, temporary vacilla­
former lover (the removal of positive stimuli), or being mocked for one's tions in self-control may be common for almost everyone (Baumeister,
sexual failures (the presence of negative stimuli). As with frustration- 2019). And much like hunger and sleep deprivation can reduce self-
aggression theory, general strain theory suggests negative experiences control and increase aggression (Gailliot, 2013; Gailliot et al., 2007;
produce negative emotions, which then drive behavior (Agnew, 1992). MacCormack & Lindquist, 2019; Meldrum et al., 2015), sexual frustra­
Strain theory also focuses on psychology, however, and thus provides tion may do the same. As noted earlier, sexual arousal involves many
only a partial explanation of the subject at hand. biological aspects, including temporary changes in hormone levels, and
It is worth pausing here to consider how the biological aspect of this could have powerful behavioral effects because hormone levels are
sexual frustration adds a complicating factor that frustration-aggression associated with sex drives, aggression, dominance, jealousy, lack of
and strain theories were not designed to explain. As one example, people empathy, callousness, and impulsivity (Hooven, 2021; Le et al., 2020;
often have sexual desires their mind wants to resist, but their body wants Mazur, 2009; Nave et al., 2017; Shirtcliff et al., 2009; Zheng & Kendrick,
to satisfy.4 Stimuli can therefore be both positive and negative at the 2021). Although the interaction of biology and psychology and exact
same time, which makes it difficult to apply frustration-aggression or mechanisms are not fully understood, this suggests that when people are
strain theories in a traditional manner. For instance, if someone struggling with sexual frustration, they may be more likely to engage in
desperately wants to refrain from adultery, the presence of a tempting aggressive confrontations, be possessive of current or former partners,
sexual partner who invites an affair may constitute both a positive use or manipulate those around them, disregard others' feelings, lose
stimulus (biologically) and a negative stimulus (psychologically). In control of their temper, or engage in crimes of passion.
these scenarios of mind-body conflict, the achievement of a goal (like Finally, evolutionary psychology's sexual selection theory also seems
successfully resisting temptation), rather than failure, may create sexual relevant here. Scholars suggest that for thousands of years, the males of
frustration. Conversely, if the person failed to refrain from sex, that many species had to fiercely compete for mating opportunities, whereas
might increase their psychological strains, but they would be less females could often wait for a suitable partner (Raine, 2013; Walsh &
sexually frustrated—at least for a while. Jorgensen, 2018; Wright & Boisvert, 2009). Because the most aggressive
Self-control theory provides some relevant insights, because it sug­ and violent males would defeat more peaceful males, they got to have
gests individuals differ in ability to govern their behavior and resist sex, father offspring, and pass on their aggressive and violent genes to
temptation. Scholars believe people's baseline level of self-control is future generations. Proponents of this theory suggest that because this
established during early childhood and stays relatively low or relatively process was repeated for millennia, the male brain has essentially been
high throughout their lifetime (Moffitt, Poulton, & Caspi, 2013). Those hardwired with a propensity for power-seeking, risk-taking, aggression,
with the lowest levels of self-control are more prone to delinquency and and violence (Dawkins, 1976; Walsh & Jorgensen, 2018; Wrangham &
crime, reckless driving, binge-eating, substance abuse, unplanned Peterson, 1996). If correct, this would imply that when men are sexually
pregnancies, sexual promiscuity, and other life problems (Gottfredson, frustrated, they may be especially likely to engage in those behaviors.
2017; Gottfredson & Hirschi, 1990). However, it is less clear how sexual selection theory applies to
It makes sense that people with low baseline levels of self-control are women's sexual frustration. Even though there are big differences in how
often sexually promiscuous, given their limited ability to manage their often males and females engage in crime (Snipes et al., 2019), some
impulses. However, the relationship between self-control and frustration recent studies have found the gap in aggression is smaller than
commonly assumed, and what differs most is how it is expressed
(Björkqvist, 2018; Denson, O'Dean, Blake, & Beames, 2018). Perhaps
4
Of course, the mind is part of the body, but it can be helpful to use this sexual frustration is also relatively common, powerful, and influential
language to illustrate the conflict between what people want consciously or for females—even if it has traditionally received less attention.
psychologically, and what their bodies “want” based on their physiological
responses to stimuli.

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A. Lankford Journal of Criminal Justice 77 (2021) 101865

3. Major types of sexual frustration can snack in public and the sleepy person may get a boost from caffeine
or a power nap, the sexually frustrated individual has limited short term
In the simplest terms, sexual frustration can be understood as a options.5
psychological and/or biological response to having a sexual desire that Frustration-aggression and strain theories also suggest higher risks of
is not satisfied. Sexually frustrating experiences can vary in intensity, aggression, violence, and crime exist if the failure to achieve the goal
frequency, and duration, and some are so fleeting that they barely feels unexpected, unjust, like someone else's fault, or harmful to one's
warrant a second thought. self-efficacy; if the goal was almost achieved before the failure occurred;
This paper suggests there are three major types of sexual frustration. or if the failure is chronic (Agnew, 1992; Berkowitz, 1989; Breuer &
People become sexually frustrated about (1) unfulfilled desires to have Elson, 2017; Brezina, 2017; Marcus-Newhall et al., 2000). When applied
sex, (2) unavailable partners, and (3) unsatisfying sexual activities. This to sexual frustration, this could include people who expect sex soon but
could also be understood as the inability to have sex when one wants, do not get it; who believe sex was unfairly withheld by a date, partner, or
with whom one wants, how one wants. It is helpful to think about these spouse; who lament the disparity between sexually active “haves” and
types separately because they can exist independently. Someone can be sexually inactive “have nots”; who consider it unfair that they cannot act
satisfied in any two areas but frustrated in the third. These types can also on their urges; who blame a partner, acquaintance, or parent (in the case
interact or overlap. For instance, people whose only option is mas­ of teenagers) for blocking them from having sex; who feel their unmet
turbation—and who consider that unsatisfying—may also be frustrated desire is symptomatic of their failure to succeed in life; or who experi­
about unavailable partners. Additionally, people often make compro­ ence this type of frustration frequently. These examples could apply
mises to reduce one type of frustration at the cost of increasing another. regardless of gender or sexual orientation. In fact, historically, society
For instance, they may settle for sex soon despite not having a desired has put the greatest constraints on the sexual behavior of women and
partner, or settle for unsatisfying sex because they value their partner in LGBTQ individuals (Brownmiller, 1975; Karras, 1998; Weeks, 1985), so
other ways. Priorities vary: some people care most about being able to they may have experienced far more sexual frustration than is
have sex soon, others care most about having a desired partner, and commonly recognized.
others care most about the quality or type of sexual activities they can For people with low baseline levels of self-control, unfulfilled desires
engage in. to have sex may be the most difficult type of sexual frustration. These
Narrower conceptions often fail to account for the entire spectrum of individuals are not accustomed to resisting their impulses, delaying
sexual frustration. For instance, the aforementioned “dam-bursting” gratification, or waiting for what they want. Having a powerful urge
metaphor of sexual frustration is binary: all that matters is whether they cannot immediately satisfy may increase their risks of bad
someone had sex and the “pressure” was drained, or not (Caluya, 2013). behavior. In addition, regardless of baseline levels, unfulfilled desires to
This implies that sexual frustration inevitably grows stronger as time have sex may temporarily deplete self-control for many people, as
passes between sexual encounters, and that the longer people go without hunger and sleep deprivation have been shown to do (Gailliot, 2013;
sex, the more frustration they feel. If this were true, an adult virgin must MacCormack & Lindquist, 2019; Meldrum et al., 2015).
experience more sexual frustration than a sex addict who frequents It is difficult to know exactly how evolutionary psychology and
prostitutes, based solely on the math. As another example, research on sexual selection theory apply to sexual frustration, because nature's
sexual desire discrepancy has traditionally focused on whether someone design is so complex. However, a few possibilities are worth discussing.
was discontent with the frequency of sex in a relationship, without For instance, once people have offspring, their genetic priorities expand
considering dissatisfaction about the quality of sex (Marieke et al., to include parental investment (Dawkins, 1976; Walsh & Jorgensen,
2020). Issues related to quantity and quality can both cause frustration, 2018). Therefore, we might expect this type of sexual frustration to be
of course. A third example is the assumption that masturbation solves more aggravating for people in their reproductive primes who lack
sexual frustration. Again, that would only be true if sexual frustration children than for similarly aged parents or older people.6
was purely a biological problem. But because sexual frustration exists in Sexual selection theory also suggests differences between male and
the brain—not only in the genitals—it can occur before, during, or after female tendencies. From an evolutionary perspective, it may be impor­
sex—for a wide range of reasons. tant for males to experience intense sexual frustration about unfulfilled
desires for sex, because otherwise, they would not engage in the high-
3.1. Unfulfilled desires to have sex risk competitions required for them to earn sexual opportunities.
Males who do not mind prolonged periods of celibacy are less likely to
Sexual desires are rarely satisfied immediately, and that can produce father offspring, so their genes are less likely to be passed on (Dawkins,
frustration. Although it is obvious that waiting a long time without sex 1976; Wrangham & Peterson, 1996). For females, the implications are
may be frustrating, even waiting briefly (minutes, hours) could produce less clear. Scholars believe that because of the time and effort required to
intense emotions, depending on the person's level of arousal and the carry a baby to term, females have evolved to be more discriminating
strength of their desire (Bryden & Grier, 2011). Frustration-aggression about their partners, and to require more proof of commitment (via
and strain theories suggest the more important the goal is to the indi­ courting) before agreeing to sex (Dawkins, 1976; Walsh & Jorgensen,
vidual, the greater the emotional and behavioral impact if it is not 2018). Therefore, females may tend to be better than males at waiting
achieved (Agnew, 1992; Berkowitz, 1989; Breuer & Elson, 2017; Bre­ for sex. However, even if that is true, it still leaves open a wide range of
zina, 2017), and in some moments, nothing feels more important than possibilities. Females might typically differ from males in the intensity,
having sex. frequency, or nature of their sexual frustration, or they might be better
The same is true of desires for food and sleep: they can arise sud­ at coping with it.
denly, feel extremely powerful, and become a fixation. As Maslow
(1943) wrote, “For the man who is extremely and dangerously hungry,
no other interests exist but food. He dreams food, he remembers food, he
thinks about food, he emotes only about food, he perceives only food,
and he wants only food” (p. 374). People can become similarly single- 5
On the other hand, sexual frustration may be more prone to temporarily
minded about unfulfilled sexual desires. But while the hungry person dissipate due to distractions or fatigue.
6
There is some evidence that fathers who are less involved in parenting have
higher testosterone levels than fathers who help raise their children, which may
be associated with the less involved fathers' continued pursuit of new sexual
opportunities (Hooven, 2021).

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3.2. Unavailable partners frustration may tend to be less discriminating, and thus include a
broader array of unavailable partners, even if they are considered low-
Even if people are satisfied with how often they have sex, they may quality or to have poor parenting potential.
be frustrated about who they can have sex with. Unavailable partners In addition, because from an evolutionary perspective, casual sex
can include ex-lovers, friends, fellow students, coworkers, celebrities, or with low-quality partners is risky for females (who could get pregnant
random strangers glimpsed on social media, on dating apps, or in public. with an unwanted baby) but potentially beneficial for males (who can
And they may be unavailable for a variety of reasons. For instance, there father offspring without further investment), males may have a hard­
can be legal or cultural barriers (e.g., the age, marital status, or social wired tendency to find casual sex more appealing. Based on her reading
class of either party) that prevent a sexual relationship, or the desired of the data, Hooven (2021) suggests “greater desire for sex without
partner may simply be uninterested in having sex with the person who commitment among men is one of the largest of all psychological dif­
wants them. ferences in humans” (p. 194). This implies that males may be more
Given the previously reviewed literature from frustration-aggression sexually frustrated about wanting sex with random strangers. And
and strain theories (Agnew, 1992; Berkowitz, 1989; Breuer & Elson, because random strangers are often encountered in public and on social
2017; Brezina, 2017; Marcus-Newhall et al., 2000), sexual frustration media—but they are usually sexually unavailable—males' frustration
about unavailable partners should become more powerful as the indi­ may be frequently exacerbated.
vidual assigns more importance to having sex with the lusted after
person. Accordingly, full-fledged fantasies or prolonged obsessions 3.3. Unsatisfying sexual activities
should be far more problematic than a passing interest or mild crush. In
addition, because exciting or arousing stimuli often increase sexual Some sexual activities are frustrating because they are not pleasur­
desire (Ariely & Loewenstein, 2006; Both et al., 2007; Marieke et al., able or do not satisfy the urge to orgasm. But sex can also satiate bio­
2020), sexual frustration may be exacerbated by frequent exposure to logical drives without being psychologically or emotionally satisfying.
the unavailable partner—whether that is in person, via remote com­ This frustration can relate to the type or quality of sexual activity. For
munications (text messages, phone calls, video conferencing, etc.), or by instance, people can be frustrated that their only option at a certain time
“cyberstalking.” is masturbation; that they cannot have the type of sex (oral, anal, or
As noted earlier, frustrations and strains are also especially damaging vaginal) they want; that sex involves too little or too much foreplay; that
if they feel unexpected, unjust, like someone else's fault, or harmful to they cannot have sex in certain positions; or that sex does not involve
one's self-efficacy (Agnew, 1992; Berkowitz, 1989; Breuer & Elson, their preferred fetish, kink, or paraphilia. Dissatisfaction could also arise
2017; Brezina, 2017; Marcus-Newhall et al., 2000). This suggests higher related to the duration, speed, sensations, and context of sex.
risks of aggression, violence, and crime may exist for people who believe Given the aforementioned literature from frustration-aggression and
a desired partner will be sexually available but are wrong; who are strain theories (Agnew, 1992; Berkowitz, 1989; Breuer & Elson, 2017;
jealous or envious of another person who gets to have sex with their Brezina, 2017; Marcus-Newhall et al., 2000), some forms of dissatis­
desired partner; who consider it unfair that a desired partner is un­ faction may especially increase risks of aggression, violence, and crime.
available or who blame that unavailability on someone else; or who feel For instance, the more important a sexual activity is to the individual,
they cannot have sex with a desired partner due to their low social status the more frustrated that person may be about not getting to experience
or poor appearance (which may be damaging to one's self-efficacy). it. Because fantasies typically involve specific acts and images—not
Given the behavioral tendencies of people with low baseline levels of merely the abstract concept of “having sex”—more frequent or powerful
self-control (Gottfredson, 2017; Gottfredson & Hirschi, 1990), they seem fantasies may be associated with more intense frustration as well. Other
more likely to settle for whichever sexual partners are available in the examples of heightened frustration may include people who had sexual
moment, rather than waiting for a desired individual. However, they expectations (based on social norms, observed behaviors, or prior ex­
may also find it difficult to control their impulses when interacting with periences) that were not met; who almost achieved orgasm but could not
or thinking about people who are sexually unavailable to them. By quite get there; who believed their partner was selfish or unwilling to
contrast, people with high baseline levels of self-control are more accommodate reasonable requests; who were ashamed about their
accustomed to delaying gratification and implementing long-term stra­ inability to please their partner (which could harm their self-efficacy); or
tegies to reach their goals (Gottfredson, 2017; Gottfredson & Hirschi, who repeatedly experienced unsatisfying sex.
1990). If the net result of those efforts is failure, however, there may be Because people with low baseline levels of self-control tend to follow
significant emotional fallout. More broadly, as with other frustrations their pleasure-seeking urges (Gottfredson, 2017; Gottfredson & Hirschi,
that have both psychological and biological components (Gailliot, 2013; 1990), this type of sexual frustration may be the least common for them.
MacCormack & Lindquist, 2019; Meldrum et al., 2015), sexual frustra­ As long as there are no problems with physical dysfunction, their sexual
tion over unavailable partners may temporarily deplete self-control for a encounters may become uninhibited quests for satisfaction. However,
wide range of people. they may also be more prone to violate the law in pursuit of their own
As noted earlier, applying evolutionary psychology and sexual se­ pleasure, whether that involves assuming a sexual partner has consented
lection theory to sexual frustration is complex. However, a clear dif­ to all types of sex, or using coercion to get what they want. People with
ference between males and females is their contribution to reproduction higher levels of self-control may observe these legal lines more carefully,
(Dawkins, 1976). Males can sometimes get away with contributing only but be less likely to have their desires satisfied. As noted earlier,
their sperm, so they are capable of impregnating multiple females over a regardless of baseline levels, sexual frustration over unsatisfying sexual
short period. By contrast, females spend months in pregnancy, and they activities may temporarily deplete self-control and increase risks of bad
can only carry one partner's baby at a time.7 As a result, it is riskier for behavior.
females to have sex with low-quality partners (who may produce low- From the perspective of evolutionary psychology, a few points seem
quality babies and provide no parenting support) than for males (who clear. First, if any past humans had a strong preference for masturbation
can immediately move on to a higher-quality partner) (Dawkins, 1976; instead of sexual intercourse, their genes likely died out long ago.8
Nedelec & Beaver, 2012; Walsh & Jorgensen, 2018). This suggests that Second, intercourse between partners must function properly for suc­
females' sexual frustration about unavailable partners may tend to be cessful conception and reproduction. Therefore, both males and females
more focused on individuals they perceive as high-quality. Males' sexual

8
To this point, people with higher rates of masturbation report more
7
Except in rare cases of heteropaternal superfecundation. dissatisfaction with their sex lives (Långström & Hanson, 2006).

5
A. Lankford Journal of Criminal Justice 77 (2021) 101865

may have a deep-seated tendency to be profoundly frustrated if they masturbate, given their inability to find wives; and why the U.S. military
have sexual opportunities but fail to consummate due to interruption, has often arranged for its soldiers to visit places where prostitution is
impotence, fit, lack of lubrication, or other issues. If such failures are easily accessible. These examples help demonstrate the power of sexual
chronic, they pose an existential threat, so anyone who is unconcerned frustration and the lengths some people will go to for relief.10 11
by them would be less likely to pass on their genes. Many forms of sex offending also have a relief-seeking component.
Because seeking sexual pleasure improves one's reproductive pros­ This should be obvious: many crimes are instrumental in serving as the
pects (compared to not desiring it) (Dawkins, 1976; Walsh & Jorgensen, means to an end, and sex offending is no different. To this point, some
2018), this tendency to be extremely frustrated about failed intercourse victims of sex offenders have reported that their attackers were seeking
may also extend to dissatisfying sexual activities in general. In other sexual fulfillment (Bryden & Grier, 2011; Thornhill & Palmer, 2003).
words, if having a strong negative emotional response to thwarted And more broadly, based on prior research, it appears that seeking
reproductive sex has evolutionary advantages (compared to being un­ sexual relief may play a partial, causal role in many acts of sexual
concerned by it), a byproduct may be similar negative emotions when­ harassment (Mainiero, 2020; O'Leary-Kelly, Paetzold, & Griffin, 2000),
ever sexual pleasure is expected but not experienced. That would apply sexual coercion (Pinker, 2002; Thornhill & Thornhill, 1992; Waldner-
to the qualitative elements of sexual frustration, such as frustration Haugrud & Vaden Gratch, 1997), sexual assault (Pinker, 2002; Seto,
when intercourse was “successfully” completed (in a reproductive sense) 2019; Thornhill & Palmer, 2003), sexual burglary (Reale, Beauregard, &
but disappointing for other reasons; frustration between LGBTQ part­ Chopin, 2021), rape by strangers (Bryden & Grier, 2011); date rape
ners; or frustration from not getting to experience desired fetishes or (Bryden & Grier, 2011; Kanin, 1967, 1985), spousal rape (Bryden &
types of sex. Grier, 2011; Pinker, 2002), prison rape (Thornhill & Thornhill, 1992),
rape in the military (Henry, Ward, & Hirshberg, 2004; Lankford, 2012),
4. Consequences of sexual frustration: a typology pedophilia (Finkelhor, 1984; Lanning, 1992; Seto, 2019), and sexual
serial killing (Blanchard, 1995). Kanin (1985) specifically found that
It is proposed here that sexually frustrated individuals often (1) seek despite being more sexually active than other men their age, college date
to relieve their frustration, (2) seek to increase their power, (3) seek rapists reported more sexual dissatisfaction, and some other sex of­
revenge against targets they blame for their frustration, or (4) act out fenders may be similar in this regard (Bryden & Grier, 2011; Seto, 2019).
against targets with no connection to their frustration. More briefly, Furthermore, in some contexts where sex crimes are disproportionately
these categories are relief-seeking, power-seeking, revenge-seeking, and high, such as prison and the military, there are reportedly high levels of
displaced frustration. These are not the only ways sexual frustration can sexual frustration (Lankford, 2012; Thornhill & Thornhill, 1992).
increase risks of bad behavior, but they may be the most common ways. While it may be evident that sex offending is often influenced by
While these categories are conceptually distinct, some forms of aggres­ desires to have sex, it is worth explaining how frustration about un­
sion, violence, and crime appear in more than one, because the same act available partners or unsatisfying sexual activities may also increase the
can involve different motives or multiple motives. These categories also risks. Many of the aforementioned crimes can certainly be committed by
include some positive behaviors, coping mechanisms, and acts that are people who have a partner, but have been lusting after someone else
neither illegal nor immoral. (Bryden & Grier, 2011). The danger is if they become fixated on an
unavailable person or type of person, and then are willing to use coer­
4.1. Relief-seeking cion or violence to get what they want (Stevens, 1995). As another
example, people whose paraphilias involve sadism, dominance, preda­
tion, or other dark fantasies may commit sexual assault, rape, pedo­
The most obvious consequence of sexual frustration is that it prompts
philia, or serial killing because “normal sex” is unsatisfying for them
relief-seeking. In their desires for relief, people sometimes act in ways
(Blanchard, 1995; Bryden & Grier, 2011; Finkelhor, 1984; Stevens,
they would otherwise avoid. Laboratory experiments have found that
1995). Even if these individuals seek power and control over their vic­
when they are experiencing unsatisfied sexual arousal, both men and
tims, the reason may be primarily sexual (Bryden & Grier, 2011; Seto,
women express greater interest in risky sexual behavior (such as un­
2019). In some cases, it is possible to trace their frustration over time,
protected sex with a new partner) than under normal conditions (Ska­
from obsessive fantasies to non-violent relief-seeking to the desired
koon-Sparling, Cramer, & Shuper, 2016).9 They also exhibit less self-
crime itself (Lanning, 1992; Seto, 2019).
control and less sexual self-restraint (Skakoon-Sparling & Cramer,
2016). Other research has found that under similar conditions, men
express significantly more interest in engaging in kinky sexual behavior; 4.2. Power-seeking
in having sex with children or the elderly; and in being willing to use
money, lies, alcohol, drugs, or coercion to get someone to have sex with Another consequence of sexual frustration is power-seeking. As they
them (Ariely & Loewenstein, 2006). Whether women have similar ten­ grow up, many people struggle with unfulfilled desires to have sex,
dencies is unknown; a comparable study with female subjects could not unavailable partners, or unsatisfying sexual activities. Even if their
be found. short-term priority is relief-seeking, they may also seek sexual power:
Beyond the laboratory, desires for relief from sexual frustration may the ability to have sex when they want, with whom they want, how they
help explain a wide range of behaviors, such as why Congressmen have want. If they look around, they are likely to see others who have more of
texted sexual pictures to strangers they met online or solicited sex in this power than them: peers, adults, celebrities, athletes, rock stars,
airport bathrooms; why a CNN legal analyst masturbated during a royalty, gang members, or warlords—depending on the context. In every
videoconferencing session for work; why so many male and female community, there are people with more sexual power than others.
teachers have been caught sleeping with their students; why despite
their religious beliefs, Islamic terrorists often consume pornography;
why Osama bin Laden issued a special fatwa authorizing his fighters to 10
These examples are easy to find through online searches.
11
Adultery is another relief-seeking behavior that can be motivated by sexual
frustration. Despite being illegal in some U.S. states and many parts of the
9
When researchers construct experimental conditions that produce sexual world—and resulting in extremely severe punishments in some eras and con­
arousal, hunger, or sleep deprivation among subjects without giving them an texts—adultery has been common in many (if not all) cultures.
opportunity to satisfy those desires, it may not feel emotionally frustrating for
everyone, but subjects' average level of frustration is almost certainly raised,
compared to control groups.

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A. Lankford Journal of Criminal Justice 77 (2021) 101865

The pursuit of sexual power is usually competitive (Dawkins, 1976; In some cases, intimate partner violence may similarly be committed
Raine, 2013; Wilson & Daly, 1985; Wrangham & Peterson, 1996), and by sexually frustrated perpetrators who seek power over others. Abusers
without sexual frustration, there would be no reason to compete.12 For sometimes believe that by assaulting their partners, they will gain
comparison, where starvation is common, access to food becomes the increased sexual control and compliance—and also prevent infidelity
subject of aggressive and violent power struggles; where starvation is (Bryden & Grier, 2011; Buss & Duntley, 2011; McOrmond-Plummer,
rare, access to food is not fiercely contested. Unfortunately, it is difficult Levy-Peck, & Easteal, 2016; Wilson & Daly, 1998). By not letting their
to imagine many human societies where sexual frustration is rare. Even partners leave, they may also be attempting to avoid the heighted sexual
in the few communities that promote hedonism or “free love,” high- frustration that could result (McOrmond-Plummer et al., 2016). More
quality partners are not obtainable for everyone.13 broadly, in various scenarios, rapists, pedophiles, serial killers, and
Sexual power can be gained in a variety of ways, such as by other sex offenders have acquired weapons, drugs, or money to facilitate
improving one's social status or appearance, defeating competitors, or their crimes, or attacked in environments where resistance or escape
seizing it through force. Sometimes people experience sexual frustra­ appeared futile, because that gave them more power (Bryden & Grier,
tion, set a goal of improving their sexual power, and compete with that 2011; Finkelhor, 1984; Masters, 1993; McOrmond-Plummer et al.,
end in mind. It does not have to involve crime: they could become more 2016). The more power they had, the better they could satisfy whatever
ambitious or aggressive in their work; attempt to increase their wealth; type of sexual frustration was on their mind (Stevens, 1995).
or start a new diet or workout regimen.14 In school, at work, and online,
sexual frustration may drive bullying, which is one way to reduce others' 4.3. Revenge-seeking
status in front of potential sexual partners, while increasing your own.
Evolutionary psychologists suggest that at least for males, competition Sexual frustration can also drive people to seek revenge against
for status and power is often driven by sex, even when people do not whomever they blame for their suffering. Among males, sexual frus­
realize it (Dawkins, 1976; Kanazawa, 2009; Raine, 2013; Wrangham & tration is associated with significantly higher hostility towards females
Peterson, 1996). (Konutgan, 2020; Stickel, 2020), and it may be an important cause of
Many crimes also seem to have a power-seeking element. For misogyny. Sexual themes are extremely common in misogynistic
instance, acts of assault and homicide often involve males challenging discourse (Konutgan, 2020; Stickel, 2020; Weitzer & Kubrin, 2009),
other males in scenarios where one will gain status, and the other will viewing women as sexual objects appears to increase misogynistic atti­
lose it (Raine, 2013; Wilson & Daly, 1985). Even if the winner does not tudes (Rollero, 2013), and levels of misogyny are higher among het­
directly obtain more sexual opportunities, defeating competitors is erosexual men (who seek sex with women) than among gay men (who
generally associated with increased sexual power (Kanazawa, 2009; do not) (Cowie, Greaves, & Sibley, 2019). Notably, misogyny is associ­
Wilson & Daly, 1985). From this perspective, many old-fashioned duels, ated with increased rates of crime against women (Blake, O'Dean, Lian,
bar fights, argument-induced homicides, and gang shootings may not be & Denson, 2021). Men's sexual frustration can also increase hostility
fundamentally different from male chimpanzees, lions, rams, or towards other men (Cottee, 2021; Hoffman et al., 2020). In addition,
elephant seals clashing in their quests for dominance and sexual su­ women also experience revenge-seeking fantasies when they feel un­
premacy (Kanazawa, 2009; Raine, 2013; Wilson & Daly, 1985; Wrang­ fairly treated (Goldner, Lev-Wiesel, & Simon, 2019), although less is
ham & Peterson, 1996). Property crimes and white-collar crimes that known about how sexual frustration shapes their attitudes or behavior.
bring perpetrators more financial power are likely to increase status and Prior research suggests that many forms of aggression and crime
sexual opportunities as well (Kanazawa, 2009; Raine, 2013). And when have been motivated by revenge-seeking against specific targets that
people join gangs or other criminal groups, that can increase their perpetrators were frustrated with sexually, or frustrated about being
number of sexual partners and the types of sex they get to have (Dickson- unable to have sex with. These behaviors include passive-aggression
Gomez, Quinn, Broaddus, & Pacella, 2017; Palmer & Tilley, 1995). It (Beechay, 2019), verbal abuse (Beechay, 2019; McOrmond-Plummer
can also help them defeat competitors, raise their status, and acquire et al., 2016; Mullen, Pathé, Purcell, & Stuart, 1999), vandalism and
more wealth—all of which typically increases sexual power as well property damage (Mullen et al., 1999), stalking (Duntley & Buss, 2012),
(Palmer & Tilley, 1995). If the proposed theory is applicable here, it does revenge porn (Beechay, 2019; Citron & Franks, 2014), physical abuse
not mean that all instances of the aforementioned crimes are influenced (Beechay, 2019; McOrmond-Plummer et al., 2016; Mullen et al., 1999;
by sexual frustration, just that experiences of sexual frustration increase Wilson & Daly, 1998), and murder (Cottee, 2021; Hoffman et al., 2020;
the likelihood that people engage in these behaviors. McOrmond-Plummer et al., 2016; Shackelford, Buss, & Weeks-
Some sex crimes may also be committed by people who experience Shackelford, 2003). In addition, many types of aggression and
sexual frustration and then seek increased sexual power. For instance, violence have been directed at competitors: the people who perpetrators
this may explain why for thousands of years, military leaders recruited blamed for dating or having sex with their desired partner (Buss &
men to battle with promises that they could rape conquered women and Duntley, 2011; Wilson & Daly, 1985, 1998). Sex offending can also have
take them as “wives, concubines, slave labor or battle-camp trophy” a revenge-seeking element in which perpetrators want their victims to
(Brownmiller, 1975, p. 25). If not for sexual frustration, why would this suffer (Brownmiller, 1975; Bryden & Grier, 2011; Seto, 2019; Stevens,
be an effective offer that encouraged men to risk their lives? As another 1995).
example, thousands of boys have been sexually abused while in the Boy When revenge-seeking involves perpetrators targeting symbolic
Scouts. It seems likely that these predators made calculated decisions, victims, it often occurs in public or involves strangers. For instance, the
influenced by sexual frustration, to become scout leaders with power classic case of a construction worker catcalling an attractive passerby
over young people, so they could then commit these crimes. may constitute sexually frustrated revenge-seeking. It is unlikely he
believes shouting at her will lead to sex; more likely, he is frustrated
because he knows she is unobtainable for him, and he wants to hurt her
12
for that. Similarly, when public mobs have sexually assaulted women in
Competitions for sexual power usually involve males competing against
Egypt by grabbing their genitals or stripping their clothes and calling
males and females against females, because most people seek either male or
them “whores” (Eltahawy, 2013), the perpetrators may have been
female partners, but not both.
13
According to Wilson and Daly (1998), “there is no evidence that there has seeking revenge for their own experiences of sexual frustration.
ever been a human society anywhere on earth in which male sexual jealousy Mass murder is sometimes committed by sexually frustrated,
and attendant risk of violence were not conspicuous” (p. 292). revenge-seeking individuals as well. For instance, the 2007 Virginia
14
Of course, not all efforts at self-improvement or self-actualization are driven Tech shooter had stalked female classmates who would not date him,
by sexual frustration. and the first line of his manifesto complains about “the happiness I could

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A. Lankford Journal of Criminal Justice 77 (2021) 101865

have had mingling among you hedonists” (Langman, 2014, p. 1). The sexual frustration (Caluya, 2013; Cottee, 2018). As one terrorism scholar
2009 LA Fitness shooter lamented that he had not had sex in nearly summarized rather glibly, “Can't get married, can't have sex, so they
twenty years and that it felt like “30 million women rejected me,” and he blow things up” (Cottee, 2018). This might apply to some Western ter­
ultimately killed women in an aerobics class (Lankford, 2013, p. 114). rorists as well. For example, during his bombing spree, the Unabomber
The 2014 Isla Vista shooter had attempted non-lethal attacks on young wrote “I am tormented by bitter regret at never having had the oppor­
women and men, and then posted online that “I don't know why you tunity to experience the love of a woman” (Graysmith, 1997). Although
girls aren't attracted to me, but I will punish you all for it,” before killing the Unabomber never cited this as a reason for his attacks, if it were
his roommates and attacking a sorority house (Cottee, 2021, p. 106). displaced frustration, he may not have been fully conscious of its effects
And a 2018 Canadian mass killer posted online, “The Incel Rebellion has on his behavior. It is also worth noting that some terrorist rehabilitation
already begun! We will overthrow all the Chads and Stacys!” in a programs attempt to find wives for former terrorists, because they
reference to war against sexually popular men and women (Hoffman believe that will reduce the likelihood of future violence (Lankford &
et al., 2020, p. 570). These are some of the most obvious examples of Gillespie, 2011). Being married may not eliminate sexual frustration, but
revenge-seeking by sexually frustrated perpetrators because they openly for individuals who struggled to find a partner, it is likely beneficial.
admitted it.15 Many people with similar motives may be less forth­
coming, especially if they feel ashamed about their sexual failures. 5. Recommendations for theory testing and future research

4.4. Displaced frustration Although this paper has offered a sexual frustration theory of
aggression, violence, and crime and provided evidence for its basic te­
In addition to the direct effects of sexual frustration, there can also be nets, there are still many ways this subject could be better understood,
side effects. For instance, one laboratory experiment found that when and many important questions yet to be answered. Below, several rec­
men and women experience unsatisfied sexual arousal, they make more ommendations are offered to facilitate theory-testing and future
aggressive decisions to “hit” while playing Blackjack card games (Ska­ research.
koon-Sparling et al., 2016).16 Another study found that under similar One way to study the effects of sexual frustration is by observing non-
conditions, men and women express more interest in drinking alcohol human animals. For instance, it should be easy to conduct experiments
(Spelman & Simons, 2018). These tendencies are probably related to in which animals are put in situations where they will experience sexual
their reduced self-control, which as noted earlier, generally increases frustration, and then their likelihood of aggression or violence is
risks of aggression and crime (Gottfredson, 2017; Gottfredson & Hirschi, measured. Although prior studies with this exact design could not be
1990). found, there are some relevant findings. For instance, if male fruit flies
When these side effects involve people acting out against targets with are exposed to female sex pheromones but are not allowed to mate, they
no direct connection to their problems, that can be understood as dis­ become more susceptible to starvation and stress and have shorter life
placed frustration. This is related to the concept of displaced aggression spans (Gendron et al., 2014).17 When male dogs smell a female in heat
(Marcus-Newhall et al., 2000), but broader in scope. For example, they cannot access, they may be more likely to run away from home and
imagine an employee who was turned down for sex, lusting after an less responsive to rewards or punishments (Mertens, 2006). And for
unavailable ex-girlfriend, or impotent in a sexual encounter the previous most of the year, male deer have low testosterone, but when mating
night. The next morning, he might be more prone to verbally attack a season approaches, their testosterone skyrockets, along with their in­
colleague's presentation, lie to a customer, or bill his employer for hours terest in sex and likelihood of aggression and violence (Hooven, 2021).
he did not actually work. Only the first of these would technically Because the strongest stags control “harems” of female deer, other males
constitute aggression. None, however, would be instrumental attempts are denied the opportunity for sex. As a result, the sexually frustrated
to solve his sexual frustration, and none would have occurred because he males have two options for success: either they attempt to sneak in and
blamed people at work for his sexual problems. When people exhibit have sex when the powerful stag is distracted, or they directly challenge
displaced frustration, they may not be fully aware of the reasons behind the stag in an aggressive confrontation (Hooven, 2021). Perhaps sexu­
their behavior (Marcus-Newhall et al., 2000). ally frustrated humans adopt similar strategies involving plotting or
Although the displaced effects of sexual frustration have rarely been confrontation, depending on their physical strength and the context.
studied, some cautious speculation is warranted. Given the previously Future research on animal behavior may yield additional insights on this
reviewed evidence that sexual frustration temporarily reduces self- matter.
control (Ariely & Loewenstein, 2006; Skakoon-Sparling et al., 2016; In addition, research on humans would benefit from the develop­
Skakoon-Sparling & Cramer, 2016; Spelman & Simons, 2018), it seems ment of more comprehensive and accurate measures of sexual frustra­
likely that behaviors involving poor self-control, loss of temper, or tion itself. As with early research on frustration-aggression theory
impulsivity would be affected. For instance, sexual frustration might (Dollard, Miller, Doob, Mowrer, & Sears, 1939), scholars might prefer
increase the risks that people yell at their children or pets, commit quantitative measures based solely on the presence or absence of key
vandalism or theft, engage in “road rage,” use illegal substances, pick events. However, sexual frustration cannot be fully captured by calcu­
verbal or physical fights, or even perpetrate lethal crimes of passion. lating people's frequency of sex acts; frequency of orgasms; number of
None of these acts would be caused by sexual frustration alone, but it available or unavailable partners; types of sex experienced; or time
could be an important contributing factor. elapsed since last sex act. These variables would not account for the
Displaced frustration might even affect premeditated crimes. If sex­ qualitative side of sexual frustration or the range of people's sex drives
ual frustration is chronic, it could produce negative emotions that grow and priorities. For instance, some individuals who choose to be abstinent
alongside criminal plans and fester in dangerous ways. For instance, may be less frustrated than those who have sex often.
some scholars suggest that Islamic terrorism is driven, at least in part, by A better approach might involve asking people to report their own
feelings of sexual frustration. There are multiple ways this information
could be collected. For instance, researchers who study sexual desire
15
Many other mass shooters appear to have struggled with sexual frustration
discrepancy in relationships ask each partner how often they would like
as well, but in some cases, their behavior may be more accurately categorized to have sex versus how often they actually have it (Marieke et al., 2020).
as power-seeking or displaced frustration.
16
This seems more like aggression than merely risk-taking, because there was
17
not a reported increase in standing or staying in Blackjack when having low Perhaps relatedly, some research on incels suggests sexual frustration may
cards (which would also be risky). be associated with increased suicidal tendencies (Daly & Reed, 2021).

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A. Lankford Journal of Criminal Justice 77 (2021) 101865

If questions were added about sexual frustration related to unavailable experience military deployment, prison incarceration, or pandemic-
partners and unsatisfying sexual activities, this might provide a good based quarantine, that might consistently produce more sexual frustra­
measure for couples and singles alike. Another approach could be tion. But this hypothesis would need to be tested. If the decrease in
modeled off research in which people were asked to spend a week sexual opportunities is offset by a change in priorities or reduction in
tallying every time they thought about a specific subject (Fisher, Moore, sexual expectations, it might not create as much sexual frustration as
& Pittenger, 2012). In one study using this method, both men and assumed. Other options for research include (1) multi-stage in­
women averaged more thoughts about sex than food or sleep, but there vestigations that explore the effects of sexual frustration on misogyny
was a wide range across individuals, from merely one sexual thought per and of misogyny on crimes against women; (2) longitudinal studies that
day to more than 300 (Fisher et al., 2012). If this approach were trace sexual frustration and crime among cohorts; (3) neurological scans
expanded, subjects could be asked to tally every time they experience that identify the effects of sexual frustration on areas of the brain that
sexual frustration, and to mark the specific type of sexual frustration and control behavior; and (4) retrospective biographical studies that
intensity of their feeling in that moment. These reports could be sup­ examine whether periods of intense sexual frustration closely preceded
plemented with information on each participant's sexual behavior people's acts of aggression or crime.
(including masturbation). An important caveat, however, is that self-
reports are not always reliable, and self-reports on sensitive issues 6. Conclusion
may be especially prone to distortion.18
With better data, researchers could more comprehensively test This paper began by noting that although sexual frustration has been
whether people who experience more sexual frustration are more often cited as a cause of immoral behavior for centuries, it does not feature
engaged in aggression, violence, or crime. Even if new studies could only prominently in any leading criminological theories. That omission is
establish correlation, not causation, that would still be an important understandable, given past misconceptions and biases. But it is also
contribution. For instance, there are reasons to expect strong associa­ worth reconsidering. Perhaps our ancestors were right about some of
tions between being unmarried, sexually frustrated, and a perpetrator of their observations, just wrong about the details and mechanisms
crime. Although married people can certainly experience sexual frus­ involved. If this paper's thesis is correct, it is not merely applicable to
tration, unmarried people are far more likely to have had no sex in the modern criminological challenges, but also explains a basic causal
past year (Ueda et al., 2020). In addition, one of the most common relationship between frustrated sexual desires and negative behaviors
reasons why sexually active males do not get married is because they that has existed for thousands of years.
want sex with new partners (Smith, 2013). As a result, the unmarried To briefly review, there are many reasons why a sexual frustration
group includes the vast majority of virgins, people who are involuntarily theory may add to modern understandings of aggression, violence, and
celibate, and people who are sexually compulsive or hypersexual, while crime. First, it is already well-established that purely psychological
few people meeting any of these descriptions are married. If unmarried frustrations can increase the likelihood of aggression, so frustrations
people show higher levels of sexual frustration, that supports this paper's with a biological component may produce even more significant effects.
theory, because they are also more likely to commit crimes in general Second, other biological frustrations, such as hunger and sleep depri­
(Sampson, Laub, & Wimer, 2006), to commit murder (Lankford, Silver, vation, have been found to reduce self-control and increase aggression.
& Cox, 2021), and to commit public mass shootings (Lankford et al., Third, sexual arousal creates temporary changes in hormone levels that
2021). Being unmarried is also associated with higher rates of criminal could have powerful behavioral effects, because hormone levels are
recidivism (Kendler, Lönn, Sundquist, & Sundquist, 2017), and sexual associated with sex drives, aggression, dominance, jealousy, lack of
frustration could be part of the explanation. In future research, the empathy, callousness, and impulsivity. Fourth, sexual desires are one of
amount of sexual frustration among married and unmarried people, and humans' most primal and powerful drives, with deep connections to our
its relationship with crime, could be verified using some of the improved other behavioral tendencies. Fifth, sexual frustration is not only a
measures recommended above. problem for virgins or those who are involuntarily celibate; it also affects
A wide range of other studies establishing correlations would be many people who are sexually active. Sixth, some people consider sexual
valuable as well. For instance, as noted earlier, some sex offenders report frustration one of their biggest or most recurrent frustrations in life, so
more sexual dissatisfaction than other men their age (Bryden & Grier, its effects might be substantial. Seventh, sexual frustration may play an
2011; Kanin, 1985; Seto, 2019). If the proposed theory is correct, people important causal role in a much wider range of sexual and non-sexual
who engage in other forms of aggression and crime—like those reviewed behaviors than is commonly recognized. Eighth, sexual frustration
in the relief-seeking, power-seeking, revenge-seeking, and displaced may be an important cause of misogyny, which motivates aggression
frustration sections of this paper—would also have experienced more and violence against women. Ninth, sexual frustration may help answer
sexual frustration, on average, than their better-behaved counterparts.19 one of the biggest questions in criminology: why do males commit more
Testing for causation may be more difficult, but it is certainly crimes than females? And tenth, some criminals have specifically cited
possible. For instance, in the previously reviewed experiments (Ariely & sexual frustration as a reason for their actions.
Loewenstein, 2006; Skakoon-Sparling et al., 2016; Skakoon-Sparling & None of this means that sexual frustration provides a sufficient
Cramer, 2016; Spelman & Simons, 2018), researchers got subjects to explanation on its own. Most complex behaviors are influenced by
experience unsatisfied sexual arousal, and then tested for effects on their multiple factors, and there are undoubtedly many instances of aggres­
subsequent attitudes and behavior, compared to controls. This could be sion and crime in which sexual frustration played no role. Without ac­
expanded to experiments that involve different types and levels of sexual counting for the influence of sexual frustration at all, however, we might
frustration, along with different behavioral outcomes. Another approach be missing something important.
would be to look for natural experiments in which sexual frustration And yet, so much remains unknown and so much more can still be
suddenly increased or decreased, and then examine concurrent (or discovered. Hopefully, this paper has provided a glimpse of the oppor­
appropriately lagged) changes in crime rates. For instance, when people tunities for original research in this area. In addition, scholars could test
(and extend or improve) this paper's applications of frustration-
aggression, strain, self-control, and sexual selection theories. These
18
Also, an individual's sexual frustration is not static, so attempts to measure theories may be tremendously valuable in explaining which frustrating
it should account for its potential to change. The amount of sexual frustration experiences are most likely to provoke strong emotional responses, and
felt before committing a crime might differ from the amount felt afterwards (or why some sexually frustrated people are more likely than others to
in a different context, such as prison). engage in aggression, violence, or crime. It would also be interesting to
19
Of course, accurate tests require sufficient use of control variables. learn more about which types of sexual frustration are connected to

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different types of crime. For instance, it may be that unfulfilled desires Denson, T. F., O’Dean, S. M., Blake, K. R., & Beames, J. R. (2018). Aggression in women:
Behavior, brain and hormones. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 12(81), 1–20.
for sex are the most common type for mass shooters, while pedophiles
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struggle most with wanting unavailable partners, and serial killers are Dickson-Gomez, J., Quinn, K., Broaddus, M., & Pacella, M. (2017). Gang masculinity and
most aggravated by unsatisfying sexual activities. But these possibilities high-risk sexual behaviours. Culture, Health & Sexuality, 19(2), 165–178. https://doi.
(and many more) would benefit from rigorous examination. org/10.1080/13691058.2016.1213422
Dollard, J., Miller, N. E., Doob, L. W., Mowrer, O. H., & Sears, R. R. (1939). Frustration
There are also important unanswered questions about future trends and aggression. Yale University Press.
in sexual frustration and potential strategies for mitigation. For instance, Duntley, J. D., & Buss, D. M. (2012). The evolution of stalking. Sex Roles, 66, 311–327.
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Eltahawy, D. (2013). Sexual attacks on women in Egypt. Amnesty International. https:
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sexually frustrated but less aggressive and violent, due to parallel gypt/.
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long-term sexual frustration? Do various forms of relief-seeking provide Gailliot, M. T. (2013). Hunger and reduced self-control in the laboratory and across the
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