EJU BIOLOGY

English Textbook
 Analysis of question content and countermeasures

Analysis and countermeasures for general question content

In 2015, the syllabus of biology was changed significantly, and the field was
reorganized from 3 fields to 6 fields. There are also new content and areas.
There are 15 to 17 questions, some of which are made up of multiple
options. Considering the time to read the options, I don't think there is much time
to spare for the exam.
When viewed by field, Questions from "Life phenomena and Matter" account for
5 to 6 questions, or one-third of total questions. The questions are basic and not
difficult, but they are wide-ranging and there are many important points to be
aware of. Also, since there are many true-false questions, it is not possible to
answer with vague knowledge. Let's hold down the points and acquire accurate
knowledge.

I Life phenomena and substances

"cells" "metabolism" and "gene expression" are all important functions for
living things. It has the highest success rate. The function of the "cell" organelles is
frequent. Organize and remember the types and functions of cell membrane
transport proteins and cytoskeleton. In "metabolism", let's organize and memorize
the parts of the cell where each stage of respiration and photosynthesis takes place
and what kind of reaction takes place. In "gene expression", there are always
problems related to gene replication, transcription, and translation. You should also
understand the expression regulation and linkage of genes. Basic operations such
as the PCR method and gene recombination are important for “biotechnology”.

Ⅱ Reproduction and Development

"Gene distribution by meiosis" and "double fertilization of angiosperms" are

frequent occurrences. The detailed contents of the developmental stages of frogs
and sea urchins are not given much. In the future, it is expected that new questions
such as “cell differentiation and morphogenesis” will be added.

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III Maintaining the internal environment of organisms

" function of Kidney ", "blood coagulation" ,"regulation of blood sugar

concentration and body temperature control by autonomic nerves and hormones"
and "immunity" are frequent occurrences. Immunity is divided into innate
immunity and acquired immunity (humoral immunity, cellular immunity).

Ⅳ Environmental response of organisms

In animals, human muscles and sensory organs (especially eyes), and in

plants, plant hormones frequently act. Let's summarize the functions and names of
plant hormones.

V Ecology and environment

In addition to "relationships between different populations" centered on

"ecosystem balance", questions often include "relationship between climate and
biome" and "vegetation transition".

VI Biological evolution and Phylogeny of Organisms

Focusing on evolution, especially "mechanism of evolution" and "evolution of

humans" should be organized and remembered. Let's keep in mind "base sequence
comparison" for "classification by phylogeny".

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 Course Syllabus (Question Range)

Life Phenomena and Matter

1. Cells and Molecules

(1) Biological materials and cells

 cell organelle

 Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

 cytoskeleton

(2) Life phenomena and proteins

 protein structure

 Function of protein [Example] Enzyme

2. Metabolism

(1) Life activity and energy ATP and its role

(2) Respiration

[Example] Glycolytic system, citric acid cycle, electron transport system,

Fermentation and glycolysis

(3) Photosynthesis

[Example] Photosystem 1. Photosystem II Calvin-Benson cycle, electron transport

system

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(4) Bacterial photosynthesis and chemosynthesis

(5) Nitrogen assimilation

3. Genetic information and its expression

(1) Genetic information and DNA

 double helix structure of DNA

 Genes, Chromosomes, and Genomes

(2) Distribution of genetic information

 Distribution of genetic information by somatic cell division

 Cell cycle and DNA replication

 DNA replication mechanism

(3) Expression of genetic information

 Mechanism of gene expression 、[Example] Transcription、 Translation、

 Splicing Change in genetic information [Example] Gene mutation Sudden
change

(4) Regulation of gene expression

 Regulation of transcription levels

 selective gene expression

 cell differentiation by regulation of expression

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(5) Biotechnology

[Example] Genetic recombination, gene transfer

Ⅱ Reproduction and Development

1. Sexual Reproduction

(1) Meiosis and Fertilization

 Gene distribution by meiosis

 Diverse genetic combinations by fertilization
 sex chromosome

(2) Genes and Chromosomes

 Gene linkage and recombination

 Chromosome transfer and gene recombination

2. Animal Development

 Gametogenesis and fertilization

 Process of early development

 cell differentiation and morphogenesis

3. Plant development

 gametogenesis and fertilization

 embryonic development
 Differentiation of plant organs [Example] Flower morphogenesis

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III Maintaining the internal environment of organisms

1. Internal environment

 circulatory system of bodily fluids

 Components of body fluids and regulation of their concentration

 Mechanism of blood coagulation

2. Mechanism of maintenance of internal environment

(1) Regulation by autonomic nerves and hormones [Example] Regulation of blood

sugar level

3. Immunity

 Cells that work in immunity

 Mechanism of immunity

Ⅳ Environmental response of organisms

1. ANIMAL RESPONSES AND BEHAVIOR

(1) Stimulus reception and response

 Receptors and their functions

 Effector and its function

 Nervous system and its function

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(2) Animal behavior

2. Environmental response of plants

 Functions of plant hormones [Examples] Functions of auxin, functions of

gibberellin

 Function of plant photoreceptors [Example] Function of phytochrome

V Ecology and environment

1. Populations and biological communities

(1) Population

 Population and its structure

 Interactions within a population

 Interactions between populations

(2) Bio-community and its structure

2. Ecosystem

(1) Material production and material cycle in ecosystems

[Examples] Food and trophic levels. Carbon cycle and energy flow, Nitrogen cycle.

(2) Ecosystems and biodiversity

 Genetic diversity
 Species diversity

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  Ecological Diversity

 Ecosystem Balance and Conservation

(3) Vegetation diversity and distribution

[Example] Vegetation transition

(4) Climate and biomes

VI Evolution and Phylogeny of Organisms

1. Mechanism of biological evolution

(1) Origin of life and evolution of organisms

 birth of life

 biological evolution

 human evolution

(2) Mechanism of evolution

 Inter-individual variation (mutation)

 Change in gene frequency and its mechanism

 Molecular evolution and neutral evolution

 speciation

 coevolution

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 2. Phylogeny of Organism

(1) Classification of organisms by phylogeny

[Example] Comparison of DNA base sequences

(2) Higher Taxa and Phylogeny Bungun

Summary of main points

cells nuclear
membrane
Plant cells Animal cells
vacuole vacuole nucleolus
Cell wall Cell membrane

Cell membrane Cytoplasm

lant cells
smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Mitochondria
lant cells
chloroplast rough endoplasmic reticulum

nuclear membrane
Mitochondria
lant cells
Golgi body
Golgi body
ribosome lysosme centrosome

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2. Cytoskeleton

Thin
A fibrous structure that is stretched within a cell. It plays a role in maintaining the
shape of cells.

(1) Actin filament  Made of actin (protein).

It is involved in muscle contraction and is contained in large amounts in muscle
fibers (= muscle cells). It is also involved in cytoplasmic streaming and amoeba
movement.

(2) Intermediate filament  made up of a bundle of fibrous proteins such as

keratin. It maintains the shape of the cell and the position of the nucleus.

(3) Microtubule  A globular protein called tubulin binds together to form a ring
Thick
structure. Constructs spindles during cell division, hairs and flagella. It serves as a
pathway
for vesicles to move inside the cell.

3. Amino acid structure

(1) Amino acid  A building block of protein. It has a carboxy group and an amino group.
Amino acids are linked by a peptide bond that allows water to be removed between the carboxy
and amino groups.

Structure of amino acid

R side chain

amino acid amino acid Peptide bond N terminal C terminal

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(2) Protein  A long chain of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. The terminal with an amino
group is called the N-terminus, and the terminal with a carboxyl group is called the C-terminus.
It has a unique three-dimensional structure when folded.

Question 1 [organelles]

Below are the most appropriate explanations for the following organelles (1) to (3).

Choose one from ① to ⑥.

(1) Centrosome

(2) Golgi body

(3) Liposome

① It spreads throughout the cell in a mesh-like manner, serving as a transport pathway for
proteins produced within the cell.
② It is composed of protein and RNA and has a shape in which two large and small spheres
are combined.Based on the information of mRNA, it synthesizes protein.
③ Microscopic spherical organ containing various degradative enzymes that break down
foreign substances that have entered the cell.
④ It is found in animal cells, and some plant cells, such as bryophytes and fern plants that
produce the hair (flagella). At the time of cell division, they move by separating into two
poles.
⑤ Made up of a single biological membrane, containing cell fluid inside and store both
nutrients and waste products.
⑥ Consists of a layered flat bag-like structure and vesicles scattered around it. Regulate
transport of substances in and out of cells.

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Question 2 [Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells]

Select the most suitable cell organelles and structures that all cells (a) to (c) below have in
common.

(a) plant leaf cells

(b) human erythrocyte

(c) Escherichia coli

① Nucleus surrounded by nuclear membrane ② Cell wall ③ Chloroplast

④ Mitochondria ⑤ Cell membrane ⑥ Vacuole

Question 3 [cell membrane]

Select one of the following 1 to 6 that is incorrect as a description of the cell membrane.

① The cell membrane is mainly composed of a phospholipid bilayer and proteins and
hydrophobic portion of phospholipid bilayer is facing the inside the cell.

① The phospholipid bilayer that forms the cell membrane does not allow ions and
hydrophilic molecules to pass through.

② Channels of transport proteins that exist in the cell membrane allow specific substances
to bind together. When combined, their structure changes, allowing certain substances to
pass through them against a concentration gradient.

③ A protein called a sodium pump in the cell membrane also works as an ATP-degrading
enzyme (adenosine triphosphatase), using the energy of ATP to pump Na+ out of the cell
and take in K+ into the cell.

④ Most of the water molecules enter the cell through channels called aquaporins.

⑤ Glucose is taken up into cells by passive transport, following a concentration gradient.

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Question 4 [Cytoskeleton and Motor Proteins]

As a description of the cytoskeleton and motor protein, Choose the most suitable one from the
following ① to ⑥.

(1) The cytoskeleton consists of microtubules, intermediate filaments, and actin filaments,
with the microtubule being the thinnest.
(2) Actin filaments are involved in the movement of cilia and flagella.
(3) Microtubules are involved in the formation of spindles during cell division in animal
cells.
(4) The motor proteins dynein and kinesin move in defined directions along actin filaments.
(5) Cytoplasmic streaming is caused by the movement of myosin along microtubules.
(6) Intermediate filaments are made up of globular proteins called tubulin.

Question 5 [Cell Fractionation Method]

As shown in the figure below, plant leaves were ground and then subjected to a centrifuge for
cell fractionation. Select the most appropriate combination of organelles contained in fractions A
to D from among ① to ⑤ below.
Centrifuge
500 × g 3000 × g 8000 × g 100000 × g
10 min 10 min 10 min 60 min
Product of ground plant leave

Precipitation A B C D

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 Fraction A Fraction B Fraction C Fraction D
1 chloroplast nucleus mitochondria ribosome

2 nucleus mitochondria chloroplast ribosome

3 nucleus chloroplast mitochondria ribosome

4 ribosome mitochondria chloroplast nucleus

5 mitochondria chloroplast ribosome nucleus

Question 6 [Endosymbiosis Theory]

Select the most appropriate combination of phrases for (a) and (c) in the following
sentence about the endosymbiosis hypothesis from ① to ⑧ below.

It is thought that anaerobic bacteria became mitochondria after being incorporated

and coexisting together in endosymbiosis and in eukaryotic cell possessing
mitochondria , ---(a)---was taken in and ---(a)---become chloroplast in symbiotic
relationship. According to this basis, mitochondria and chloroplasts are said to
have their own ---b---and to proliferate in cell division and surrounded by ---(c)---
.

(a) (b) (c)

1 Cyanobacteria DNA Single membrane
2 Cyanobacteria DNA Double membrane
3 Cyanobacteria RNA Single membrane
4 Cyanobacteria RNA Double membrane
5 anaerobic bacteria DNA Single membrane
6 anaerobic bacteria DNA Double membrane
7 anaerobic bacteria RNA Single membrane
8 anaerobic bacteria RNA Double membrane

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Question 7 [Protein]

Select one of the following (1) to (6) that is correct as a description of protein.

(1) When proteins are heated, their amino acid sequences change and denature.
(2) To form hydrogen bonds between amino acids, polypeptides are folded as spiral structure
like α-helix and as zigzag to form β-sheet.
(3) There are about 100 kinds of amino acids that constitute proteins.
(4) A three-dimensional structure in which multiple peptides are combined is called a tertiary
structure and hemoglobin in red blood cells is a combination of two types of polypeptides
(two each).
(5) Some proteins require metal ions and one of cell adhesion protein cadherin needs iron
(Fe) ions to work.
(6) Disulfide bonds (S-S bonds) are formed only within the same polypeptide.

Question 8 [Protein structure]

Choose the most appropriate combination of words or phrases for (a) and (c) in the following
sentences regarding to the structure of proteins.

In amino acids that make up proteins, each carbon atom has amino end (terminal) and ---(a)---.
Side chains are bonded by ---(b)--- molecule. Between amino end and ---(a)--- , multiple peptide
bond which can remove ---(c)--- molecule are formed and made protein.

(a) (b) (c)

1 hydroxy end hydrogen carbon dioxide

2 hydroxy end oxygen water

3 hydroxy end oxygen carbon dioxide

4 carboxy end oxygen water

5 carboxy end hydrogen carbon dioxide

6 carboxy end hydrogen water

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Question 9 [Properties of enzymes]

Select one of the following incorrect descriptions of enzymes from ① to ⑥.

(1) Substances on which enzymes act are called substrates, and enzymes work only on
specific substrates.

(2) Below the optimal temperature, the higher the temperature, the faster the reaction rate of
the enzyme.

(3) Many enzymes have an optimum pH near neutrality.

(4) When an enzyme reacts, it forms a complex with a substrate.

(5) Enzymes that have worked once are deactivated and cannot work.

(6) Some enzymes work only when combined with small molecular weight organic
substances such as vitamins, and these small molecular weight organic substances are
called coenzymes.

Question 10 [Enzyme inhibition]

Choose the most appropriate combination of words (a) and (b) in the following sentences about
enzyme inhibition from ① to ⑥ below.

Succinate dehydrogenase, one of the enzymes that work in respiration, uses succinic acid as a
substrate, but malonic acid (which has a similar structure to succinic acid) binds and inhibits the
action of the enzyme. Such an inhibition is called ---(a)---. When (b) occurs, the inhibition
becomes smaller.

(a) (b)
1 Competitive Inhibition High Concentration Of Succinic Acid
2 Competitive Inhibition High Enzyme Concentration
3 Non-Competitive Inhibition High Concentration Of Succinic Acid
4 Non-Competitive Inhibition High Enzyme Concentration
5 Feedback Inhibition High Concentration Of Enzyme
6 Feedback Inhibition High Oxygen Concentration

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Question 11 [Enzyme reaction rate]

The figure shows the amount of the reaction product when a certain enzyme is allowed to act on
the substrate for 60 minutes under optimum conditions of temperature and pH. Select one of the
following ①~⑥ as the most appropriate description of this experiment.

amount of reaction product

Time

1) If the enzyme concentration is doubled under the same conditions, the amount of the final
reaction product doubles.

2) When the enzyme concentration is doubled under the same condition, it takes less than 30
minutes for the graph to become horizontal.

3) Even if the substrate concentration is doubled under the same conditions, the final
amount of the reaction product is α.

4) When the substrate concentration is doubled under the same conditions, it takes less than
30 minutes for the graph to become horizontal.

5) If the enzyme is added after 60 minutes, the amount of the reaction product increases
further.

6) This experiment was conducted at 40°C, but when the temperature was increased to
45°C, it takes less than 30 minutes for the graph to become horizontal.

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 Chapter 2 Metabolism and Energy I Assimilation (Photosynthesis)

Summary of main points

I. ATP
(1) ATP  A substance used as a mediator in energy metabolism

(2) High-energy phosphate binding  ATP-phosphate binding. ATP breaks down into ADP and
phosphate (phosphoric acide) and energy is generated.

high energy phosphate bond

adenine

energy energy of vital activities

ATP (adenosine triphosphate)

phosphoric acid
ADP (adenosine diphosphate)

II. Photosynthesis

Chloroplast

Stroma

thylakoid

grana

(1) Chloroplast

The stroma is the matrix. The thylakoid is the flat sac-like membrane.The area where the
thylakoids overlap is called grana.

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(2) Reactions occurring in thylakoids

1. Chlorophyll absorbs light and releases electron.

2. Make up for what was lost in ①, water is decomposed to release electron, and H+ and
oxygen O2 are generated.
3. When electron passes through the electron transport chain (system) and flows into the
photo system I.
4. Electron released from photosystem I reacts with NADP+ and H+ to generate
NADPH++H+.
5. H+ accumulated in the thylakoid flows out to the stroma through ATP synthase and ATP
is synthesized  Photophosphorylation

III Reactions occurring in the stroma

Using NADPH, ATP and CO2 generated in thylakoid. Reaction in which organic matter is
synthesized. Calvin-Benson cycle.

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 Calvin-Benson cycle

Phosphoglyceric acid
rubisco

ribose bisphosphate

carbohydrate

glyceraldehyde fructose bisphosphate

1. CO2 reacts with ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP) to form phosphoglyceric acid (PGA) 
catalyst Rubisco (the most plentiful enzyme on the planet) catalyzes the carboxylation of a 5-
carbon compound called ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP) with carbon dioxide molecule,
coming about of a sum of 6 carbons. Then it is parted into 2 molecules of 3-PGA (3-
phosphoglycerate), a 3-carbon compound.
2. PGA is reduced to glyceraldehyde phosphate (GAP). Hydrogen of NADPH+H+ is
changed to NADP+. ATP is used to form water H2O.
3. In the 12 GAP molecules, 2 molecules synthesize an organic substance, and the rest
become RuBP again.
(4) Photosynthetic reaction

6CO2 + 12H2O + light energy - 6O2 + 6H2O + C6H12O6

III. Bacterial carbon dioxide assimilation

(1) Photosynthetic bacteria

Bacteriochlorophyll, a photosynthetic pigment, decomposes hydrogen sulfide H2S, with light

energy to produce hydrogen, which reduces carbon dioxide CO2 in the Calvin-Benson cycle to
synthesize organic matter.

6CO2 + 12H2S  C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 12S

Examples : red sulfur bacteria, green sulfur bacteria

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● Differences between plants and photosynthetic bacteria

Plant Photosynthetic Bacteria

Photosynthetic Pigment Chlorophyll Bacteriochlorophyll

Substance Used H2O, CO2 H2S, CO2
Substance That Can Be Made O2, H20, Organic Matter S, H2o, Organic Matter

(2) chemosynthetic bacteria

The energy released by oxidizing inorganic substances is used to synthesize organic substances
in the Calvin-Benson cycle.

1. Oxidation of sulfur bacteria (H2S oxidation)

2H2S+O₂  2S + 2H2O + chemical energy

2. Nitrate bacteria (Oxidation of nitrite ion)

2NO2 - + O2  2NO3- + chemical energy

(3) Nitrite bacteria (Oxidation of ammonium ions)

2NH4+ + 302  2NO2- + 4H+ + 2H2O + chemical energy

IV. Nitrogen assimilation

(1) Nitrogen assimilation → plants synthesize nitrogen compounds such as amino acids

1. Plants release NO3- (nitrate ion), NO2 -(nitrite ion), NH4 +(ammonium ion) from their
roots.

Inside the plant body,

NO3-  NO2 -  NH4 + (reduced)

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 2. Synthesize amino acids from NH4 +.

Glutamic acid Glutamic acid various organic acids

Amino acid
Ammonium ion NH4+

Glutamic acid various amino acids

Amino acid
Amino transferase

glutamine synthase glutamine synthase

Ketoglutarate (organic acid)

(2) Nitrogen fixation

 Bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into ammonium ions, NH4+, which plants can
easily use.
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria  Azotobacter, Clostridium, Rhizobium (Nitrogen fixation is
performed only symbiotic with leguminous plants)
 Cyanobacteria such as Nostoc

(3) Nitrification- Nitrifying bacteria oxidize ammonium ions to nitrate ions.

Nitrate bacteria Nitrate bacteria

+
NH4 NO3 -
NO2 –
ammonium ion nitrate ion nitrite ion

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 Question

Question 1 [ATP]

Select one of the following sentences (1) to (6) that best describes the following ATP.

Transfer of metabolic energy is mediated by ATP. ATP consists of adenine and ---(a)---
phosphate. Energy is stored in the high ---(b)--- phosphate bond in which connects the
phosphates in the molecule and high phosphate bond hydrolyze into ADP and phosphate and
energy produced is used for various vital activities. Adenine, ---(a)--- ,phosphate is a component
of ---(c)---.

(a) (b) (c)

1 Ribose two RNA

2 Ribose two DNA

3 Ribose Three RNA

4 Deoxyribose Three DNA

5 Deoxyribose Three RNA

6 Deoxyribose two DNA

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Question 2 [Photosynthetic reaction]
The following figure shows an overview of the reactions of photosynthesis. Answer the
following questions about this

Light Light
Electron transport chain

ATP synthase

Organic materials such as

carbohydrate

(1) Select one of the following (1) to (5) as the most suitable place for the reaction of A.

① Cytosolic substrate ② Nucleus ③ Chloroplast thylakoid

④ Chloroplast stroma ⑤ Inner membrane of mitochondria

(2) Select the most appropriate combination of substances corresponding to A, B, and C in the
figure below. Choose one from ① to ⑥.

A B C
①H2O NAD O2

②H2O NADPH+ H+ H2O

③H2O H+ CO2

④O2 NAD H2O

⑤O2 NADPH+ H+ CO2

⑥O2 NADPH+ H+ H2O

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(3) At A, when ATP is synthesized by ATP synthase, H+ transfer within ATP synthase. Regarding
to the direction of movement , select the most appropriate from the following ① to ⑥.

1. From the inner membrane of the thylakoid to the inside of the thylakoid.

2. Inside the thylakoid to the inner membrane of the thylakoid

3. Inner membrane of thylakoid to stroma

4. Inside the thylakoid to the stroma

5. From the stroma to the inner membrane of the thylakoid

6. Stroma to outside of chloroplast

(4) The enzyme which work when carbon dioxide (CO2) reacts with RuBP, is ?
Choose one from the following ① to ⑤.

1. dehydrogenase 3. Rubisco 5. Catalase

2. amylase 4. Nitrogenase

(5) Choose one of the following 1 to 6 that is incorrect as a description of photosynthesis.

1. Photosynthetic pigments strongly absorb blue and red light.

2. Chlorophyll a exists at the center of the reaction of photosystem I and II.

3. When electrons move through the electron transport chain, stroma H+ is actively taken
into thylakoids.

4. In the reaction that occurs in the stroma, when one molecule of CO2 is taken in, two
molecules of C3 compounds are produced.

5. When plants placed in a bright place are moved to a dark place without changing the CO2
concentration, PGA increases and RuBP decreases.

6. PGA increased and RuBP decreased when plants were left exposed to light and without
CO2.

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Question 3 [Limiting factor of photosynthesis]

In the presence of sufficient carbon dioxide, the conditions of light intensity and temperature in a
certain plant are changed and examined the rate of photosynthesis according to the figure. What
is the limiting factor for photosynthesis when the temperature is 20°C and the light intensity is L2
and L4? Choose the most appropriate one from the following ①~⑥.

Temperature
Rate of photosynthesis

Intensity of light

Limiting Factors for L1 Limiting Factors for L4

①Light Intensity and Temperature Light Intensity and
Temperature
②Light Intensity and Temperature Temperature

③Light Intensity and Temperature Light Intensity

④Light Intensity Light Intensity and

Temperature
⑤Light Intensity Temperature

⑥Light Intensity Light Intensity

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 Question 4 : Apparent photosynthetic rate

Two types of plant A and B are exposed to different intensity of light (radiation) for 1 hour and
the amount of carbon dioxide absorbed by 100cm2 area of the leaf is as shown in the figure.
Please answer the following questions.

Plant A
Amoutnt of CO2 absorbed

Plant B
(mg)

Intensity of light (lux)

(1) How many times the amount of CO2 absorbed by photosynthesis at the light saturation point
of plant A to that of plant B ? Choose most appropriate from the following ① to ⑥.

(1) 2.0 times (2) 2.2 times (3) 2.3 times

(4) 2.5 times (5)2.7 times (6)3.0 times

(2) What is the mass of glucose synthesized in a 100cm² leaf when plant A is exposed to light of
1500 lux for 2 hours? Choose the most appropriate one from the following ①~⑥. Where, the
atomic weight is H=1.0,0 = 16, C = 12, and the photosynthetic reaction is

6CO2 + 12H2O  6O2 + 6H2O+ C6H12O6

(1) 10mg (3) 15 mg (5) 18 mg

(2) 12 mg (4) 16 mg (6) 20 mg

Question 5 [Carbon assimilation of bacteria]

Answer the following questions about the following chemical reactions that organisms perform.

(a) Glucose and water are formed from carbon dioxide and NADPH + H+.

(b) Water H2O decomposes to produce electrons, H+ and O2.

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(c) Decomposition hydrogen sulfide H2S can produce electrons, H+ and S.

(d) Oxidization of nitrite ions give rise to nitrate ions

(e) Oxidization of hydrogen sulfide give rise to sulfur and water.

(1) Choose the most suitable combination of reactions performed by photosynthesis bacteria
from the following ①~⑦.

1. (a) and (b) 2. (a) and (c) 3. (a) and (d) 4. (a) and (e)
5.(c) 6. (d) 7. (e)

(2) The most suitable combination of reactions performed by nitrate bacteria. Choose one from
the following ①~⑦.

1. (a) and (b) 2. (a) and (c) 3. (a) and (d) 4. (a) and (e)
5.(c) 6. (d) 7. (e)

Question 6 : [Nitrogen assimilation]

The diagram shows nitrogen assimilation in plants.

Animal and plant remains and excrement

various amino acids

Bacteria A
various organic acids
Bacteria B

- plant
植物体 body
内)
(

reduction

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Select the most appropriate combination of bacteria A, B and ion, X from the following ① to
⑥.

Bacteria A Bacteria B ion, X

① Ammonia bacteria nitrite bacteria NO-

② Ammonia bacteria nitrite bacteria NO2-

③ Ammonia bacteria nitrite bacteria NO-3

④ nitrite bacteria Nitrate bacteria NO-

⑤ nitrite bacteria Nitrate bacteria NO2-

⑥ nitrite bacteria Nitrate bacteria NO-3

Question 7 [Nitrogen assimilation calculation]

When 100g of nitrate ion NO3- was given to a certain plant, 31% of it was absorbed, and 75% of
the absorbed ion was incorporated into protein. Assuming that the nitrogen content of the
produced protein is 15%, how many grams of protein is produced from the given nitrate ions?
Choose the most suitable one from the following ①~⑥. Here , the atomic weight shall be
N=14, 0=16.

1) 20g 2) 25g 3) 30g

4) 35g 5) 40g 4) 45g

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Question 8 [Nitrogen assimilation, nitrogen fixation]

Select the most correct description of nitrogen assimilation and nitrogen fixation from the
following ①~⑥.

1. Plants combine ammonium ions with glutamate to form glutamine.

2. Nitrogen fixation is the function of converting nitrogen organic matter contained in
animal excreta and carcasses into nitrate ions and ammonium ions.
3. Nitrogen fixation bacteria fix nitrogen only when they are in symbiosis with plants.
4. Nitrate ions in the soil are reduced to ammonium by nitrifying bacteria.
5. Some animals make amino acids from ammonium ions.
6. Denitrifying bacteria produce nitrate ions from nitrogen in the air.

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 CHAPTER 3 METABOLISM AND ENERGY II CATABOLISM (RESPIRATION)

Summary of main points

I Respiration

Energy is obtained by decomposing organic substances into inorganic substances using oxygen.

(1) Glycolysis
• Performed in the cytosol.

• Does not require oxygen.

• Two molecules of pyruvic acid are produced from one molecule of glucose.

• 2 molecules of ATP are generated.

• Two NADH+H are formed.

• C6H12O6 (glucose) + 2NAD+ à 2C3H4O3 (pyruvate) + 2NADH + 2H+

(2) Citric acid cycle

pyruvic acid is broken down into inorganic substances.

1. Performed in the mitochondrial matrix.
2. 1 molecule of pyruvic acid decomposes into 3 molecules of carbon dioxide and 10 H+
Mitochondria

Inner membrane
matrix
Outer membrane

・2 molecules of pyruvic acid are generated from 1 molecule of glucose.

3. 1 molecule of FADH2 and 4 molecules of NADH+H+ are generated from 10 H+

4. 3 molecules of water are used to generate 1 molecule of ATP.
5. Oxygen is not used, but if there is no oxygen, the supply of NAD+ from the electron transport
system is insufficient, so it stops.
C3H4O3 + 3H2O + FAD + 4NAD+ → 3CO2 + FADH2 + 4NADH + 4H+
• Reaction for one pyruvic acid.

31
(3) Electron transport system

Electrons are received from a substance with a strong reducing power to a substance with a weak
reducing power.

1. Performed in the inner membrane of mitochondria.

2. Generate 34 molecules of ATP using hydrogen and electrons contained in hydrogen.
+
H is transported from the inner membrane to outer membrane during electron transport and accumulates.
When the accumulated H+' flows out into the matrix through ATP synthase, ATP is generated (oxidative
phosphorylation).
3. Hydrogen combines with 6 molecules of oxygen to form 12 molecules of water.
4. The reaction stops in the absence of oxygen.

10NADH + 10H+ + 2FADH2 + 602 à 12 H2O + 10NAD++2 FAD

Outer membrane
H
ATP synthase
Inner membrane

matrix

32
Breathing can be summed up as follows:

glucose

pyruvate

Oxaloacetic acid
Acetyl CoA
Citric acid

succinic acid - コハク酸, citric acid cycle - クリン酸 回路, activated acetic acid - 活性酢酸
Fig., glycolytic system
II Fermentation

The same reaction as in glycolysis takes place and oxygen is not used. Since organic matter cannot be
decomposed into inorganic matter, ATP is less than respiration. Takes place in the cytosol.

(1) Alcoholic fermentation

Yeast perform alcoholic fermentation in an environment with little oxygen.

1. In the glycolysis system, one molecule of glucose is decomposed into two molecules of pyruvic
acid (hydrogen is removed and 2NADH+2H+ can be done).
2. Carbon dioxide is removed from pyruvic acid by decarboxylase to form acetaldehyde.
3. Acetaldehyde combines with the hydrogen of NADH+H+ to form ethanol.
4. 2 molecules of ATP are formed.

C6H12O6 (glucose) à 2C2H5OH (ethanol) +2CO2 +2H2

33
(2) Lactic acid fermentation

Lactic acid bacteria perform this fermentation.

1. Glycolysis breaks down one molecule of glucose to 2 molecules of pyruvic acid. (remove
hydrogen and becomes 2NADH + H+)
2. Pyruvate bind with oxygen of NADH + H+ and become lactic acid
3. Produce 2 ATP molecules

(3) Glycolysis
Under oxygen-supplemented conditions, lactic acid fermentation also occurs in muscles of animal, a
process called glycolysis.

C6H12O6 (glucose) à 2C3H6O3 (lactic acid)

Alcohol fermentation
Glycolytic system ethanol

pyruvate

lactic acid fermentation lactic acid

34
Question 1 [Respiration]

The diagram shows the route of the reaction of respiration. Respiration is divided into three reaction
systems, A to C, as shown in the diagram.
Reaction system A
B
C

34ADP 34 ATP

(1) Where are each of the reaction systems A to C carried out? Choose the correct combination from the
following ① to ⑥.

Reaction system A Reaction system B Reaction system C

1 Inner membrane of mitochondrial matrix cytosol

mitochondria
2 Inner membrane of cytosol mitochondrial matrix
mitochondria
3 mitochondrial matrix Inner membrane of cytosol
mitochondria
4 mitochondrial matrix cytosol Inner membrane of
mitochondria
5 cytosol Inner membrane of mitochondrial matrix
mitochondria
6 cytosol mitochondrial matrix Inner membrane of
mitochondria

35
(2) Substance names are entered in (a), symbols in (b), and chemical formulas in (c). Choose the most
appropriate combination from the following ① to ⑥.

Reaction system A Reaction system B Reaction system C

1 pyruvate 2C5 O2
2 pyruvate 2C6 H2

3 pyruvate 2C6 O2
4 Acetyl-CoA 2C5 H2
5 Acetyl-CoA 2C5 O2

6 Acetyl-CoA 2C6 H2

(3) Which of the three reaction systems stops in the absence of oxygen? The correct one is the following
①~⑥

① Reaction system B ④ Reaction system A and B

② Reaction system A ⑤ Reaction system B and C
③ Reaction system C ⑥ Reaction system A and C

(4) In the three reaction systems, Which one is reaction in which water is absorbed? Select the correct
one from ① to ⑥ below.

① Reaction system B
② Reaction system A
③ Reaction system C
④ Reaction system A and B
⑤ Reaction system B and C
⑥ Reaction system A and C

36
Question 2 [Respiration]

Select one of the following 1 to 7 that is incorrect as an explanation about respiration.

1. In the electron transport system (chain) , H+ accumulated between the inner and outer membranes
of mitochondria passes through ATP synthase and flows out to the matrix.
2. In the electron transport system (chain), oxygen is taken in and carbon dioxide is generated.
3. In glycolysis, 2 molecules of ATP are consumed per 1 molecule of glucose, but 4 molecules
4. Therefore, a total of two molecules can be formed.
5. In glycolysis, NADH + H+ is generated.
6. Most of ATP is synthesized in the electron transport chain.
7. Oxygen is not used in glycolysis.
8. In the electron transport system, water is produced by the action of oxidase.

Question 3 [Limiting factor of photosynthesis]

In the presence of sufficient carbon dioxide, the volume ratio of generated CO2 and consumed O2 ,
CO2: O2 is called respiratory quotient. When carbohydrates, protein and lipid are substrates of respiration.
respiratory quotient are 1.0, 0.8, 0.7 respectively. The following experiments were conducted using the
seeds of plants A and B.
Experiment : (1) àThe same amount of germinated seeds was placed in containers I and II, a beaker
containing CO2 absorbent (KOH) was placed in container I, and a beaker containing water was placed in
container II.

Coloring liquid

Water kept at constant temperature

吸収 water

Container I Container II

37
(2)à After culturing for a certain period of time, the amount of decrease in gas volume in the container
was read from the movement of the colored liquid, and the results shown in the table were obtained.

amount of decrease in gas

volume (uL)
Plant A B
Container A 720 862
Container B 211 17

What do the seeds of plants A and B mainly use as respiratory substrates? Choose the most appropriate
one from the following ①~⑥.

Plant A Plant B
1 Carbohydrates Protein
2 Carbohydrates lipid

3 lipid Protein
4 lipid Carbohydrates
5 Protein lipid
6 Protein Carbohydrates

Question 4 [Apparent photosynthetic rate]

The figure shows a summary of the reactions of alcohol fermentation and lactic acid fermentation. Select
the most appropriate combination of substance names that apply to A to C from the following ① to ⑥.

ADP ATP Ethanol + (C)

glucose

Lactic acid

A B C
1 Citric acid O2 CO2
2 Citric acid H2 CO2

3 Citric acid O2 H2O

4 pyruvate H2 H2O
5 pyruvate O2 H2O
6 pyruvate H2 CO2

38
Question 5 [Fermentation]
As an explanation about fermentation, choose one from the following ① to ⑥ that is incorrect.

1. Both alcoholic fermentation and lactic acid fermentation produce two molecules of ATP
2. Yeast respires in oxygen-rich environments and alcoholic fermentation in low-oxygen
environments, but both respiration and alcoholic fermentation occur in mitochondria.
3. In animal muscles, lactic acid fermentation breaks down glycogen into lactic acid.
4. In both alcoholic fermentation and lactic acid fermentation, the reaction until pyruvic acid is
produced is the same as the glycolytic system of respiration.
5. Lactic acid bacteria carry out lactic acid fermentation in the cytosol
6. In alcoholic fermentation, decarboxylase is used when ethanol is produced from pyruvic acid.
Question 6 [Calculation of alcoholic fermentation]

Yeast respires when oxygen is plentiful and alcoholic fermentation when oxygen is scarce.
At a given oxygen concentration, yeast cultured in a medium containing glucose respired and
fermented, producing one molecule of ethanol for every two molecules of glucose used. What
percentage of the used glucose was used for respiration at this time? Also, how many molecules
of carbon dioxide CO2 were produced by respiration and alcoholic fermentation per 2 molecules
of glucose at this time? Choose the most suitable combination from ① to ⑥ below.

Percentage of glucose used in respiration Number molecules of CO2

1 25% 10
2 25% 8
3 50% 10
4 50% 8
5 75% 10
6 75% 8

39
40
 GENETIC INFORMATION AND ITS EXPRESSION

Summary of main points

I Body of the gene

●Nucleic acid - A long chain of nucleotides consisting of nucleic acids, phosphates, pentoses, and bases

phosphates bases(G.C.A.T.U)

pentose
s
1. DNA and RNA

DNA à The body of the gene. Double helix structure. sugar is deoxyribose. Bases are guanine (G),
cytosine (C), adenine (A), thymine (T)
RNA à single strand. sugar is ribose, bases are guanine (G), cytosine (C), adenine (A), uracil (U)

2. Nucleic acid structure

The carbons of the pentose are numbered, and the 5 carbon remains unbonded, and the 5' end of the entire
nucleotide chain is called the 5' end and has 3 carbons left unbonded and this end is called the 3' end

5' end

3
'

carbon 3 末端
3' end

1
41
③ Type of RNA

• mRNA (messenger RNA) à Transmits the genetic information of DNA, which is the basis of
protein synthesis, to the outside of the nucleus.
• rRNA (ribosomal RNA) à make protein together with ribosome
• tRNA (RNA) à binds to a specific amino acid and transfers the amino acid to rRNA.

II. Distribution of DNA

(1) Eukaryotic somatic cell division and gene partitioning

DNA amount (relative value)
Chromosome change per cell

Early/mid late final

interphase Mitotic (M) phase interphase

Back to Filamentous chromosome

Filamentous chromosome

duplication

Nuclear membrane

(2) DNA replication

(1) Semi-conservative replication

When DNA is replicated, each of the two nucleotide strands serves as a template to assemble the original
and new DNA strands. This is called semi-conservative replication.

Original nucleotide chain

ド鎖

New nucleotide chain

2
42
(2) Mechanism of DNA replication

When a short nucleotide chain (RNA) called a primer is attached to the origin of replication, it is
replicated by DNA polymerase.

DNA polymerase can extend the chain only in the direction of 5'à 3'

Leading strand à Long chains are continuously synthesized.

Lagging strands à Little by little short strands are synthesized discontinuously in the 5'→ 3′ direction.
Short DNA fragments produced at this time is called Okazaki fragments

origin of replication

Lagging strand Leading strand

(
Okazaki fragments
岡

Leading strand Lagging strand

III. Expression of genetic information

(1) Painting

Transferring information from DNA to RNA. Takes place in the nucleus.

1. Transcription begins when basic transcription factors and RNA polymerase bind to the DNA
promoter.
2. RNA ties in the direction of 5′ → 3′

(2) Splicing à Generating mRNA from copied RNA

Exons à DNA region to be translated

Introns à untranslated DNA region

3
43
 1. Splicing à The process of removing introns from transcribed mRNA. Takes place in the nucleus
2. Alternative splicing à Generating diverse mRNAs by changing exon regions during tissue and
developmental processes

basal transcription factor RNA polymerase

Direction of transcription

DNA into single strand Position of starting point of transcription

Exons Introns

Transcribed RNA
Remove 2,3 Remove 2

Remove 4

Alternative splicing

(3) Translation

Takes place in the ribosome. Based on the nucleotide sequence of mRNA, tRNA carries amino acids to
synthesize proteins.
aspartic acid
peptide bond
Phenyl amino
ノ acid
Methionine alanine

Direction of ribosome movement

4
44
(4) gene mutation

• Substitution à A base is replaced by another base.

• Insertion → A new base is entered.

• Deletion → A base is lost.

IV. Regulation of Gene expression

(1) Regulation of prokaryotic expression

• The lactose operon

E. coli, which uses glucose as its nutrient source, is able to break down lactose when given only lactose.

1) When glucose is present,

As the repressor is bound to the operator region, RNA polymerase cannot bind to the promoter, the lactose
degrading enzyme gene is not transcribed.
not transcribed

2) When there is lactose

Lactose metabolites inactivate repressor. Since the repressor is disengaged from the operator, RNA
polymerase can bind to the promoter and transcribe the lactose-degrading enzyme gene.

operator Enzyme gene group

promotor operator 酵素 遺伝 ⼦ 群
3種類
Genes for
のラ 3 types
ク トーofス lactose-degradation enzyme
promotor
プロ

RNA
transcription
RNA polymerase RNA polymerase
repressor

Can`t bind
Lactose metabolites
No lactose-degrading enzyme is synthesized
lactose-degrading enzyme is
synthesized

5
45
 (2) Expression regulation in eukaryotes

The amount of transcribed mRNA is regulated by regulatory proteins (regulators).

(1) Regulatory protein binds to regulatory regions.

(2) DNA bends and regulatory proteins bind to basal transcription factors and promote, repress transcribe,
and regulate the amount of transcription.

transcriptional regulatory region DNA

転 調節 領 域

basal transcription factor

Regulatory protein RNA polymerase

transcriptional regulatory region promotor transcribed gene

V. Biotechnology

(1) PCR method (Polymerase chain reaction method) à A method for increasing DNA

(1) Heat the DNA to 95℃ to make one strand

(2) Lower the temperature to 60°C and allow the primers to Become one strand
bind to the regions to be amplified.

primer binds

(3) At 72°C, DNA polymerase is activated and the DNA

fragment is replicated.

DNA is replicated
DNA is polymerase
Repeat this.

6
46
 (2) genetically modified (transgenic)

Technology to incorporate foreign genes into the genes of other organisms.

• Restriction enzyme à Recognizes and cuts a specific base sequence (role of scissors)
• DNA ligase à Joins cut ends of DNA (role of glue)
• Plasmid à E. coli has a small circular DNA, which is called a plasmid, in addition to
the original DNA. Plasmids act as gene carriers (vectors).

Escherichia coli body DNA

Cut with a restriction enzyme

じ
plasmid plasmid Cut human DNA with the same enzyme
Escherichia coli
mixture
Portion containing⼦growth hormone gene

culture Join with DNA ligase

Recombinant plasmid

7
47
 Question

Question 1 [DNA and RNA]

Select the most appropriate combination of words, phrases and numbers that apply to (a) and (c) in the
following sentences about DNA and RNA from ① to ⑧ below.

RNA and DNA are made up of a chain of nucleotides consisting of a pentose, a phosphate, and a base.
The pentose in DNA is deoxyribose, and the pentose in RNA is ribose. There are also differences in the
bases: --(a)-- is contained in DNA but not in RNA. While RNA is single-stranded, DNA has a double
helix structure in which two nucleotide strands are linked at the base with ---(b)--. When the ratio of the
number of bases contained in a certain DNA was examined, cytosine accounted for 28%. At this time,
guanine is --(c)--.

(a) (b) (c)

1 adenine peptide bond 28%
2 adenine peptide bond 22%
3 adenine hydrogen bond 28%
4 adenine hydrogen bond 22%
5 thymine peptide bond 28%
6 thymine peptide bond 22%
7 thymine hydrogen bond 28%
8 thymine hydrogen bond 22%

8
48
Question 2 [DNA replication]

DNA is often unfolded and replicated in both directions from the origin of replication. The following
figure shows a schematic representation of the origin of replication. For this figure, Choose the most
appropriate combination of words, phrases and numbers (a) to (c) that apply to the sentence from ① to
⑧ below.
origin of replication

Area 1 Area 2
3'
A strand 5'
B strand 3' 5'

origin of replication
(a) Since DNA extends only in one direction --(a)--, one side of the cleaved portion is synthesized
continuously, while the other side is synthesized as short nucleotide chains discontinuously. This
is called a lagging chain. In region 1 of the figure, --(b)--, in region 2 --(c)--is the template for the
lagging strand.

(a) (b) (c)

1 5' to 3' A chain B chain
2 5' to 3' B chain A chain
3 5' to 3' A chain A chain
4 5' to 3' B chain B chain
5 3' to 5' A chain B chain
6 3' to 5' B chain A chain
7 3' to 5' A chain A chain
8 3' to 5' B chain B chain

9
49
Question 3 [Experiment on DNA replication]

In 1958, Meselson and Stahl proposed, "Escherichia coli, which had been cultivated for many generations
in a medium containing only 15N as a nitrogen source, was transferred to a medium containing only 14N as
a nitrogen source, and then the DNA of each generation obtained by division was obtained. The following
table shows the number of generations (14N the number of divisions after transfer to medium) and the
proportion of DNA with three different weights extracted from each generation of E. coli. The weight of
DNA is expressed as 1.

Generation light DNA medium weight DNA heavy DNA

(number of divisions)
1 0 1 0
2 1 1 0
3 X 1 0
4 Y 1 0

Select the most suitable combination of words and numbers that apply to a to c in the following sentences
describing this experiment and table from ① to ⑥ below.

--(a)-- in the table. Generation –(b)-- in the table shows for the first time that DNA replication is
semiconservative (not total conservative) replication (A new DNA is formed with only the new DNA
strand, leaving the original DNA strand intact). DNA replication start at generation ---(c)--- in the
table that DNA replication is not fragmentary replication (the original DNA strand is broken down into
nucleotides and mixed with new nucleotides for replication).

(a) (b) (c)

1 X is 2, Y is 4 1 2
2 X is 2, Y is 4 1 3

3 X is 3, Y is 7 1 2
4 X is 3, Y is 7 2 3
5 X is 4, Y is 9 2 2
6 X is 4, Y is 9 2 3

10
50
Question 6 [Regulation of eukaryotic gene expression]

Select one of the following incorrect statements about gene expression regulation in eukaryotes.

1. When DNA is not expressed in eukaryotes, it is wrapped around protein strands called histones
and folded into a structure called a chromatin fibre.
2. Regulatory proteins that regulate gene expression have their synthesis controlled by regulatory
genes.
3. Some steroid hormones bind to receptor proteins, enter the nucleus, bind to specific regions of
DNA, and regulate gene transcription.
4. Regulatory proteins may act to promote the transcription of some genes and to repress the
transcription of others.
5. The region of DNA to which the regulatory protein binds is called the promoter region.
6. Changes in the position of the puff in the Drosophila larvae gland chromosome indicates that
different genes are activated at different stages.

Question 7 [Regulation of prokaryotic gene expression]

E. coli has a gene for lactose-degrading enzyme, but there is no lactose in the medium and this gene is not
expressed and no lactose-degrading enzyme is synthesized.

regulatory gene promoter operator lactose-degrading enzyme gene

The phrase that applies to (a) to (c) in the following sentence that describes this mechanism
Choose the most appropriate combination from ① to ⑧ below.

If ---(a)--- synthesized by regulatory genes bind to operator region, ---(b)--- cannot bind to promotor
region and inability to perform ---(c)--- of lactose degradation enzyme. However, in the presence of
lactose, ---(a)--- bind to lactose metabolites, making it impossible to bind to the operator domain.
Therefore, a lactose-degrading enzyme is synthesized.

11
51
 (a) (b) (c)
1 Repressor RNA polymerase Translation

2 Repressor RNA polymerase Transcription

3 Repressor DNA polymerase Translation

4 Repressor DNA polymerase Transcription

5 Basal Transcription Factor RNA polymerase Translation

6 Basal Transcription Factor RNA polymerase Transcription

7 Basal Transcription Factor DNA polymerase Translation

8 Basal Transcription Factor DNA polymerase Transcription

Question 8 [PCR method]

The PCR method is a technique for amplifying a large amount of a specific gene in a short period of time.
The reaction mixture containing purified DNA, enzyme, nucleotide and DNA primer is allowed to react
different changes of temperature such as 95℃ for 30 second, 60℃ for 30 second, 72℃30 second and
repeated.
Select the most appropriate combination from 1 to 6 of the underlined enzymes used in the PCR and the
reaction when the temperature is set to 95°C.

Enzyme Reaction At 95℃

1 Thermostable DNA Polymerase DNA Strand Unwinds
2 Thermostable DNA Polymerase Enzymes Work

3 Thermostable DNA Polymerase A Primer Attaches To The DNA

4 Dnase With No Substrate Specificity DNA Strand Unwinds
5 Dnase With No Substrate Specificity Enzymes Work
6 Dnase With No Substrate Specificity A Primer Attaches To The DNA

12
52
Question 9 [genetic recombination]

The following I to IV are descriptions of the procedure for producing E. coli, the human growth hormone,
by gene recombination. Choose the correct combination of words and phrases for (a) to (c) in the sentence
from ① to ⑤ below.

I. Using ---(a)---, creates DNA complementary to the mRNA containing the genetic information
for human growth hormone.
II. Synthesized DNA and plasmid as vector (circular DNA with ability to replicate) were
cut off with ---(b)---.
III. Mix DNA and plasmid and using ---(c)--- the cut pieces are connected and create a
vector that incorporates the human growth hormone gene
IV. When this vector is introduced into E.coli, a large amount of human growth hormone is
produced as the E.coli proliferates.

A. B. C.

1 Reverse Transcriptase Restriction Enzyme DNA Ligase

2 Reverse Transcriptase DNA Ligase Restriction Enzyme

3 Restriction Enzyme DNA Ligase Reverse Transcriptase

4 DNA Ligase Restriction Enzyme Reverse Transcriptase

5 Restriction Enzyme Reverse Transcriptase DNA Ligase

13
53
 CHAPTER 5

Question 1 Mendel's laws of inheritance

Correct ans ; 3,4,2

(1)
Egg cell A a
Sperm cell
A AA Aa
a Aa aa

AA: Aa : aa = 1:2:1

(2) Suppose that one AA, two Aa and one aa of F2 self-fertilizes and produces four of F3.

AA produce 4AA......1
aa produce 4aa ·····2
Aa produce AA: Aa: aa =1:2:1, so 2AA, 4Aa, 2aa can be produced from 2 individuals of Aa…….3

1 + 2 + 3 à 6AA + 4Aa + 6aa à AA: Aa: aa = 6 : 4 :6 = 3 : 2 :3

(3) in Aa , 1 in F1, ½ in F2 and ¼ in F3 à AA and aa increases.

Let`s memorize

the main genetic terms

Allelic traits – green and yellow seeds do not appear at the same time.

Alleles - Genes that express alleles

(1) Dominant traits - traits that appeared in F1

(2) Recessive traits - traits that did not appear in Fl
(3) Homozygote: An individual whose allelic genes of interest have the same symbol.
AA, WW, bb etc.
(4) Heterozygote : An individual in which the allele of interest has a different symbol.
Aa, Ww, Bb etc.
(5) Test cross cross with recessive homozygote aabb. The genetic type of the germ cells of the
crossed individuals appears as the phenotype of the offspring, so unknown genotypes can be
investigated.

1
54
Question 2 : two-gene hybridization

Correct ans ; 4,3

(1) Since the child's phenotype is [AB] : [Ab]: [aB]: [ab] = 1:1:1:1,

Germ cells produced by F2 used for crossbreedingis AB: Ab: aB: ab = 1:1 :1:1

F2 has all A, a, B, and b, so its genotype is AaBb.

The crossing at this time is represented in the table as follows.

F2 AB Ab aB ab
aabb
ab AaBb Aabb aaBb aabb

Phenotype [AB] [Ab] [aB] [ab]

(2)

A (a) and B (b) are considered separately.

Aa (s) red : green = is 1:1, so that Aa * aa is formed.
B(b) is a cross of Bb×Bb because the ratio of round shape to notched shape is 3:1.
Combining the two results gives AaBb * aaBb.

2
55
Question 3 : transfer and recombination

Correct ans ; 5

(1) It does not occur during somatic cell division.

Occurs when bivalent chromosomes line up in the metaphase of meiotic cell division.
(2) Occurs only between homologous chromosomes.
(3) Crossover between X chromosomes occurs only in females that have two X chromosomes
(4) Genes that are located close to each other on chromosomes are less likely to undergo
recombination.

Transfer at the same

location

Recombination Recombination does

occurs not occur

(5) Since only two of the bivalent chromosomes cross over, even if all the mother cells undergo
recombination, the recombination value will never exceed 50%.

The recombination value = 1+1 / 1+1+1+1+ 1 *100 = 50%

(6) Test crosses cross with recessive homozygotes

3
56
Question 4 : chain

Correct ans ; 4,2,4

(1) Since all Fl became [AB] and a dominant trait appeared, the parents are AABB, aabb, andF1 is AaBb.
Since a small number of [Ab] and [aB] appeared in the test cross between F1 and [ab], it is thought that A
and B, a and b are linked, and crossover occurred in some chromosomes during meiosis.

The recombination value = 1+1 / 9+1+1+9 *100 = 10%

(3) F1 creates AB: Ab : aB : ab=9:1:1:9, so the following become.

Let`s memorize,

Independence

A and B, a and b are on different chromosomes

The cell produced is AB: Ab: ab=1:1:1:1

4
57
Chain

A and B, a and b are on the same chromosome.

Without recombination, the cell is AB: Ab: aB: ab = 1:0:0:1

With recombination, the cell is AB: Ab: aB: ab = more : less : less : more

5
58
Question 5 : sex-linked inheritance

Correct ans ; 2

Since all Fl were long leaves, long leaves are dominant. If the gene for long leaves is L and the gene for
round leaves is 1, then the male plant for round leaves will have 1. Together with the chromosome, this is
expressed as sentence XlY.
In addition, since there were no round leaves in F1, the female plant has two LL. Together with the
chromosomes, this is expressed as XLXL. The cross between XlY and XLXL will look like this:

For F1, all female plants are XLXL and all male plants are XlY.
When you multiply these, you get something like the figure below, where all female plants have long
leaves and male plants have long leaves: round leaves = 1:1.

If female plants have pure bred, all F1 will have

long leaves

Long leaves round leaves

Long leaves Long leaves

male plants have long leaves: round leaves = 1:1

Long leaves Long leaves Long leaves round leaves

Female plant male plant

6
59
 CHAPTER 6 REPRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT

Question 1 : Formation of gametes

Correct ans ; 3,7,3,4

(1) A: Oogonia
B: Primary oocyte
C: Secondary oocyte

(2) The primordial germ cells repeat somatic cell division (a, b) and multiply into oogonia, some of which
become primary oocytes. The primary oocyte undergoes the first division of meiosis (c) to become a
secondary oocyte, and the secondary oocyte undergoes the second division of meiosis (d) to become an
egg.

(3) Primary oocyte B is 2n, and after the first division of meiosis, secondary oocyte C becomes n.

(4) One egg is produced from a primary oocyte, but four spermatozoa are produced from a primary
spermatocyte.

let's memorize

primary oocyte, primary spermatocyte

Meiosis reduces the number of chromosomes by half.

Sperm cell
mitochondria
Golgi body

acrosome centrosome

acrosome
flagella

Sperm
acrosome
head nucleus
Central grain
Middle part
mitochondria

tail

1
60
 Question 2 : Genesis of Frogs

Correct ans ; 3,1

① gastrula, ②④ ectoderm, ③ mesoderm, ⑤ endoderm, ⑥ yolk plug.

A schematic representation of the late gastrula stage is as follows.

ectoderm blastocele

mesoderm gastrula

blastopore
endoderm

Late embryo

(2) The blastocoel is pushed by the invaginating cells and eventually disappears.

Note
Fertilized egg → 2 cells → 4 cells → 8 cells → morula → blastula → gastrula → neurula → tail bud
Blastula
blastocele

gastrula

neurula
Neural plate

notocord

Question 3 : Leaf differentiation

Correct ans ; 6

epidermis Epidermis, aqueous humor of eye

ectoderm
Neural tube Brain, spinal cord

Notochord x (degenerates and disappears)

mesoderm Body segments spinal bones, skeletal muscles

Renal node kidney
Lateral plate smooth muscle, cardiac muscle
endoderm Epithelium of the gastrointestinal tract and respiratory tract

2
61
Note

Development of sea urchin

fertilized eggs → 2 cells → 4 cells → 8 cells → morula → blastula → gastrula → Prismatic larvae
→ pluteum larva

Middle gastrula stage

mesoderm ectoderm
endoderm

gastrula

blastopore

Question 4 : Determination of birth

Correct ans ; 4,5

(1) In the early gastrula embryo in Experiment I, the embryo differentiates according to the predetermined
fate of its surroundings, and the fate of the graft is not determined.
In the early neurula in [Experiment 2], the embryo differentiates according to its own
predetermined fate, and the fate of the graft is determined.The developmental fate of nerves and
epidermis is thought to be determined between early gastrula and early neurula.

(2) The dorsal lip of the blastopore is formed at the gray crescent ring, invaginates from the blastopore,
and differentiates into the notochord. At the same time, it guides the ectoderm into the neural tube.

Primordium distribution map

Vogt was created on the surface of a newt blastula stage embryo using local vital staining.

Nervous system area

Notocordal area
epidermal area
somite area

Side plate area

Blastopore
Endodermal area

3
62
Question 5 : Determination of the dorsoventral axis
Correct ans ; 1, 2

(1) Due to surface rotation, a gray crescent ring appears on the opposite side of the sperm entry point. Due
to the function of the disheveled protein, the side of the gray crescent ring becomes the dorsal side.
(2) Disheveled protein suppresses the degradation of B-catenin distributed in eggs, so the presence of
disheveled protein increases the concentration of B-catenin. Through the functions of B-catenin, nodal
proteins are distributed in the sphere by creatiing a concentration gradient. Nodal proteins induces
different parts of mesoderm depending on its concentration gradient.

Question 6 : Bicoid
Correct ans ; 2

Proteins such as bicoid and nanos play a role in determining the anteroposterior axis of Drosophila, and
these proteins are expressed by mRNA transcribed from the mother's DNA and stored in the egg during
oogenesis. Such mRNAs are called maternal factors (maternal effect genes). Since bicoids are localized
in the head, the area with many bicoids is thought to differentiate into the head. When doubled, the
boundary between the head and chest moves backwards.
Note
In Dorsophilia morphogenesis
Genes at work
(1) Maternal factors
Determine the AP axis
Bicoid mRNA
Nanos mRNA
(2) Segmental genes
Create body segments. Large at first and gradually break down into smaller ones.
Gap gene group – roughly divides body segments,
Pair rule gene group - forms a band like pattern of 7 lines
Segment polarity gene group – form 14 band pattern
(3) Homeotic gene group – form organs from body segments

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63
Question 7 : Formation of germ cells and changes in DNA content in angiosperms
Correct ans ; 4

The embryo sac mother cells undergo meiosis and become embryo sac cells. Meiosis involves two
divisions, the first and second division, and the amount of DNA is half that of the embryo sac mother cell.

Meiotic division
DNA content

Nuclear Nuclear Nuclear

fission fission fission

Embryo sac Embryo sac Embryo sac

mother cell cells

Question 8 : Formation of germ cells and double fertilization in angiosperms

Correct ans ; 5, 4, 2

(1) The center cell which contains most of the cytoplasm of the embryo sac has two polar nuclei.
(2) During meiosis, two nuclear divisions occur, followed by three nuclear divisions, resulting in embryonic
sac cells with eight nuclei.
(3) (b) is the nucleus of a pollen tube cell, which is not involved in fertilization. Two sperm cells (a) perform
double fertilization. The embryo is formed by fertilization of the egg cell (a) and the egg cell (d), and the
endosperm is formed by the fusion of the two polar nuclei (a) and (e).
Double fertilization

Double fertilization

Centre cell (n+n)

fusion Endosperm (3n)
Sperm cell (n)

egg cell (n)

fertilization Embryo (2n)
Sperm cell (n)

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64
Question 9 : Formation of organs of flowes

Correct ans ; 6

• If A does not work, c will work in region 1.

C works → pistil
B and C work → Stamen
• B doesn't work.
A works → calyx
C works → pistil
• In regions where c does not work, A comes to work.
A works → calyx
A and B work → petal

A gene does not B gene does not C gene does not

work work work

Pistil -めしべ
Stamen - おしべ
Calyx -がく
Petal - 花弁

6
65
 CHAPTER 7 MAINTENANCE OF THE INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT OF ORGANISMS

Question 1 [Blood components]

Answer : 3

1. RBC is the most common

2. Red blood cells and platelets do not have a nucleus
4. Red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets are produced in the bone marrow
5. Blood sugar level is approximately 0.1%
6. Carbon dioxide is dissolved and transported in blood plasma

Note

Number per 1mm3 of blood

Red blood cells à 450,0000 to 500,0000

White blood cells à 6000 to 8000
Platelet à 200,000~300,000

Question 2 [oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve]

Answer : 4, 2

(1) From the graph, partial pressure of O2 is 100 mmHg and CO2 is 40 mmHg, the proportion of
oxyhemoglobin is about 95%, and partial pressure of O2 is 30 mmHg and CO2 is70 mmHg, the proportion
of oxyhemoglobin is about 30%, so Hemoglobin which releases oxygen in tissues, is 95-30 = 65 [%];
Since oxygen hemoglobin was 95% in the alveoli, 65/95 *100 = 68.4% release oxygen.

(2) Hemoglobin contains iron.

Note
Hemoglobin is
• Low oxygen partial pressure
• High carbon dioxide partial pressure
• Low pH
• The higher the temperature , the easier to release oxygen.

Question 3 [blood coagulation]

Answer : 3
It works in small amounts, releasing prothrombin in the plasma to thrombin, which converts fibrinogen
into her fibrin. The details are as follows.
Clotting
factors prothrombin
plasma
fibrinogen

thrombin
platelet Clotting
factors fibrinogen Blood clot
+
blood cell

1
66
Question 4 [Kidney structure and fluid regulation]

Answer : 2,5,4

(1) A Bowman's capsule B Glomerulus C tubule D collecting duct

(2) When the osmotic pressure of bodily fluids increases due to taking a large amount of salt, etc.,
vasopressin is released from the pituitary gland to reduce the absorption of water in the pituitary gland.

(3) Mineralocorticoids secreted from the adrenal cortex promote the reabsorption of inorganic salts
(especially Na+) in the tubules.

Note

Renal corpuscle (Malpighian corpuscle) à glomerulus Bowman's capsule

Nephron (kidney unit) à glomerulus, Bowman's capsule and tubules

This is also important!

hormones from the pituitary gland
pituitary gland hormones function
Anterior Vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone) Promote water reabsorption in the collecting
ducts of the kidneys and increase blood
pressure
Posterior growth hormone Promotion of protein synthesis
thyroid stimulating hormone Promotion of thyroid hormone secretion
adrenocorticotropic hormone Promotion of secretion of adrenal cortical
hormones

Question 5 [Quantity calculation]

Answer : 4, 6, 2

(1) Since glucose is contained in raw urine, it is filtered. After filtration, it is completely reabsorbed in the
tubules, so it is not included in the urine.

(2) Inulin concentration rate = 12/0.1=120

Inulin is not reabsorbed and the amount of urine is 1/120 of the amount of raw urine.
Raw urine volume = 1.5 x 120 = 180 [L]

(3) the urea contained in one day of raw urine is 0.03 x 180000/100 = 54 g

the urea contained in one day of urine is 2 x 1500/100 = 30 g

The reabsorbed urea is 54 – 30 = 24 g

Note

Concentration rate = concentration in urine / concentration in plasma

Raw urine volume = urine volume x inulin concentration rate

2
67
Question 6 [Autonomic nerve]

Answer : 5

Parasympathetic nerves promote peristalsis in the gastrointestinal tract and secretion of digestive juices. It
also acts on B cells in the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas, causing them to secrete insulin.
Everything except ⑤ is about the sympathetic nervous system.

Note

The sympathetic nervous system : works when active or excited. It comes out of the spinal cord.
Parasympathetic nervous system: Works when you are relaxed after eating. It emerges from the midbrain,
medulla oblongata, and lower part of the spinal cord.

This is also important!

Function of human autonomic nervous system

Organ Pupil Arrector Heart bronchu Blood stomach bladder
pili muscle (beat) s vessels
(skin)
Sympathetic Dilate Contractio Promote Dilate Contractio Suppressio Suppressio
n n n n
Parasympatheti Constric Not Suppres Constric Not promotion promotion
c t innervated s t innervated

Question 7 [Feedback]

Answer : 1
When there is too much thyroxine in the blood, the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary gland
producing releasing hormones and thyroid stimulating hormones which suppress the secretion of
hormone.

This is also important!

Endocrine gland

Endocrine hormone function

gland
thyroid Thyroxine Promotes the metabolism of substances.

Parathyroid Parathormone Increases blood Ca2+.

adrenal cortex Mineralocorticoid Promotes reabsorption and excretion of Na+ in tubules
Glucocorticoids Promote the synthesis of sugar from proteins.
Increases blood sugar level.
adrenal Adrenaline Increases blood sugar level (promotes glycogen breakdown in
medulla the liver).
Pancreas A Glucagon increases blood sugar level (promotes glycogen breakdown in
cell the liver).
Pancreas B Insulin Decrease blood sugar level (absorption of glucose into cells,
cell promotion of glycogen synthesis in the liver).

3
68
Question 8 [adjust amount]

Answer : 1, 6 , 2

(1) Hormone A is secreted as soon as blood sugar levels increase, so it acts as an insulin that lowers blood
sugar levels.

Hormone B is a glucagon that works to increase blood sugar levels because its secretion decreases when
blood sugar levels increase.

Both are secreted by the pancreas.

(2) Glucose is synthesized into glycogen and stored in the organs and muscles.

(3) Sympathetic nerves work to increase blood sugar levels. Sympathetic nerves act on A cells in the
pancreas to stimulate the secretion of glucagon, and act on the adrenal medulla to stimulate the secretion
of adrenaline. It also acts on the adrenal cortex to stimulate the secretion of glucocorticoids.

Question 9 [Immunity]

Answer : 5

In cellular immunity, killer T cells directly attack and eliminate virus-infected cells and cancerous cells.
(c), (e) also apply to humoral cells.

Question 10 [antibody]
Answer : 2
Antibodies are produced by antibody-producing cells, which are transformed B cells. The main
component of antibodies is a protein called immunoglobulin. The three-dimensional structure of the
variable region of an antibody changes depending on the antigen, and one antibody can only bind to a
specific antigen.

Question 11 [immunological memory]

Answer : 4

Antibody A has an immune memory, so the second time it is used, a faster and stronger immune reaction
occurs than the first time, resulting in the result shown in (a). Antibody B enters the body for the first
time, so the graph will be the same as for the first time. Therefore (b).

Note
Cellular immunity
• Killer T cells attack and eliminate virus-infected cells
• Rejection associated with organ transplantation
• Tuberculin reaction

B cells and T cells

B cells à Works on humoral immunity. Differentiates and matures in the bone marrow.
Killer T cells à Works on cell-mediated immunity. Differentiates and matures in the thymus.

4
69
 CHAPTER 8 ENVIRONMENTAL RESPONSES OF ORGANISMS

Question 1 [Mechanism and function of the eye]

Answer : 1, 5

(1)
2  There are three types of cone cells: red cone cells, blue cone cells, and green cone cells, which are
excited by red, blue, and green light, respectively.
3  Cone cells are concentrated near the macula. (Error) ④ Strand cells are distributed throughout the
retina except for the macula and the blind spot.
4  Rod cells are distributed throughout the retina except the macula and blind spot.
5  The blind spot is where the optic nerve exits through the membrane, so photoreceptors are not
distributed.
6  When the sensitivity of rod cells weakens, they become accustomed to the brightness.

(2) rod cells

When looking at distant objects, the ciliary muscles relax, making the lens thinner and increasing the
focal length.

(1), (2), and (3) are descriptions of brightness adjustment. In the dark, the pupil dilates to allow more light
into the eye. Rod cells degrade rhodopsin and sense light, which promotes rhodopsin synthesis.

rod cell
 It can react even with weak light.
 It can't tell the difference between the colors.
 Distributed mainly around the periphery of the retina.

nucleus

cone cell
 strong light (bright place)
 can tell the difference in color.
 It is concentrated in the macula.

nucleus

Macular  Many cone cells are distributed. There are no rod cells.
blind spot  There are no rod cells or cone cells.
light adaptation  If you suddenly go out into a bright place, you will be dazzled at first, but you will
gradually get used to it. When rhodopsin is degraded and its concentration decreases, the sensitivity of rod
cells becomes weaker and we no longer feel glare.
 If look into near object

70
Ciliary muscle (contract)  Chin frenulum, zonules (loosen) → aqueous humor (thickened)
 If look into distance object
Ciliary muscle (relax)  Chin frenulum (zonules) (being pulled) → aqueous humor (thin)

Question 2 [Structure and function of the ear]

Answer : ③

① The ear canal is correct, not the ear canal. The eustachian tube connects to the pharynx and equalizes
the air pressure inside and outside the ear drum.
② The vibration of the eardrum is amplified by the auditory ossicles.
④The pitch of the sound is heard through a spiral canal. In the spiral canal, the part of the basement
membrane that vibrates is determined by the frequency of the sound wave.
⑤Hearing cells are located in the cochlea.

Question 3 [Structure of neuron, nerve cell]

Answer : 5,5

(1) Numerous projections emerge from the cell body of a neuron, the shorter ones are dendrites and
the longer ones are axons.
(2) It is a motor nerve because it is connected to muscles. Furthermore, since the cell bodies of
sensory nerves do not have dendrites. Nerve fibers are myelinated nerve fibers covered with a
myelin sheath. Myelinated nerve fibers are not found in invertebrate animals.This neuron is from
a vertebrate animal.
Note
Motor neurons  connect the center and effect organs (motor organs)
Sensory neurons  transmit stimuli from the outside world received by sensory organs to the central
nervous system.
Interneuron  connects sensory neuron and motor neuron

Myelinated nerve fibre conduction

Jump conduction via Ranvier nodes. It is transmitted from the cell body to Ranvier node. It travels faster
than non-nervous conduction.

Question 4 [Changes in nerve potential]

Correct ans : 3

occurs when impulses are conducted through unmyelinated nerve fibers

Active current

excitation Excitation spread

from side to side

71
Since the electrodes are placed on the surface, both A and B are +, and the difference in potential is 0.

When the excitement reaches B, B becomes -, so the potential of A relative to the potential of B becomes
+.
When excitement reaches A, A becomes - and B returns to +. A based on B becomes -.

Question 5 : [conduction and transmission]

Answer : 4

In conduction, the stimulus is transmitted from the receiving point to both sides, so the excitement is
transmitted to c and (d). At a synapse, information is transmitted in one direction from the nerve terminal
to the dendrite of the next neuron, so it is transmitted from (c) to (b), but not from d to (e).

Note
Nerve conduction  The transmission of excitement within neurons. Action potentials produce a signal
in both directions from the stimulated area.
Nerve transmission  Excitement is transmitted to the next nerve cell via synapses. Transmitted in one
direction by neurotransmitters.

Question 6 [How to convey the strength of the stimulus]

Answer ; 3
The intensity of stimulation is converted into the frequency of action potentials of sensory nerves and
transmitted. The magnitude of the action potential of a single neuron is constant regardless of the strength
of the stimulus.
With strong stimulation, the frequency of action potentials generated increases.
The strength of the stimulus is conveyed to the brain as the frequency of occurrence.

72
 frequency of excitation Intensity of sensation
Strength of stimulation

Also, since there are neurons with various thresholds, the stronger the stimulus, the more neurons will be
excited.

Note

All or none law

When a stimulus is applied, each neuron responds if the intensity is above the threshold and does not
respond if the intensity is below. The value of action potential does not change with the intensity of
stimulation.

Question 7 : Function of the central nervous system

Answer : 3

3. The midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata are called the brain stem because they play important roles
in supporting life.

Note
Gray matter
 collection of cell bodies of nerve cells
 It looks black.
 cerebrum is the cortex (outer), and the medulla (inner) of the spinal cord is gray matter.

White matter
 A collection of nerve cell axons
 looks white .
 The cerebrum is the medulla (inner side), and the spinal cord is the cortex (outer side) is the white
matter.

73
Question 8 : [muscle contraction]
Answer : 2, 2

When a muscle contracts, actin filaments slide between myosin filaments, shortening the sarcomere
length and causing muscle contraction. The length of the myosin filament remains the same.

(2) There are myosin filaments in the dark band.

Note

muscle fiber  cells that make up muscles

myofibrils  Fiber structure consisting of actin and myosin filaments contained in muscle fibers
Sarcomere  structure from Z line to Z line
Dark zone  Dark-looking part of the myofibril. Contains myosin filaments.
Bright zone  the brightly visible part of the myofibril. Contains no myosin filaments.

Question 9 : [animal behaviour]

Answer : 4

(b) is a behavior called ``imprinting,'' in which children learn to recognize things they see for the first time
as their parents.
In (c), if the same stimulus is repeated many times, the animal learns that the stimulus is not dangerous
and becomes less sensitive. This phenomenon is called "habituation"

Note

Animal behavior
 Imprint
 habitualization
 Conditioned reflex
 Trial and error

Question 10 : [pant trophism]

Answer : 2,4,1

The auxin produced at the tip moves to the side that is not exposed to light and moves down the stem,
reducing the exposure of the stem to light.
The side that does not grow grows, and the stem bends in the direction of the light.

74
 Elongation is long
auxin

light

Emits light from one

Trophism 照射direction
す る。 bend

The property of plants to bend in a certain direction in response to stimuli such as light.
Positive (+) tropism  bending in the direction of the stimulus
Negative (-) trophism bending in the opposite direction of the stimulus

Phototrophism

Root (negative tropism)

Stem (positive tropism)

(1) Gelatin allows auxin dissolved in water to pass through, so the stems grow by bending in the
direction of the light.
(2) Since mica does not allow water to pass through, auxin does not drop, so the stems hardly elongate.
(3) The stem bends to the right because auxin moves downward from where the tip is placed.

Note

Gravity trophism

Root (positive tropism)

Stem (negative tropism)

Negative gravity trophism

Positive gravity trophism

75
Question 11 : [pant hormones]
Answer : 2

②Gibberellin promotes ovary development. In seedless grapes, gibberellins inhibit normal fertilization
and further promote ovary growth, producing seedless fruit.

Plant hormones that promote growth

 Auxin
 Gibberellin
 Cytokinin

plant hormone that causes seeds to dormant - abscisic acid (ABA)

plant hormone that causes fruit ripening - ethylene

Question 12 : [Optimal concentration of auxin]

Answer : 3, 4

(1)
1. When auxin concentration increases, it inhibits the growth of roots, shoots, and stems.
2. Concentrations that promote growth in roots either do not work in shoots or work to promote
growth.
4. At concentrations where roots react to auxin, stems do not.
5. Roots are most sensitive to auxin

(2) When the auxin concentration becomes (B), the growth of lateral buds (buds) is promoted more than
when it is [A], and the growth of the apical bud (stem) is suppressed more than when it is [A].

Question 13 : [flower bud formation]

Answer : 3, 5, 4

(1) When the daylight hours are 10 hours, from the bottom (shortest number of days), (d), (c), (a),
and (b). (e) does not form flower buds.
(2) Plant b) is a neutral plant because sunlight hours do not affect flowering.
Plant (d) is a short-day plant because it stops forming flower buds when the sunlight hours
become long.
(3) During flower bud formation, phytochromes present in leaves act as photoreceptors. Phytochrome
accept far red light and red light and when the dark period is interrupted with red light, flower
bud formation is suppressed in short day plants.
Flowering hormone (florigen) is released in leaves and moves to the shoot (apex) to form flower
buds.

Note

Long day plants- night

When the temperature falls below the critical dark period, the flower blooms. They blooms from spring to
early summer.

76
  Raddish
 Brassica
 Wheat
 Spinach

Short day plants – plants that forms flower bud when the dark period exceeds the critical dark period.
They bloom from summer to autumn when the days get shorter.

 Morning glory
 Chrysanthemum
 cosmos
 soybeans
 rice

Neutral plant  unrelated to day length

Flowering plant
 dandelion
 pea
 corn
 tomato

This is also important!

Photogerminated seeds and phytochromes

Photogerminated seeds  Seeds that require light for germination

Eg., lettuce,Tobacco, Arabidopsis

When a PR type of phytochrome receives red light and becomes PFR, it germinates.

Red light

activation
gibberellin break
synthesis dormancy
inactivation

Far Red light

 When phytochrome is exposed to red light, it becomes the active PER form, and when it is
exposed to far red light, it becomes inactive PR type.
 PER type phytochromes move into the nucleus and bind to basic transcription factors to regulate
gene expression.

77
 CHAPTER 9- ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

Question 1 : survival curve

Correct answer : 7

 The type A survival curve is called the late death type, and the mortality rate is low in the early
stages of development. Found in large mammals that have a low number of eggs and offspring,
and whose parents protect them during the early stages of development.
 Type B is called the average type and has a constant mortality rate throughout life. Found in
islands, reptiles, and small mammals.
 Type C is called the premature death type, and has a high mortality rate in the early stages of
development. This applies to fish and invertebrate animals that produce a large number of eggs.
Due to the large number of eggs laid, large numbers can occur if initial mortality is low.

Question 2 : Recapture method

Correct answer :4,５

(1) Letting the estimated total number of crucian carp living in the swamp be x, and inserting the values
into the formula

Number of individuals caught in the first attempt / total population = Number of individuals tagged in the
second capture / Number of individuals captured for the second time

50 / x = 5/40, x = 400

(2) Since the survey period is 3 days, there is no need to think about mating activity.

1
78
Question 3 : Territory size

Correct answer : 4

The optimal territory size is the maximum size of (profit gained from territory) - (cost of maintaining
territory). If we read this from the graph, we get the following.

profit gained from territory

Territorial benefits or costs

Territory size

Note

Herd (group) of animals

In a group, the following relationships are established.

 If the group is small, the time a to be alert to the surrounding area will be longer.
 The group is large, and the time (b) for individuals to fight among themselves over food and
space becomes longer.
 The optimal swarm size is where the sum of a and b is minimum.

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79
Behavior time of each individual (relative value)

Group size

a : time to be alert to surroundings

b: time for individuals to compete with each other

Question 4 : Carbon cycle and material balance

Correct answer : 4,6

(1)The producers are the organisms that produce organic matter from the carbon dioxide in the air by
photosyntheis, and the consumers are the ones that directly or directly take and decompose them through
respiration. In particular, bacterial that decompose substances are called decomposers.

(2) Net production = growth amount + reproduction amount + mortality = 800 + 400 + 500 = 1700

Note

Total production  total amount of organic matter produced by photosynthesis

Net production  total production – respiration amount (volume)
Respiratory volume  Organic consumed in respiration
Amount eaten  Eaten by primary consumers
Amount of death  fallen leaves, death leaves ect
Growth amount  the irreversible increase of an organism's size over a given period

consumer material production

the amount of assimilation relative to the total production of plants.
Assimilation = intake - Indigestible excretion
Indigestible excretion  amount of organic matter excreted without being digested.
This is also important!

increase and spread over a period of time

Physiologist, Net production = Critical production - Respiration Consumer assimilation = Engagement -

increase

|Production volume = assimilation orchid-respiration volume

3
80
Amount eaten  eaten by secondary consumers.

Growth amount  the irreversible increase of an organism's size over a given period

Growth amount = Assimilation – ( respiratory amount + death amount + amount eaten)

Producers Net production volume (amount) = total production – respiratory amount

Consumer Assimilation = feeding amount – indigestible excretions
Producing amount = assimilation amount – respiratory amount

Assimilation- 同化
Net production - 純生産量
Consumer- 消費者
Producer - 生産者
Growth amount- 成長量
Respiratory amount- 呼吸量

Net production amount- 総生量

energy used for vital activities of consumers - 消費者の生命活動のエネルギー
energy used for daily vital activities of producers - 生産者の生命活動のエネルギー
Undigested excreta(discharge) amount ー不消化排出量

4
81
 Question 5 : biodiversity and disturbance

Correct answer : 2

Explanation:

In A, many corals are eliminated due to frequent large-scale disturbances, and only disturbance-resistant
species or species that invade quickly at the beginning of succession and can tolerate harsh environments
survive.

In B, each stage of succession exists in a mosaic pattern, and various species survive depending on the
stage of succession, so there are a large number of coral species.

n C, the number of species is smaller than in B because there is little disturbance, succession progresses,
and only species that are resistant to interspecific competition remain.
However, C has the largest coverage of live corals.

Scale of substance
coralsof corals

Scale of substance
Types ofTypes

Live coral coverage (%)

Live coral coverage (%)

5
82
Question 6 : Biome

Correct answer : 2, 2

(a), (b), and (c) are forests that are distributed in order from north to south in Japan, and are (a) coniferous
forest, (b) summer green forest, and (c) evergreen forest. Coniferous forests distributed in the subarctic
zone are mainly composed of evergreen coniferous trees such as Ezomatsu and Sakhalin fir. Summer
green forests, which are distributed in cool temperate zones, are made up of deciduous broad-leaved trees
such as beech and Quercus oak, while evergreen forests, which are distributed in warm temperate zones,
are made up of evergreen broad-leaved trees such as chinquapins, oaks, and oak trees.

(d) is a sclerophyllous forest that is dry in summer and relatively rainy in winter, and is distributed in
areas such as the Mediterranean region, the Pacific coast of North America, and southern Australia.
Evergreen olives and cork oaks have small, hard leaves and a thick cuticle layer to withstand dryness.

6
83
 CHAPTER 10 EVOLUTION AND PHYLOGENY OF ORGANISMS

Question1 :[Biological evolution]

Correct answer : 3, 5

1. (1) Ediacara fauna has been discovered in the Strata of Precambian period. Since there did not
have any animals with hard bodies, it is believed that there were no carnivorous animals.
(2) Cyanobacteria is found during the pre-Cambrian period. In the Paleozoic Era, the algae
flourished and the ozone layer was formed.
(4) Trilobites extinct at end of Paleozoic era, but ammonites extinct at the end of Mesozoic era.
(5) Cooksonia has the oldest land plant, which fossils have been confirmed, but it does not have
vascular bundle
(6) the woody ferns of the Carboniferous period had vascular bundles so they were able to absorb
water up to the top of their trunks.

Note
Pre-cambian period

 3.8 billion years ago Prokaryotes appeared

 27billion years ago  Cyanobacterial appeared
 21billion years ago  Eukaryotes appeared
 15billion years ago  Multicellular organisms appeared
 7 billion years ago  the entire world freeze
 67 billion years ago  Ediacaran organisms

2. The evolution of different species while influencing each other is called coevolution. Angiosperms
have evolved through interactions with animals, such as pollen carried by insects and seeds carried by
animals that eat fruits.

Question 2; [Human Evolution ]

Correct answer : 2, 1

(1) Similarities between Australopithecus and humans

 Small brain volume

 Developed supraorbital bridge

What Australopithecus and Humans Have in Common

 Canine teeth are degenerating

 Foramen magnum facing downward
 The pelvis is wide laterally
 Spine curved in an S shape
 Bipedal walking

84
Human evolution

ape human race (Australopithecus)

hominid (Homo, erectus)

old humans (homo, Neanderthal, lensis)

New Human (Homo, sapiens)

(1) Effect on bipedal locomotion

 Enable humans to make complex vocalization.
 Brain volume increased and the cerebrum developed.
 Hands are free and use tools.

Question 3 [gene frequency]

Correct answer : 4, 3

(1) 160 out of 1000 people did not feel taste  q2 = 0.16 , q = 0.4 (q>0), p = 1-0.4 = 0.6

P2+2pq =0.36+0.48 = 0.84, p = 0.6, q = 0.4 obeys the rule

(2) 2pq = 2 * 0.6 *0.4 = 0.48

Hardy Weinberg Law

The genetic variation in a population will remain constant from one generation to the next in the
absence of disturbing factors.

Question 4 [Mechanism of evolution]

Correct answer : 2, 3, 7

(1) When populations are small, the genes that are passed on to the next generation are more likely to
be determined by chance than by advantages or disadvantages for survival.
(2) The evolution of different organisms into similar forms under similar environments is called
convergence evolution.
(3) Reproductive isolation gives rise to new species

Question 5: [Molecular Evolution]

Correct answer : 4, 6

(1) From the perspective of organism P, if you arrange them in descending order of numerical values,
they are: organism Q (16), organism s (27), and organism R (70), so organism P is close to
organism Q, organism S, and organism R in that order. In addition, the branch with organism R
was the oldest, followed by organism S, and finally with organism Q.

85
 (2) Since the difference between organisms P and Q is 16, it is thought that 8 amino acids were
substituted from the common ancestor of organisms P and Q.
7200 / 8 = 900

Note

Rate of molecular evolution

 If an important protein changes, it becomes unable to survive and leave offspring, so the rate of
molecular evolution becomes slower as proteins (genes) have more important functions in living
organisms.
 If the amino acid sequence ABCD of the common ancestor changes in one place each to EBCD in
P and AACD in Q, there will be two amino acid differences between P and Q.

Question 6: [animal classification]

Correct answer : 3

86
Answers

87
Chapter 1

Life Phenomena and Matter

Answers
(1) – 4
(2) – 6
(3) - 2

Explanation:

(1) Explanation of endoplasmic reticulum (ER). There are 2 types of ER. Rough surface ER with
ribosome attached to its surface and smooth ER without ribosomes. ER allows movement of proteins
synthesized by ribosome to Golgi body etc. Smooth surface ER contains various enzymes involve in fat
synthesis and regulation of Ca2+ concentration in the body

88
 ③Explanation of lysosomes. Lysosomes are generated from the Golgi apparatus and digest not only
foreign substances but also old organelles. This function is called autophagy.

5 Explanation of vacuole

Various cell structures

1. Structures with double membrane

 Nucleus
 Mitochondria
 Chloroplast

2. Structures found only in plant cells

 Cell wall
 Chloroplast

Digestion of lysosome Transport

Overproduced
protein digested
lysosome protein

Surrounded by
double membrane
Degradative
enzymes

Important points

Nucleus  spherical structure surrounded by nuclear membrane. There is chromosome and nucleolus
inside it.

Mitochondria  surrounded by double membrane (inner and outer membrane). Cellular respiration
occurs and large amount of ATP is produced in mitochondria.

Chloroplast  surrounded by double membrane (inner and outer membrane). Function - Photosynthesis

Question 2 Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells]

Correct answer – 5

Explanation

a) Plant cell have all structures from 1-6.

b) Human red blood cells are special and found in animal cells and they have no nucleus. It can
adapt to pass through the thin blood vessels.

89
 c) Escherichia coli is a prokaryotic cell and surrounded by nuclear membrane and do not have 3,4
and 6. It has cell wall different from plant cell.

Let’s memorize

Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells

Prokaryotic cell  they have DNA which is not surrounded by nuclear membrane.
Do not have organelles such as mitochondria and chloroplast
Eg., Escherichia coli and cyanobacteria

Eukaryotic cell  have nucleus surrounded by nuclear membrane

Eg., animal and plant cells

Important points

Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells

Cell Prokaryote Eukaryote

Structure Plant Animal
DNA + + +
Nuclear - + +
membrane
Cell membrane + + +
Mitochondria - + +
Chloroplast - + -
Cell wall + + -

Question 3 [cell membrane]

Correct answer – 3

2- Phospholipid bilayer is difficult to permeate water soluble materials and ions. This layer permeate
membrane proteins
3- According to the figure, proteins have transporter and channels, both of which transport substances
from high to low concentration. When channels receive stimulus, the gate open and the structure of
transporter change when binds to specific protein and allow transport of that protein.
4. Sodium pump use energy produce by ATP degradation and use this energy to transport Na+ out of the
cell.
6 – Intracellular glucose is used immediately. So, it enters the cell (low concentration) from outside the
cell (high concentration) with passive transport.

90
Active and passive transport

Active transport – use energy, transport materials into and out of the cells
Passive transport – do not require energy, transport materials into and out of the cells along concentration
gradient ( high to low concentration)

Gated channel Transporter protein

[Explanation]

Motor proteins are associated with organelles and small organelles and orbit along microtubules and actin
filaments.

① Microtubules > Intermediate filaments > Actin filaments (from the thickest)
② Microtubules are involved in the movement of flagella and cilia
③ Right answer
④ Dyenin and kinesis move along microtubules
⑤ In cytoplasmic streaming , myosin move along with actin filament
⑥ Microtubules are made of the globular protein tubulin. Intermediate filaments are made of protein
such as keratin.

91
Question 4- correct answer - 3
[Explanation]

Motor proteins are associated with organelles and small organelles and orbit along microtubules and
actin filaments.

① Microtubules > Intermediate filaments > Actin filaments (from the thickest)

(2) It is the small that are involved in the movement.

[Explanation]

Motor proteins are associated with organelles and small organelles and orbit along microtubules and
actin filaments.

⑦ Microtubules > Intermediate filaments > Actin filaments (from the thickest)
⑧ Microtubules are involved in the movement of flagella and cilia
⑨ Right answer
⑩ Dyenin and kinesis move along microtubules
⑪ In cytoplasmic streaming , myosin move along with actin filament
⑫ Microtubules are made of the globular protein tubulin. Intermediate filaments are made of
protein such as keratin. (error)

[Explanation]

Motor proteins are associated with organelles and small organelles and orbit along microtubules and
actin filaments.

This is also important!

Microtubule : cilia, flagella, spindle

Involve in the movement of organelles and substances.

Actin filament : muscle contraction, amoeboid movement and cytoplasmic streaming

Intermediate filament : maintain cell shape and position of nucleus.

Cytoskeleton and motor proteins

cytoskeleton Constituent protein Motor protein

Microtubules Tubulin Dynein, kinesin
Intermediate filament Keratin etc None
Actin filament actin myosin

92
Question 5 - correct answer - 3

[Explanation]

If you increase your centrifugal force and increase the time, it will settle from large structures.
Nucleus > chloroplasts > Mitochondria>Ribosome

Question 6 - correct answer – 2

The mitochondrion and the chloroplast are both organelles that were once free-living cells. They
were prokaryotes that ended up inside of other cells (host cells). They may have joined the other
cell by being eaten (a process called phagocytosis), or perhaps they were parasites of that host
cell. Rather than being digested by or killing the host cell, the inner cell survived and together
they thrived. It’s kind of like a landlord and a tenant.

Endosymbiosis theory
Aerobic bacteria – perform aerobic respiration. Become mitochondria
Cyanobacteria – perform photosynthesis, become chloroplast

1) Mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own DNA, different from nucleus, and
multiply by fission
2) Surrounded by double membrane. When entering the host cell, it is surrounded by the
host’s cell membrane to form double membrane.

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Prokaryotes
symbiosis Animal cell

Plant cell
host cell chloroplast

cyanobacteria symbiosis

The cell membrane fold inward to form the nucleus and become a eukaryote

93
Question 7 [Protein)

protein structure

[Explanation]

・Primary structure Amino acid sequence

(1) Heating a protein does not change its amino acid sequence. The three-dimensional structure of
the protein changes due to breaks in S-S bonds ect.., resulting in denaturation.
(2) Amino acids at distant positions are linked by hydrogen bonds to form α helix or zig- zag
structure called β pleated sheet.
(3) There 20 types of amino acids that constitute proteins.
(4) Polypeptides with multiple conformations are combined to form quaternary structure.
(5) Cadherin can adopt a unique three-dimensional structure depending on Ca2+. Hemoglobin in red
blood cells contains iron (Fe) ion.
(6) An S-S (disulfide) bond is also formed with the polypeptide, and his insulin has one S-S bond
between A chain and B chanin. (error)

Protein structure

Primary structure - Amino acid sequence

Secondary structure - α helix (helical structure), β sheet (zig- zag structure) etc.,

Tertiary structure – a three dimensional structure formed by S-S bonds

S-S bonds – two H can be removed from SH group of two cysteine

94
Question 8 : Structure of amino acids

Explanation:

Amino acids have an amino group and a carboxy group and H side chain attached to the C atom.
Side chain are different in each amino acid. Polypeptides are those in which a large number of amino
acids are joined by peptide conjugation –CONH-. Proteins are also polypeptides.

Fig., Strucutre of amino acid (Alanine)

Question 9 [Properties of enzymes]

Enzymes are not changed by reactions, so they work over and over again

Question 10 [enzymes inhibition]

Competitive inhibition is the inhibition of the action of an enzyme by the binding of a substrate and a
similar substance to the enzyme. Competitive inhibition has a small inhibitory effect when the substrate
concentration is high.

The inhibitory effect becomes smaller

at higher substrate concentrations

Non-competitive inhibition

Unlike competitive inhibition, non-competitive Inhibitors bind to a site other than the Active Site
(enzyme binding site), called an Allosteric Site.
Question 11: Enzyme reactions

Explanation

95
The graph is flat because all the substrate has finished reacting.

1,2 Even if the enzyme concentration is doubled, unless the amount of substrate increases, the
amount of final product (a) will not change, but time goes faster.
3,4  If the same volume of substrate is used and the concentration is doubled, the amount of the final
product becomes twice (2a).
Since the amount of enzyme remains the same, it takes longer to complete the reaction.
5  If the enzyme is added after 60 minutes, no reaction will occur because the substrate is used up.
6  Since the optimum temperature is 40°C, further increase in temperature slows down the reaction
rate.

96
 Chapter 2

METABOLISM AND ENERGY

I. ATP
Correct ans : 1
ATP consists of adenine (base), ribose (sugar) and phosphate
ATP contains three phosphates, but two high-energy phosphate bonds
The sugar in DNA is deoxyribose, the sugar in RNA is ribose.

High energy phosphate bond (two)

1
97
ⅠI Assimilation (Photosynthesis)

Correct ans : 3,6,4,3,6 for 1,2,3,4,5

1. A is performed in the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast, and B is in the stroma of the
chloroplast.
2.
ア- In photosystem II, H+ + O2 à H2O
イ- In photosystem I, e- + H+ + NADP à NADPH + H+
ウ- In calvin-Benson cycle , 6 molecule of RuBP and produces 6 molecule of H2O.

3. H+ accumulated inside thylakoids have transport protein and pass through ATP synthase to diffuse
to the stroma.
4. Ribulose ( RuBP carboxylase/oxidase) works
5. (4) A C5 compound reacts with a CO2 (1 molecule) to form two C3 compounds.
(5) If no light , ATP and NADPH + H+ will not occur at (5) in figure. It stops at the (5) position.
If PGA increases, the reaction from PGA to RuBP does not occur, so RuBP decreases.
(6) If CO2 is absent, reaction will stop at (6) position. RuBP increase and PGA will decrease.

Ribulose ⑥ ⑤
CO2

12
GAP H2O
Lets learn,
Assimilation à creating complex substances from simple substances and storing chemical energy

Eg., photosynthesis

Catabolism à decomposes complex substances to simple substance to obtain energy

Reactions occurring in thylakoids

Photosystem II à break down water to give O2.

Electron transport system à electrons formed by degradation of water are moved. H+ stored in thylakoids
flows outside to get ATP.
Photosystem I à transfer the electron to NADP

Reactions occurring in stroma

C-B cycle à use ATP and NADPH to make organic matters from CO2

2
98
 Question 3 : Determining factor of photosynthesis

Correct ans : 5

In L2 , even if the temperature is 30 C, rate of photosynthesis do not change and temperature is not
determining factor. If we increase the light intensity, rate of photosynthesis become faster and strength of
light is determining factor.

In L4, if the light is increased, rate of photosynthesis do not change. If the temperature is 30C , rate of
photosynthesis become faster, temperature is determining factor.

Let`s learn

Rela4onship between CO2 and rate of photosynthesis Rela4onship between temperature and rate of photosynthesis

A : CO2 is the determining factor ( limi4ng factor) C : temperature is the determining factor ( limi4ng factor)
B : light intensity is determining factor D : light intensity is determining factor

Question 4 : apparent photosynthesis rate

Correct answer : 3 and 2

(1) Since CO2 is exhaled through respiration, the amount of CO2 actually absorbed must be added to
the exhaled amount.
Light satura5on point
Apparent amount of CO2 exhaled
CO2 absorp4on

Actual CO2 exhaled

amount of CO2 exhaled in respira4on

Light intensity
光の強さ
Light compression point

3
99
Since the amount of carbon dioxide emitted by respiration is 6 mg for plant A and 3 mg for plant B, the
actual amount of CO2 absorption at the light saturation point is

Plant A is 15+6 = 21 (mg)

Plant B is 6+3 = 9 (mg)

21 / 9 = 2. 3 (1)

From (2), the amount of CO2 of plant A when 1500 lux of light is irradiated to 100 cm2 of leaf for 1 hour ,
the actual amount of CO2 of plant A is 3+6=9 [mg] and 18mg in 2 hours.

6 CO2 give rise to 1 molecule of C6H12O6 and the ratio is 6 CO2: C6H12O6 = 264:180 = 22:15

18 mg of CO2 can give rise to 18* 15/22 = 12.2 mg.

Let`s learn

Light saturation point - even if the intensity of light is higher than this point, rate of photosynthesis does not
change
Light compression point – the intensity of light at which the rate of respiration equals the rate of
photosynthesis and no carbon dioxide flows in and out.

Question 5 : bacterial assimilation of CO2

Correct answer : 2 and 3

The reaction of (a) to (e) is as follows

a) C-B cycle
b) Photosynthetic reactions in plant thylakoids
c) Photosynthetic bacteria obtain electrons from hydrogen sulfide H2S instead of water H20
d) Oxidation reaction performed by nitrate bacteria to obtain energy
e) Oxidation reactions performed by chemosynthetic sulfur bacteria to obtain energy
Both photosynthetic and chemosynthetic bacteria fix carbon dioxide in the C-B cycle.

4
100
Let`s learn

Photosynthetic bacteria

・Get electrons from H2S instead of H2O

Eg., purple Sulphur bacteria , green Sulphur bacteria

Chemosynthetic bacteria

Nitrite bacteria à obtain energy by oxidizing ammonium ions

Nitrate bacteria à obtain energy by oxidizing nitrite ions
Sulphur bacteria à obtain energy by oxidizing H2S.

Question 6 : nitrogen assimilation

Correct answer : 5

[Explanation]

Ammonium ion NH à X: nitrite ion NO2- à Y : nitrate ion NO3-.

Bacteria A is nitrite bacteria - nitrite ions are produced by nitrite bacteria

Bacteria B is nitrate bacteria – nitrate ions produced by nitrate bacteria

Question 7 : nitrogen assimilation

Correct answer : 4

[Explanation]

Nitrate ion absorbed by plants is 31g. Incorporated into protein is 31 [g] × 0.75 = 23.25 [g]

From N = 14, NO3 = 62,

23.25 [g] x 14/62 =5.25 (g)

Protein from 5.25g nitrogen is 5.25 (g) x 100/15 =35 (g)

Question 8 Nitrogen assimilation nitrogen fixation]

Correct answer : 1

(2) Nitrogen fixation is a process in which nitrogen in the air is converted to ammonium ions by
bacteria.
(3) Rhizobium only grows in symbiosis with leguminous plants. They fix nitrogen, but others
nitrogen fixing bacteria can do nitrogen fixation without doing symbiosis with plants
(4) In the soil, ammonium ions are produced by nitrifying bacteria.
(5) Animals do not perform nitrogen fixation.
(6) Denitrifying bacteria convert nitrate ions to nitrogen.

5
101
Let`s learn

Nitrogen fixation – reduce nitrogen in the air to ammonium ions.

Rhizobium – symbiotic bacteria with leguminous plant
Azotobacter – aerobic bacteria lives in soil
Clostridium - anaerobic bacteria lives in soil
Nostoc – a kind of cyanobacteria that performs photosynthesis

Denitrification
Converts Nitrate ion to nitrogen gas and returning it to the air.

6
102
 CHAPTER 3 - METABOLISM AND ENERGY II CATABOLISM (RESPIRATION)

Correct answers : 6,3,5,2 for 1,2,3,4

I.
(1) Reaction system A à glycolytic system, take place in cytosol
(2) Reaction system Bà citric acid cycle, take place in mitochondrial matrix
(3) Reaction system Cà electron transport system, take place in inner membrane of mitochondrial
II.
(a) In glycolysis, 2 pyruvate (C3) molecules obtained from one molecule of glucose.
(b) pyruvate is converted to active (acetyl-CoA (C2)), enters citric acid cycle, and combines with the
compound C4 to form two citric acid (C6).
(c) In electron transport chain, oxygen and hydrogen combine to form water.
III.
When the electron transport chain that uses oxygen stops, electrons can’t be transported, the citric acid
cycle finally stops. Reaction A does not use oxygen and so it does not stop.

IV. In citric acid cycle, water is taken up.

let's memorize

Glycolytic system – cytosolic, does not require oxygen, generation of 2 ATP

Citric acid cycle - mitochondrial matrix, takes water and produces carbon dioxide., generation of 2 ATP

Electron transport chain – inner membrane of mitochondria, requires oxygen, generation of 34 ATP
commentary

Question 2 : [ respiration]

Correct answer : 2

In citric acid cycle, water is taken up and produce CO2and live. The electron transport system O2 is taken
in and combines with H+ to form water.

Question 3 : [ respiratory quotient]

Correct answer : 4
Volume of O2 absorbed = amount of gas loss in container I
amount of gas loss in container II = Volume of O2 absorbed - Volume of CO2 released.
Volume of CO2 released = amount of gas loss in container I - amount of gas loss in container II

= Volume of O2 absorbed – (Volume of O2 absorbed - Volume of CO2 released)

Respiratory quotient of plant A = (720 – 211) / 720 = 0.706

The respiratory substrate of plant A is mainly fat.

Respiratory quotient of plant B = (862 – 17) / 862 = 0.98

The respiratory substrate of plant B is mainly carbohydrates.

103
Respiratory quotient

Amount of CO2 released / amount of O2 absorbed

Depending on the type of respiratory substrate, the value is almost determined.

Carbohydrates à about 1.0

Protein à about 1.0
Lipid à about 0.7

Question 4 : [ substances produced by fermentation]

Correct answer : 6

In fermentation, pyruvate (A) is produced in a reaction similar to that of glycolysis. Hydrogen (B) is
reduced by NADH + H+ produced in glycolysis to produce ethanol and lactic acid. Alcoholic
fermentation produces carbon dioxide (C) and ethanol.

Question 5 : [fermentation]

Correct answer : 2

Yeast performs both alcoholic fermentation and respiration, but the glycolytic system of respiration and
alcoholic fermentation take place in the cytosol

Glycogen à A substance made up of may linked glucose molecules. It is stored in animal's muscles and
organ as storage form of carbohydrate.

Question 6 : [Calculation of alcoholic fermentation]

Correct answer : 5

[Explanation]

alcoholic fermentation is

C6H12O6→ 2C2H5OH +2CO2

2 molecules of ethanol can be produced from 1 molecule of glucose. Since 1 molecule of ethanol was
produced for every 2 molecules of glucose, 0.5 of the 2 molecules of glucose were used for alcohol
production. 1.5 molecules were used in respiration. Therefore, the fraction of glucose used in respiration
is 75%.
One molecule of carbon dioxide is generated from 0.5 molecule of glucose through alcoholic
fermentation. In respiration, 6 molecules of carbon dioxide are produced from 1 molecule of glucose, so
1.5 molecules of glucose generate 6 x 1.5 = 9 molecules of carbon dioxide with alcoholic fermentation.
1+9=10 molecules of carbon dioxide are produced from alcohol fermentation and respiration.

104
 CHAPTER 4 GENETIC INFORMATION AND ITS EXPRESSION

Question 1 : [DNA and RNA]

Correct answer : 7

DNA RNA
Pentose sugar Deoxyribose Ribose
Base Guanine G Guanine G
Cytosine C Cytosine C
Adenine A Adenine A
Thymine T Uracil U
Structure double helix structure Single strand

In DNA, the bases are A and T, and G and C, which form pairs and are connected by hydrogen bonds.

A (%) = T (%) C (%) = G (%)

Question 2 : [DNA replication]

Correct answer : 2

DNA polymerase cannot stretch DNA unless 5′ to 3′. The template DNA is in the 5′ to 3′. When the
lagging strand is 3′ to 5′ , it becomes leading strand.

Question 3 : [Experiments related to DNA replication]

Correct answer : 3

This can be expressed graphically as follows:

1st breakup
Contain 15N Contain 14N Contain 15N

2nd breakup

3rd breakup

Medium weight DNA Light weight DNA Medium weight DNA

(1) (6) (1)

105
 Hydrogen bond Hydrogen bond

Lagging strand à Short nucleotide strands are synthesize discontinuously. The short fragments are called
Okazaki fragments.

Leading strand àNucleotide chains are synthesized successively in the 5′ → 3′ direction.

Both strands contain 15N

Both strands contain 15N Both strands contain 14N

Whole Conservative Replication

In 3rd break up of 3rd generation,

Light weight : medium weight DNA = 6:2 = 3:1

In 4th break up of 4th generation, total number is 16 and medium weight DNA is 2,

Light weight : medium weight DNA = 14:2 = 7:1

In the case of completely conservative replication, the ratio of heavy DNA to light DNA should be 1 : 1 in
one generation.
If it were a semiconservative replication, the first generation would all have intermediate weight DNA,
and the second generation would all have the same weight DNA containing 25% of 15N.

106
Figure Three Models of DNA replication. In the conservative model, parental DNA strands (blue)
remained associated in one DNA molecule while new daughter strands (red) remained associated in newly
formed DNA molecules. In the semiconservative model, parental strands separated and directed the
synthesis of a daughter strand, with each resulting DNA molecule being a hybrid of a parental strand and
a daughter strand. In the dispersive model, all resulting DNA strands have regions of double-stranded
parental DNA and regions of double-stranded daughter DNA.

Semiconservative replication

Both strands contain 15N

50% of nulceotides
contains 15N

Translation
Serine
Amino
acid
tRNA
Anti -Codon

Codon

According to the information of mRNA, tRNA carries amino acid

107
 Question 4 : [Eukaryotic gene expression]

Correct answer : 3
In ribosomes, tRNAs with anticodons react with codons of mRNA carry amino acids.

Question 5 : [Prokaryotic gene expression]

Correct answer : 4

[Explanation]

In prokaryotes, transcription and translation occur simultaneously. RNA polymerase reads DNA
information while following the direction in which mRNA is growing. Like DNA polymerase, RNA
polymerase also reads in the 3' to 5' direction and stretches nucleotides in the 5' to 3' direction. Therefore,
it is A strand that is read.

ribosome
polypeptide

RNA polymerase

Amino acid

Ribosome migration direction

108
Question 6 : [Eukaryotic gene expression regulation]

Correct answer : 5

(1) In areas where the chromatin fibers are folded, proteins such as RNA polymerase required for
transcription cannot bind to DNA, so genes are not expressed.

loose DNA Folded DNA (can`t do transcription)

ヒス
転写可能
Chromatin fibre

(3) Steroid hormones such as ecdysone, which promotes pupation in insects, and estrogen (follicular
hormone) in vertebrate animals, enter cells after binding to receptor proteins, and bind to DNA in the
nucleus to promote transcription.

(5) Regulatory proteins bind to transcriptional regulatory regions. The promoter is the transcription
initiation region where basic transcription factors bind.

(6) In the gonadal chromosome puffs, mRNA is synthesized through active transcription. Depending on
the stage of development, the puff parts move.

Question 7 : [Prokaryotic gene expression regulation]

Correct answer : 2

If a repressor is bound to the operator, RNA polymerase cannot bind to the promoter and transcription
does not occur.

109
Question 8 : [PCR]

Correct answer : 1

95°C : Make one strand of DNA.

60°C : Apply primer.
72°C : DNA is replicated by DNA polymerase

DNA polymerase - heat resistant material that even work at a high temperature of 72°C is used.

Question 9 : [Genetic recombination]

Correct answer : 1

A: Synthesize DNA from RNA by reverse transcription.

B: Cut specific parts of DNA with restriction enzymes.

C : Join the DNA with cDNA ligase

Since the DNA and plasmid were cut at the same point, the cut ends of the DNA and plasmid are
in the base sequence, so they are loosely connected by hydrogen bonds. Add DNA ligase to strengthen the
bond

let's memorize

reverse transcription : RNA à DNA

When retroviruses carry RNA in their genes and infect host cells, they reverse transcribe the DNA,
integrate it into the host cell's DNA, and multiply.

Transgenic organisms - multicellular organisms that incorporate genes from other organisms

Sanger method: A method for examining base sequences. Synthesize DNA by mixing di-deoxy-
nucleotides that stop DNA synthesis, and examine the base sequence of DNA from the terminal bases of
DNA fragments of various lengths

110
 CHAPTER 5 : HEREDITY

Summary of main points

I Mendel's Law
種 wrinkled seeds
Pure round seeds
(1) Law of Dominance 丸 (aa)
(AA) Meiosis

When parents F1 with pure, contrasting traits are crossed together,

only one form of the trait appears in the next generation. Law of Separation
Germ cells

(2) Law of Separation Offspring have round seeds

Law of Dominance

In meiosis, paired genes separate and enter different germ cells. Offspring

(3) Law of Independence

Meiosis
When AaBb creates a germ cell, A(a) and B(b) enter the germ cell
independently without being affected by each other.
The genotype of germ cells produced by AaBb is Germ cells
AB : Ab : aB: ab =1:1:1:1
AB, Ab, aB, ab can do the same number
Traits of F2 resulting from self-fertilization of AaBb are [AB] : [Ab] : Chromosome replication
[aB]: [ab]=9:3:3:1

II Chains

Meiosis 1
Gametocytes
The relationship between genes on the same chromosome is called Chromosome crossover occurs
linkage.
1. recombination
When genes are linked, chromosomal transfer occurs and gene
recombination occurs.
Recombination occurs only in some chromosomes, so when AB
and ab are linked, germ cells produced by AaBb are Germ cells
AB : Ab : aB : ab=many : few : few : many
2. recombination value
Recombinant germ cells
recombination value (%) = number of recombined germ cells 100%
number of all germ cells

Purebred with round seeds (AA)

Seeds wrinkled purebred (a)

111
III. Sex-linked inheritance

Sex-linked inheritance à when the gene is on a sex-linked chromosome

• Features of sex-linked inheritance

There is a difference in the appearance of traits between the male and female.

The Drosophila melanogaster white eye gene (a) is located on the X chromosome and is recessive to the
red eye gene (A).

A cross between a red-eyed female XAXA and a white-eyed male XaY

Red eye White eye

In F1, both male and female have red eyes

Red eye Red eye

offspring from crosses between F1

Red eye Red eye Red eye White eye

female male
In F2, all females have red eyes and males have red : white eyes = 1:1.

112
 QUESTION

Question 1 [Mendel's laws of inheritance]

Let A, a be a pair of alleles for a certain trait in a certain plant. This gene is inherited according to
Mendelian laws. The following experiments were carried out using the pure lines of this plant, AA and
aa .

(experiment)

1) We crossed with AA and aa and obtained the first filial generation F1

2) F1 is allowed to undergo self-fertilization to produce a second filial generation to get F2.
3) F2 was allowed to self-fertilize to obtain third generations of F3 hybrids.

(1) Select the most suitable F2 genotype ratio AA: Aa: aa from ① to ⑥ below.

① 1:1:1 ③ 1:2:1 ⑤ 1:3:1

② 2:1:1 ④ 2:1:2 ⑥ 3:2:1

(2) Select the most suitable F3genotype ratio AA: Aa: aa from ① to ⑥ below

① 1:2:1 ③ 2:3:2 ⑤ 1:3:1

② 2:1:2 ④ 3:2:3 ⑥ 3:1:3

(3) Assuming that self-fertilization is repeated after F3, select the most appropriate transition of the
genotype ratio AA : Aa : aa from the following (1) to (6).

1) With the passage of generations, the proportion of heterozygotes increases and approaches Aa=1.

2) With the passage of generations, the proportion of homozygotes increases and approaches

AA : aa=1

3) With the passage of generations, the proportion of dominant heterozygotes increases and
approaches AA=1.

4) With the passage of generations, the proportion of recessive homozygotes increases and
approaches aa=1.

5) With the passage of generations, AA: Aa: aa=1:1:1.

6) Even after generations progress, the ratio of genotypes remains constant.

113
Question 2 [Digenic crosses]

Some plants have red veins (red) and pale green veins (green), some have lobes (notches) and some have
no veins (round). It has been confirmed that there is one each of the genes controlling these leaf veins and
leaf shape. The following experiments were performed on these traits. A gene that is dominant for leaf
veins is represented by A, Recessive gene is a, A gene that is dominant for leaf shape is B, Recessive
gene is b.

[Experiment 1] A cross between a red, notched-shaped individual and a green, round-shaped individual,
F1, were red and round. In addition, we crossed F, and obtained F2.

[Experiment 2] When two individuals are selected from F2 and crossed, the next generation will be red-
rounded, red-notched, green-rounded, green-notched in the ratio 3:1:3:1 respectively.

(1) Selecting one individual from F2 and crossing it with an individual whose genotype is aabb, the red-
round, red-notched, green-round, green-notched-type individuals were obtained in a ratio of 1:1: 1:1.
Select the most appropriate F2 genotype used at this time from the following ① to ⑥.

1. AABB 3. AaBB 5. aaBB

2. AABb 4. AaBb 6. aaBb

(2) The most appropriate genotypes of the two individuals crossed in [Experiment 2] are

① AABB × AaBb ③ AaBb × aaBb ⑤ aaBB × aabb

② AABb × aaBB ④ AaBB × Aabb ⑥ aaBb × aaBB

Question 3 [transfer and recombination]

As a description related to chromosomal crossing-over and gene recombination, choose the most
appropriate one from ① to ⑥ below.

① Crossover occurs during metaphase of somatic cell division, when the homologous chromosomes
are aligned in the center of the cell.

② Crossover also occurs between autosomal chromosomes and sex chromosomes.

③ Crossover between X chromosomes occurs in both males and females.

④ Genes located closer to the chromosome are more likely to undergo recombination.

⑤ The recombination value shall not exceed 50%.

⑥ We can check whether recombination has occurred by crossing with a dominant homozygote.

114
Question 4 : Chain

A plant with flower color is purple (A) or red (a), the shape of pollen is long (B) and round (b)
The following experiment was performed using this plant.

[Experiment 1] àWhen individuals with phenotypes [AB] and [ab] were crossed, all of the phenotypes of
F1 were (AB).

[Experiment 2] àF1 and an individual with the phenotype [ab] are crossed.

[AB] : [Ab] : [aB]: [ab] = 9:1:1:9.

(1) Choose the most suitable relationship between the chromosome and gene of F1 from the following ①
to ⑥.

(2) The most appropriate description of the recombination values of genes A (a) and B (B) is

① Genes A (a) and B (B) are not linked, so recombination does not occur.
② 10% ⑤ 15%
③ 11% ⑥ 20%
④ 12.5%

(3) When F1 is self-fertilized, the offspring will have phenotype [AB] and phenotype [Ab].

In what ratio will it appear? Choose the most suitable one from the following ① to ⑥.

① 3:1
② 9:1
③ 12:1
④ 15:1
⑤ 22:1
⑥ 30:1

115
Question: 5 [Sex-linked inheritance]

Some plants in the caryophyllaceae are dioecious, and sex is determined by male heterozygous
chromosomes with female plants having XX sex chromosomes and male plants having XY sex
chromosomes. In addition, the leaf shape of this plant has long leaves and round leaves, and the gene that
determines the shape of the leaves is on the X chromosome.
When the long-leaved female plant and the round-leaved male plant were crossed to obtain F1,
both the female and male plants were found to have long leaves.
Furthermore, what happens to the female and male plants of F2 obtained by crossing F1 with each
other? Choose the most appropriate one from the following ①~⑥.

Female Male
1 All Long Leaves All Long Leaves
2 All Long Leaves Long Leaf: Round Leaf = 1:1
3 All Long Leaves Long Leaf: Round Leaf = 3:1
4 Long Leaf: Round Leaf =1:1 All Long Leaves
5 Long Leaf: Round Leaf =1:1 Long Leaf: Round Leaf = 1:1
6 Long Leaf: Round Leaf =1:1 Long Leaf: Round Leaf = 3:1

116
 CHAPTER 6: "REPRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT"

Summary of main points

I Sexual Reproduction and Meiosis

(1) Asexual and Sexual Reproduction

• Asexual reproduction → An offspring is produced from a part of the parent's body.

Example., division, budding, vegetative reproduction

• Sexual reproduction → Reproduction that occurs through the union of gametes (egg cells and
sperm)

(2) meiosis

• Division that occurs when reproductive cells such as sperm and egg cells, spores and pollen are
formed

• The number of chromosomes is halved.

• Two divisions occur in succession to form four germ cells.

117
(3) Germ cell formation

(1) Sperm formation à A primary spermatocyte (2n) undergoes meiosis to become four sperm cells
(n), which transform into sperm. 2n, n indicates the number of homologous chromosomes.

sperm formation meiosis 1st division meiosis 2nd division

primordial germ cell primary

spermatocytes
|Sperm cells
sperm
secondary
spermatocytes

(2) Egg formation à At the first division of meiosis The primary oocyte (2n) becomes the secondary
oocyte (n) and the first polar body, and in the second division it becomes the egg and the second polar
body.

meiosis meiosis
Egg formation st
1 division nd
2 division
1st polar body

2nd polar body

primordial
germ cell
(fission/proliferation) egg
oognia

primary oocyte secondary oocyte

118
 II. Animal Development

Germ layer differentiation and organogenesis

epidermis
Ectoderm
neural crest cells
Mesoderm
neural tube

notocord
Endoderm
Body node
Renal node
Side plate

① Ectoderm - epidermis à skin, sensory organs etc

Neural tube à brain, spinal cord etc
Neural crest cells à sensory nerves, sympathetic nerves, etc.
② Mesoderm - notochord à degenerates
body segment à spinal bones, skeleton, skeletal muscles
individual plate à cardiac muscles, internal muscles
Somites à kidney nodes, etc.
③ Endoderm- internal organs à lungs, esophagus, stomach, liver, pancreas
Middle/Posterior à Small Intestine, Large Intestine, Bone

III Animal Morphogenesis

(I) Formation of anterior-posterior axis (Dorsophila)

bidcoid protein Nanos protein
Nanos mRNA

Anterior part posterior part

Bicoid mRNA

119
 Unfertilized egg

translation/diffusion

Fertilized egg

(1) Drosophila eggs have bicoids mRNA at the front and Nanos mRNA is localized at the
rear. It is transcribed from the mother's DNA and is called the maternal effect gene.

(2) After fertilization, mRNA is translated and becomes protein.

Bicoid protein is abundant à the anterior part. Nanos protein is abundant à the posterior region.

(II) Determination and induction of the dorsal-ventral axis (frog)

(1) Determining the axis

・Rotation → After fertilization, the surface layer rotates about 30 degrees, and a gray crescent appears
on the opposite side of the sperm entry point. The disheveled protein (maternal factor) that was on the
vegetal pole side moves to the area of the gray crescent, and as a result, the gray crescent ring becomes
the dorsal side.

inner cytoplasm superficial cytoplasm

sperm entry point Gray crescent ring

Disheveled protein
Disheveled protein

120
(2) Mesoderm induction à Prescheduled endoderm induces unscheduled lung lobes into mesoderm.
• Disheveled proteins act to increase the concentration of β-catenin on the dorsal side. β-catenin
promotes the expression of nodal genes, creating a concentration gradient of nodal proteins. The
mesoderm is induced along the dorsoventral axis by a concentration gradient of nodal proteins.
stomach back ectoderm
Blastocoele

Blastocoele

Mesoderm
nodal gene

endoderm
promotion β-catenin Nodal protein concentration gradient

IV Development of angiosperms

(1) Gametogenesis in angiosperms

Gametogenesis
( 1) 被 ⼦ 植 物 のin angiosperms
配偶⼦形成
pollen tetrads
pollen mother cell (n) pollen
(2n)
anther

sperm cells
ovule
pollen tube nucleus
meiosis egg cell
degenerate Synergist
cell

central
細 胞cell
nuclear
fission polar nucleus
embryo cyst mother embryo sac cell embryo sac
cell (2n) (n) は ん そ くさ い ほ う

Antipodal
反 ⾜ 細 胞cells

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 (2) Fertilization of angiosperms → double fertilization. Two sperm cells fertilize the egg cell

Sperm cell (n) + Egg cell (n) à Fertilized egg (2n) à Embryo (2n)
Sperm cell (n) + 2 polar nuclei of the central cell (n+n) à Endosperm (3n)

pollen tube

polar nucleus

cells fertilizes the egg cell and the other fertilizes the two polar nuclei

(3) Flower formation and regulatory genes

Region 1: A gene works. become calyx

Region 2: A and B genes work together. become petals.

Region 3: B and C genes work together. become a stamen.

1. Region 4: C gene works. Become a pistil (the female organs of a flower, comprising the stigma,
style, and ovary)

Area 4
Area 4 C pistil
領域 4 C め し べB+C stamen
領 3
Area A+B Petals
領域
Area 2
領域 1 A calyx
Area 1 • がくー calyx
• 花弁 - petals
• おしべーstamen
tip of stem
• めしべー pistil

122
Question 1 [Formation of animal gametes]

The figure is a schematic drawing of the process of animal egg formation (ovum). About this. Answer the
following questions.

Primordial germ cells

egg

(1) What is the cell of B in the figure called? Choose the most appropriate one from the following
① to ⑥.

① Sperm Cell
② Oogonia
③ Primary Oocyte
④ Secondary Oocyte
⑤ Egg
⑥ Polar Body

(2) Choose one of the following ①~⑦ where meiosis is taking place.

① A ④ D ⑦ C &D
② B ⑤ A&B
③ C ⑥ B&C

123
(3) The chromosome number of the somatic cells of this animal is 2n = 24. How many chromosomes are
there in A, B, C cells and fertilized eggs? Choose the most suitable one from the following ① to ⑥.

A B C
1 24 24 24
2 24 24 24
3 24 24 12
4 24 12 12
5 12 12 12
6 48 24 24

(4) How many spermatozoa are produced from one primary spermatocyte?Select the most appropriate one
from the following ① ~⑥.

① 1 piece ③ 3 pieces ⑤ 6 pieces

② 2 piece ④ 4 pieces ⑥ 8 pieces

124
Question 2 [Genesis of Frogs]

For the gastrula of the frog, Answer the question for the following (1) and (2).

(1) The figure is a schematic diagram of the cross section of the gastrula. Which part of the diagram is the
mesoderm? Choose the most appropriate one from ① to ⑥ in the figure.

(2) Figure A is the blastocele. What will happen as the blastocoel progresses? Choose the right one from
the following ①~④.

(1) It shrinks while changing its position as if pushed by the invaginated cells, and eventually disappears.

(2) Pushed by the invaginated cells, it moves to the vegetative pole side and being wrapped in endoderm
and becomes gastrula.

(3) Pushed by the invaginated cells, it spreads throughout the egg and becomes the epithelium of the
gastrointestinal tract.

(4) Pushed by the invaginated cells, it spreads widely, and becomes the gastrula by connecting with the
blastopore.

Question 3 [Differentiation of germ layers]

(a) to (f) summarize the organs that differentiate from each germ layer in the development of vertebrates.
Choose the correct combination from ① to ⑥ below.

(a) Ectoderm → somite → skeleton, spinal bone

(b) Ectoderm → neural tube, spinal cord
(c) Mesoderm → lateral plate → lung
(d) Mesoderm → somites → skeletal muscle, spine bone
(e) Endoderm → stomach and liver epithelium
(f) Endoderm→ Gastrula → Smooth muscle of internal organs, heart muscle

① (a), (c), (e) ③ (a), (c), (f) ⑤ (b), (c), (f)

② (a), (d), (f) ④ (b), (c), (e) ⑥ (b), (d), (e)

125
Question 4 [Determining Fate]

Spemann conducted the following experiments using newt (similar to frog) embryos.

[Experiment 1] As shown in Fig. 1. When the presumptive neural region and the presumptive epidermal
region of early gastrula embryos were exchanged for transplantation, the presumptive epidermis was
transplanted into the presumptive neural region. The explants differentiated into nerves, and the grafts of
the planned nerve area transplanted into the planned epidermis differentiated into the epidermis.

[Experiment 2] When the presumptive nerve of the early neurula and the presumptive epidermal area
were exchanged and transplanted, the graft of the presumptive epidermal area transplanted into the
presumptive neural area differentiated into the epidermis, and the graft of the presumptive neural area
transplanted onto the presumptive epidermis differentiated into neurons.

[Experiment 3] As shown in Fig. 2, when the dorsal blastopore of an early gastrula was transplanted into
the blastocoel of another early gastrula, the dorsal pore differentiated into a certain tissue. It acted on the
ectoderm to differentiate the neural tube, resulting in secondary embryos.

replacement transplant

Figure 1 dorsal blastopore

Figure 2

(1) From [Experiment 1] & [Experiment 2], when do you think the developmental fate of nerves and
epidermis is determined? Choose the most appropriate one from the following ①~⑤.

① After the blastula stage

② gastrula stage
③ Before the early gastrula stage
④ Between early gastrula and early neurula
⑤ After the early neurula stage

(2) As the underlined structure of [Experiment 3], select the most appropriate one from the following ①
to ⑥.

① gastrula ④ body segment ⑥ Epidermis

② Mesoderm (somites)
③ Neural tube ⑤ Notochord

126
Question 5 [Determination of dorsal-ventral axis]

Read the following statement about determining the dorsoventral axis of a frog and answer the questions
below.

Frog sperm enter through the animal hemisphere of the egg. When the sperm enters, cortical rotation
occurs, in which the surface layer of the egg rotates about 30 degrees with respect to the inside. ---(a)---is
formed on the side opposite to the sperm entry point, which has a different color density than the
surrounding area.
As shown in the figure, disheveled proteins at the vegetative pole are displaced by surface rotation, the B
side of Fig. 1 becomes ---(b)---.

egg Fertilized egg

animal pole sperm entry point surface layer

Disheveled
protein

Disheveled
plant pole
Figure 1 protein

(1) Choose the most appropriate combination of words that apply to (a) and (b).

(a) (b)
1 gray crescent dorsal side
2 gray crescent Ventral side
3 dorsal lip of blastopore dorsal side
4 dorsal lip of blastopore Ventral side
5 yolk plug dorsal side
6 yolk plug Ventral side

127
 (2) At the blastula stage, a concentration gradient of nodal proteins as shown in Fig. 2 appears due to the
effect of disheveled proteins. What is affected by this concentration gradient? Choose one from ① to ⑤
below.
blastocoele

Ventral side dorsal side

Nodal protein concentration gradient

Figure 2

① Ectoderm ④ neural tube

② Mesoderm ⑤ archenteron
③ Endoderm

Question 6 [Bicoid]

The figure shows the distribution of bicoid mRNA and bicoid protein in early Drosophila melanogaster
embryos some time after fertilization. The body of a Drosophila melanogaster larva is divided from the
front of the embryo to three parts, consisting of the head, thorax and abdomen.
The boundary between the head and thorax of an embryo in the early embryonic stage is
determined by the amount of bicoid protein, and when the amount of bicoid mRNA is doubled compared
to the wild type, the position of the boundary between the head and thorax shifts and becomes a gastrula
with the abnormal ratio of the head.
Select the most appropriate description from ① to ⑥ below as a description of how bicoid
mRNA was produced and the position of the boundary between the head and thorax when the mRNA was
doubled.
Amount (relative value)

Bicoid mRNA

bicoid protein

Anterior part Posterior part

128
 Bicoid mRNA Location of the boundary between the
head and thorax
1 Transcribed from maternal DNA and stored during oogenesis Move forward
2 Transcribed from maternal DNA and stored during oogenesis Move backward
3 transcribed from sperm DNA after fertilization Move forward
4 transcribed from sperm DNA after fertilization Move backward
5 Transcribed from embryonic DNA after fertilization Move forward
6 Transcribed from embryonic DNA after fertilization Move backward

Question 7 [Formation of reproductive cells in angiosperms and changes in DNA content]

The following figure shows the process of embryo sac mother cell (2n) → embryo cyst (n) → completion
of formation of embryo sac containing egg cells → fertilization → formation of embryo in an angiosperm
ovule. , showing changes in the amount of DNA per cell nucleus. Which stages (a) to (i) in the figure
correspond to the time when meiosis took place, the time when embryonic sac formation was completed,
and fertilization? Choose the most suitable combination from ① to ⑦ below.
Amount of DNA in

embryo cyst
(relative value)

核
the nucleus

の対 3

A
1
量
0

passage of time à

Period Of Meiosis Completion of embryo sac formation Fertilization

① (a) – (c) (d) (i)
② (a) – (c) (g) (h)
③ (a) – (d) (f) (i)
④ (a) – (d) (g) (h)
⑤ (c) – (d) (f) (i)
⑥ (c) – (d) (g) (h)
⑦ (c) – (g) (h) (i)

129
Question 8 [Germ cell formation and double fertilization in angiosperms]

The following figure shows the process of germ cell formation in angiosperms. Figures (a) to (e) show the
nucleus or cell, A the pollen mother cell, and D the embryo cyst mother cell. Answer the question of
about this.

(1) Choose the most appropriate name for (e) in the figure from among ① to ⑥ below.

① pollen tube nucleus ④ embryo sac cell

② Spermatid ⑤ polar nucleus
③ cell (egg cell) ⑥ synergids

(2) How many times does nuclear fission occur from D to G being formed? Choose the most appropriate
one from the following ①~⑦.

① 2 times ⑤ 6 times
②3 times ⑥ 7 times
③ 4 times ⑦ 8 times
④ 5 times

130
(3) Double fertilization produces an embryo and endosperm. Each nucleus in (a) to (e) in the figure fuses
and fertilizes. Select the most appropriate combination from ① to ⑥ below.

Embryo Endosperm
1 One of (a) and (d) One of (a) and two of (c)
2 One of (a) and (d) One of (a) and two of (e)
3 (b) and (d) One of (a) and two of (c)
4 (b) and (d) One of (a) and two of (e)
5 One of (a) and one of (e) Two of (b) and (c)
6 One of (a) and one of (e) Two of (b) and (e)

131
Question 9 [organogenesis of flowers]

Floral organs are formed in four concentric regions. Flower organogenesis involves three classes of genes
called class A genes, B genes, and C genes (hereafter abbreviated as A, B, and C).

In region 1, when only A works, sepal is formed.

In region 2, A and B work together to produce petals.
In region 3, B and C cooperate to produce working stamens.
In region 4, only C works and produces pistils.
In addition, A and C suppress each other and have the following relationship.
When A stops working, C starts working in the area where A was working.
When C loses its work, A works in the area where C worked. What happens in the following case?
Select the most appropriate combination from the following ①~⑥

• がくー calyx
• 花弁 - petals
• おしべーstamen
• めしべー pistil

A doesn`t work B doesn`t work C doesn't work

① It becomes a flower with only a It becomes a flower with only It becomes a flower with only
calyx and petals. calyx and pistil stamens and pistils
② It becomes a flower with only a It becomes a flower with only It becomes a flower with only
calyx and petals. stamens and pistils calyx and pistil
③ It becomes a flower with only It becomes a flower with only a It becomes a flower with only
calyx and pistil calyx and petals. stamens and pistils
④ It becomes a flower with only It becomes a flower with only It becomes a flower with only a
calyx and pistil stamens and pistils calyx and petals
⑤ It becomes a flower with only It becomes a flower with only a It becomes a flower with only
stamens and pistils calyx and petals. calyx and pistil
⑥ It becomes a flower with only It becomes a flower with only It becomes a flower with only a
stamens and pistils calyx and pistil calyx and petals

132
 CHAPTER 7 MAINTAINING THE INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT OF ORGANISMS

Summary of main points

I Internal environment and body fluids

1) components of bodily fluids

• Blood à flows through blood vessels. Consists of the liquid components, plasma and blood
cells.
• Interstitial fluid à Plasma that comes out of blood vessels fills between cells and transfer
nutrients, oxygen and carbon dioxide between cells and blood.
• Lymph à flows through lymph vessels. Tissue fluid that has entered the lymphatic vessels and
contains lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell. Lymphatic vessels join the blood at the left
subclavian vein.

2) blood components

① Blood cells

Red blood cells à Contains hemoglobin and carries oxygen.

White blood cells à Eliminate foreign substances by phagocytosis. Related to immunity
Platelet à When vessels are injured, it coagulates blood. (blood coagulation)

② Plasma à The liquid component of blood. Dissolves and transports nutrients and waste products.

3) blood circulation right ventricle

① Pulmonary circulation à Right ventricle → pulmonary artery → pulmonary vein → left atrium

4) Systemic circulation à Left ventricular aorta → whole body → vena cava → right atrium

to the lungs Semilunar valve

From the lungs

LA
RA
Chamber
弁

RV
LV
from the whole body

1
133
 5) Mechanism of blood coagulation

Blood vessel damage → platelets gather → fibrin (rod-shaped protein) is produced → blood cells are
entangled and blood clots are formed → Hemostasis

II Kidney and body fluid concentration regulation

filtration Renal vein

glomeruli reabsorption

blood
tubules
Collecting
duct
Raw urine urine
Bowman capsule

(1) Kidney structure and function glomerulus

Renal corpuscle filtration

Bowman capsule

Kidney unit
tubules reabsorption

Unfiltered substances à Protein, Blood Cells

Reabsorbed à Most Water, Glucose (100%), Inorganic Salts

2) Generation of urine

primary urine → tubule → collecting duct → urine → renal pelvis → Renal bladder → discharge

Concentration rate: Indicates how many times the concentration of a component in urine is compared to
the concentration in blood plasma.

Concentration rate = Concentration in urine / Concentration in plasma (primary urine)

2
134
 III Mechanism of internal environment maintenance

(1) Autonomic nervous system → Distributed to internal organs and blood vessels and regulated
unconsciously. The control center is the hypothalamus of the diencephalon.

a) Sympathetic nerves → Comes from the spinal cord (thoracic spinal cord, lumbar spinal cord)
and acts during excitement and activity and secretes adrenaline from nerve endings.
b) The parasympathetic nerves → originates from midbrain, medulla oblongata and spinal cord
(sacral) and active during rest and after meals. Secretes acetylene from nerve endings.

(2) Hormones → Produced in endocrine glands cells and neurosecretory cells, and act on target organs in
minute amounts.

a) Feedback → The final product suppresses the working body of the previous step and suppresses
excessive hormone secretion.
b) Pituitary Gland → Under the control of the hypothalamus of the diencephalon, the anterior lobe
secretes various stimulating hormones and the posterior lobe secretes vasopressin.

thyroid stimulating hormone

releasing hormone thyroid stimulating hormone

hypothalamus
thyroid thyroxine
feedback
suppression
suppression

Pituitary gland
parathyroid glands
thyroid gland

Adrenal cortex

Adrenal gland pancreas

3
135
(3) When blood sugar level decreases (mechanism that increases blood sugar level)

Reduced blood sugar (hypoglycaemia)

低⾎糖
Sympathetic system
Hypothalamus

Releasing hormone

Pancreas Anterior pituitary

Islets of Langerhans
Adrenocortico モtrophic
ン hormone
A cells
Adrenaline Adrenal cortex
glucagon
mineralocorticoids

glycogen glucose protein

( 分 解) (糖化)
saccharification
breakdown
⾎糖 量 の 増 加

IV. Immunity
(1) Natural immunity

• It works non-specifically (having the same effect on any foreign substance).

• Neutrophil, Macrophage &Dendritic cells eliminate foreign substances by phagocytosis.

(2) Acquired Immunity

• It is a specific immunity.
• Due to immune memory, the second time the same foreign substance invades, a more rapid and
stronger reaction than the first time occurs.
• Macrophages and dendritic cells present some of the foreign substances taken in as antigens
(antigen presentation). In response, helper T cells activate B cells and killer T cells.

(1) Humoral immunity

・B cells produce antibodies (antibodies called immunoglobulins) and remove foreign substances through
antigen-antibody reactions. Antibodies specifically bind to antigens.

Variable region (change depending on the antigen)

(changes)

L chain (short)
(
Stationary region (do not change)
H chain (long)

4
136
 Antigen invasion
differentiation secretion

Antigen presentation by
macrophages and dendritic cells
Ag
stimulus
Ag

Helper T cell Ag - Ab reaction

Helper T cell B cell
memory cell
activation Ab producing cells
B cell

(2) Cellular immunity

・The number of killer T cells that respond to antigens increases and attacks and kills infected cells and
cancer cells.

QUESTION

Question 1 [Blood components]

Select the correct description of the components of human blood from among the following (1) to (6).

1. Among Red blood cells (erythrocytes), white blood cells (leukocytes), and platelets, the largest number
of cells contained in blood 1 mm3 are white blood cells.

2. Among Red blood cells, White blood cells & platelets, only platelets do not have a nucleus.

3. Human red blood cells have a lifespan of about 120 days, and old red blood cells are destroyed in the
liver and spleen.

4. Red blood cells are made in the liver, and white blood cells are made in the bone marrow.

5. Blood plasma contains about 1% glucose and it is taken into the cells and becomes an energy source.

6. Carbon dioxide in the blood is transported by combining with red blood cells.

5
137
Question 2 [Oxygen dissociation curve]

In animals (vertebrate), hemoglobin in red blood cells is

hemoglobin + oxygen ⇌ oxyhemoglobin
It reversibly combines with oxygen and transports oxygen.
The bond between oxygen and hemoglobin is affected by the partial pressure of oxygen and the partial
pressure of carbon dioxide, and the figure shows the relationship.

Oxyhemoglobin percent saturation

Partial pressure of oxygen (mmHg)

(1) Oxygen partial pressure in the alveolus is 100 mmHg, carbon dioxide partial pressure is 40 mmHg.
Oxygen partial pressure in tissues is 30 mmHg. Carbon dioxide partial pressure is 70 mmHg. What
percentage of hemoglobin released oxygen in tissues? Choose the most appropriate one from the
following ①~⑦.

1. 55.4% 2. 63.4% 3. 65.0% 4. 68.4%

5. 71.4% 6. 75.4% 7. 78.4%

(2) Hemoglobin is a protein containing metallic elements. What is this metallic element?

Choose the appropriate one from the following 1 to 6.

1. Silver 2. Iron 3. Copper 4. Magnesium 5.Calcium 6. Zinc

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Question 3 [Blood coagulation]

Choose the most appropriate combination of words from a to c in the following sentence explaining the
mechanism of blood coagulation. Choose one from ① to ⑧ below.

When a blood vessel is injured and bleeds, --(a)-- gathers. --(a)—and tissues release clotting factors and
from proteins in plasma, A fibrous protein called –b-- is formed, and –c-- becomes entangled with it,
forming a blood clot that closes the wound.

(a) (b) (c)

1. platelet albumin blood cell
2. platelet albumin Plasma
3. platelet fibrin blood cell
4. platelet fibrin Plasma
5. white blood cells albumin blood cell
6. white blood cells albumin Plasma
7. white blood cells fibrin blood cell
8. white blood cells fibrin Plasma

Question 4 [The structure of the kidney and the regulation of body fluids]

The figure shows a schematic representation of one of the building blocks of the kidney.

C D

artery
動

vein

(1) For the most common combination of names for the parts A and B. Select the appropriate one from 1
to 4 below.

A B
1. glomerulus Bowman`s capsule
2. Bowman`s capsule glomerulus
3. Tubule (urinary ferrous tubule, renal tubule Collecting duct
4. Collecting duct Tubule

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(2) What hormone promotes water reabsorption in collecting ducts when the osmotic pressure of body
fluids increases? Choose the most appropriate one from the following ①~⑥.

① thyroxine ② adrenaline ③ Mineralocorticoid

④ Glucocorticoid ⑤ Vasopressin ⑥ insulin

(3) When the osmotic pressure of body fluids decreases, a hormone is secreted that promotes the
reabsorption of inorganic salts in the tubules. Which endocrine gland secretes this hormone? Choose the
most appropriate one from ① to ⑥ below.

①Thyroid ② Anterior pituitary ③ Posterior pituitary gland

④ adrenal cortex ⑤ adrenal medulla ⑥ pancreas

Question 5 [Urine volume calculation]

The table shows the components contained in human blood plasma, primitive urine, and urine and their
proportions. Inulin in the table is a substance that is neither synthesized nor utilized in the human body,
and when injected intravenously, it is filtered through the renal corpuscles and excreted as is in the urine
without being reabsorbed. It is assumed that 1.5 L of urine is excreted per day.

Component Plasma primitive urine Urine

Protein 7 0 0
Glucose 0.1 0.1 0
Sodium 0.3 0.3 0.34
Potassium 0.02 0.02 0.15
Calcium 0.008 0.008 0.014
Urea 0.03 0.03 2
Uric acid 0.004 0.004 0.05
Inulin 0.1 0.1 12

(1) Why is glucose not contained in urine? Choose the most appropriate reason
from the following ① to ⑤.

(1) It is a substance that is not contained in plasma.

(2) All glucose is stored in the kidneys.
(3) Because it is not filtered out of the blood in the renal corpuscle.
(4) After being filtered by the renal corpuscle, it is completely reabsorbed by the tubules.
(5) After being filtered in the renal corpuscle, it is reabsorbed in the collecting duct at the same rate as
water.

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(2) How many liters of primary urine is produced per day based on the concentration rate of inulin?
Choose the most appropriate one from the following ①~⑥.

1. 50L 2. 60L 3. 80L 4. 100L 5. 150L 6. 180L

(3) How many grams of urea were reabsorbed per day? Select the most appropriate one from the
following ① to ⑥

1. 12g 2. 24g 3. 36g 4.48g 5. 60g 6.72g

Question 6 [Autonomic nerves]

The autonomic nerve consists of the sympathetic nerve and the parasympathetic nerve. Choose correct
description of the parasympathetic nervous system from the following ① to ⑥.

(1) Leaves the spinal cord, connects to another neuron at the ganglion, and distributes to organs such as
the stomach and small intestine.
(2) Noradrenaline is secreted from nerve endings.
(3) It promotes heartbeat and raises blood pressure.
(4) When the body temperature drops, it contracts the arrector pili muscle.
(5) It promotes peristalsis of the gastrointestinal tract.
(6) It acts on the A (A-cell) of the islet of Langerhans in the pancreas and promotes the secretion of
glucagon.

Question 7 [Feedback Modulation]

The following sentence describes the regulation of the amount of thyroxine secreted from the thyroid
gland. Choose the most appropriate combination of words and sentences that fit into a to c from ① to ⑧
below.
When the concentration of thyroxine in the blood increases, --(a)-- is released from the
hypothalamus.Aa a result, thyroid-stimulating hormone is secreted from --(b)-- and secretion is --(c)-- and
the thyroxine concentration in the blood decreases.

(a) (b) (c)

1 Suppression of releasing hormone secretion anterior pituitary gland suppression
2 Suppression of releasing hormone secretion anterior pituitary gland promotion
3 Suppression of releasing hormone secretion posterior pituitary gland suppression
4 Suppression of releasing hormone secretion posterior pituitary gland promotion
5 Promotes secretion of release-inhibiting hormones anterior pituitary gland suppression
6 Promotes secretion of release-inhibiting hormones anterior pituitary gland promotion
7 Promotes secretion of release-inhibiting hormones posterior pituitary gland suppression
8 Promotes secretion of release-inhibiting hormones posterior pituitary gland promotion

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 Question 8 [Regulation of blood volume]

The following figures 1-3 show changes in the blood levels of human blood sugar and two hormones that
regulate blood sugar after giving glucose. The arrows in the figure indicate the time points at which
glucose was given, and the blood sugar levels and blood hormone concentrations are shown as relative
values, with each concentration immediately before glucose given is regarded as 1.

Figure 1 – blood sugar level Figure 2- Blood Figure 3 Blood

concentration of hormone A concentration of hormone B

(1) Choose the correct combination of the name of Hormone A, hormone B and the organ that secretes it
from ① to ⑥ below.

Organs that secrete hormone A and hormone A Organs that secrete hormone B and hormone B
1 Insulin, pancreas Glucagon, pancreas
2 Glucagon, pancreas insulin, pancreas
3 Adrenaline, adrenal gland vasopressin, pituitary gland
4 vasopressin, pituitary gland Adrenaline, adrenal gland
5 thyroxine, thyroid insulin, pancreas
6 insulin, pancreas vasopressin, pituitary gland

(2) In Figure 1, the glucose concentration temporarily increases, but returns to its original state after 3
hours. How does this drop in blood sugar occur? Choose the most appropriate one from the following
①~⑥

① Glucose is excreted in sweat.

② Glucose is excreted in the urine.
③ Glucose is decomposed into carbon dioxide by respiration in the cells of different part of the body.
④ Glucose is stored in the cells of various part of the body.
⑤ The pancreas synthesizes and stores as glycogen from glucose.
⑥ Synthesize and store glycogen from glucose in the liver and muscles.

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(3) Choose one of the following combinations of nerves that work when blood sugar levels drop and
hormones that are secreted by these nerves and raise blood sugar levels from ① to ⑥ below.

Nerve Hormone
1 sympathetic nervous system Vasopressin
2 sympathetic nervous system adrenaline
3 sympathetic nervous system parathormone
4 parasympathetic nervous system Vasopressin
5 parasympathetic nervous system adrenaline
6 parasympathetic nervous system parathormone

Question 9 [Immunity]

Among the following descriptions (a) to (h), choose one combination from ① to ⑥ below that applies
only to cellular immunity.

(a) White blood cells such as neutrophils work.

(b) Killer T cells work.
(c) Receives antigen presentation from dendritic cells.
(d) The antibody binds to the foreign substance and inactivates it.
(e) When the same foreign substance invades for the second time, it responds quickly by immune memory
cells.
(f) Eliminate virus-infected cells and cancerous cells.
(g) Involved in the rejection of organ transplants.
(h) Helper T cells activate lymphocytes.

Question 10 [antibodies]

The figure is a schematic representation of the antibody. Choose the most appropriate combination of
words from a to c in the following sentence explaining antigens and binding antibodies from ① to ⑥
below.

Antigen binding part

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Antibodies are activated by helper T cells –a-- becomes an antibody-producing cell, produces and releases
proteins collectively called --b--. The three-dimensional structure of the tip of the H chain and L chain is -
--c--, and this part binds to the antigen.

(a) (b) (c)

1 B cells immunoglobulin All antibodies are the same
2 B cells immunoglobulin Different for each antibody
3 B cells immune albumin Different for each antibody
4 T cells immune albumin All antibodies are the same
5 T cells immune albumin Different for each antibody
6 T cells immunoglobulin All antibodies are the same

Question 11 [Immune Memory]

When mice were injected with antigen A once and changes in the amount of antibodies in the blood were
examined, the results were as shown by the solid line in the figure. One month after injecting antigen A, if
a mixture of antigen A and antigen B (a non-self component that is completely different from antigen A)
is injected into the same mouse a second time, antibody A against antigen A and antigen B. What will be
the amount of antibody A and the amount of antibody B? Choose the most appropriate one from ① to ⑥
below.

1st time (A) 2nd time (A+B)

(1) For both antibody A and antibody B, the graph shown in (a) will be obtained.
(2) For both antibody A and antibody B, the graph shown in (b) will be obtained.
(3) For both antibody A and antibody B, the graph shown in (c) will be obtained.
(4) Antibody A becomes graph (a), and antibody B becomes graph (b).
(5) Antibody A becomes graph (b), antibody B becomes graph (c).
(6) Antibody A becomes graph (c) and antibody B becomes graph (b).

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 CHAPTER 8 ENVIRONMENTAL RESPONSES OF ORGANISMS

Summary of main points

I Sensory organ
(1) Structure and function of the eye

Rod cells à Responsive to light and darkness

① Photo receptor cell
Cone cells à Distinguish colors

Accommodation à The thickness of the crystalline lens is changed by the zonules and zonules of
crystalline lens.
Adjusting the amount of incident light à the size of the pupil is adjusted depending on iris.

(2) Structure and function of the ear

Hearing organ/ Spiral canal （tube）
sound wave à eardrum
Spiral canal (ear ossicles → fluid in the inner ear → basement membrane → auditory cells) → auditory
nerve → cerebrum
vestibule à body tilt
balance receptor
Semicircular canals -- direction and speed of rotational movement

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 II nervous system

(1) Structure of nerve cells (neurone)

It consists of a cell body, dendrites, and an axon.

nucleus

Myelinated nerves à There are myelinating fibers and myelin sheaths, and the conduction speed of
excitation is fast due to jump conduction in which excitation is transmitted to each node of Ranvier.
Eg nerves of vertebrates
Unmyelinated nerve fibers à no myelin sheath
Eg nerves of invertebrates

Maximum value of advanced potential

ime (millisecond)

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(2) Excitation and its transmission

• resting potentialà The potential difference between the inside and outside of the cell membrane
at rest. The inside is – and outside is + .
• Action potential à A series of changes in the potential difference between the inside and outside
of a cell model during excitation. The inside becomes + , the outside becomes -, and it returns to
its original state.

(3) conduction of excitement à Transmission of excitement in neurons. An active current flows between
the excited part and the resting part, and the excitement is transmitted. Excitement is transmitted to both
sides from where the stimulus is received.
(4) transmission of excitement à Excitation is transmitted by neurotransmitters at adjacent parts
(synapses) of neurons.
• Direction of transmission

Neurotransmitters are secreted from the axon terminals, so excitation is transmitted in one direction, from
the axon to the next neuron.

• Neurotransmitters

sympathetic nerve à noradrenaline

parasympathetic nerve, motor nerve à acetylcholine

Neurotransmitter dependent ions channel

Synaptic vesicles Synaptic cleft opens

receptor

Cell
body
side
Na flow in and action potential is
Axon terminal neurotransmitter
generated
s

(5) Brain structure and function Neocortex – movement, centre of

mental activity
Cerebral cortex (collection of cell bodies, gray matter)
Limbic cortex – medulla , centre of
Cerebrum emotional behaviour
Cerebral medulla (collections of axons, white matter)

Diencephalon à the center of the autonomic nervous system

Midbrain à center for eye movement and posture maintenance
Cerebellum à Controls muscle movement and maintains body balance.
Medulla oblongata à center of blood circulation and respiratory movement

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 midbrain
Cerebrum

Cerebral cortex (gray

matter)

Cerebral cortex (white

matter) Corpus Cerebellum
callosum
Hypophysis Spinal cord

(6) Spinal cord

Spinal cord cortex (collection of axons ,white

matter)
Spinal cord medulla (collection of cell bodies, gray matter)
3 Function of effector (muscle) )

III Function of effector (muscle)

(1) Structure of the anterior fiber
• Muscle fibers are made up of many myofibrils.
• The structure from the Z line to the Z line is called the sarcomere.
• Actin filaments slide between myosin filaments, causing muscle contraction. (When the muscle
contracts, the width of the bright zone narrows, but the width of the dark zone does not change.)
Sarcomere
Z line
Z
yosin 膜

Mechanism of muscle contraction

① The sarcoplasmic reticulum releases Ca2+ upon stimulation. When Ca2+ binds to actin filaments,
the head of myosin filaments and actin filaments can bind.
② When the ATP bound to the myosin head is broken down, the myosin head moves and binds to
actin filaments.
③ The myosin head moves as if pulling the actin filament, and the actin filament slides between the
myosin filaments and contracts.

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 ATP is bonded with myosin
①ミ
ATP
ATP is broken down and myosin head
が 分 解 さ れ ,

ミオ シ ン の 頭 部 が 動
moved
きア ク チ ン フ ィラ メ
and bind with actin
ミオ
Myosin filament head ン トに 結 合 する 。

フィ

Actin filament
アク
フ ィ ミオ シ ン の 頭 部 が 動
Myosin head moved and slide over actin
いて ア クチ ン フ ィラ
Sarcoplasmic
筋 cell Degree of release
C メ ン トが 滑 りこ む 。

body is Tropomyosin
release Ca2+

IV Animal behavior

(1) Innate behavior (response) à stereotyped behavior that we are born with.

• They move towards (positive chemotaxis) or away from (negative chemotaxis) a stimulus such as
light.
• A series of actions triggered by a key stimulus (signal stimulus)
• Orientation à solar compass and bird migration
(2) Action by learning

• Imprinting à Ducks and ducklings memorize the objects of their actions at a specific time after
birth, such as when they walk after their parents.
• Habituation àStops responding when given the same stimulus
• Learning through trial and error à repeating the same actions over and over again

V plant hormones

(1) Auxin (collective term for indole 2.4D, etc.)

• growth promotion and involved in tropism.
• Apical bud dominant à Promotes the growth of the apical bud and suppresses the growth of
the lateral buds.

(2) Gibberellin
• Promote stem growth
• Hypertrophic growth of the ovary à applied to the production of seedless grapes

(3) Cytokinin (generic term for kinetin, zeatin, etc.)

• Promotion of cell division
• Promotion of differentiation of stems, leaves, etc.
• Promotion of lateral bud growth
• Suppression of aging

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④ Abscisic acid
• Maintaining seed dormancy
• close the stomata
• Promotion of ethylene synthesis

⑤ Ethylene (gas plant hormone)

• Acceleration of fruit ripening
• Promotion of leaf and fruit fall
• Promotion of enlarged stem growth

(2) color protein (chromoproteins)

color protein light to absorb main work

Phototropin blue light phototropism, stomatal opening
Cryptochrome blue light Suppression of elongation growth
Phytochrome Red light and infra-red light Photogermination, induction of flower bud
formation, inhibition of elongation growth

QUESTION

Q 1: Mechanism and function

Answer questions (1) and (2) about the human eye.

(1) The light-sensing photoreceptor cells in the retina of the eye include rod cells, which work in dim
light, and cones, which work in bright light. Select one of the following items ① to ⑥ as the correct
description of vision.

① Rods are more sensitive to light than rods, but can distinguish colors.
② There are three types of cone cells that are excited by red, yellow, and blue light.
③ Rod cells are distributed intensively around (macula lutea).
④ Cone cells are distributed throughout the retina
⑤ Cone cells are not distributed in (blind spot), but rod cells are distributed.
⑥ When we go from a dark place to a bright place, you temporarily feel dazzled, but as rod cells
become more sensitive and will get used to the brightness and be able to see clearly.

(2) What happens in your eyes when you try to see things far away? Choose the most appropriate one
from ① to ⑤ below.

(1) Enlarge the pupil (pupil) to let more light into the eye.
(2) Shrink the pupil to reduce the amount of light entering the eye.
(3) Stimulates the synthesis of rhodopsin to excite rod cells.
(4) The ciliary muscle is activated to thin the vitreous humor.
(5) Relax the ciliary muscles and thin the crystalline lens

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Question 2 : The structure and function of the ear

Choose the most appropriate description of the structure and function of the human ear from ①~⑤.

① The vibrations of the air passing through the eardrum (Eustachiantube) cause the eardrum to
vibrate.
② Air vibrations from the outside are amplified by the cochlea and transmitted to the inside.
③ Inside the spiral canal, there are auditory cells that have sensory hairs in the lymph fluid, and the
auditory cells detect mechanical vibrations in the lymph fluid.
④ The pitch of the sound is heard by the auditory ossicles.
⑤ Sound stimuli are received by hearing in the vestibule of the inner ear and transmitted to the brain
through nerves.

Question 3 [The structure of a neuron (nerve cell)]

The following figure is a schematic representation of the structure of a neuron in an animal.

(1) Choose the most appropriate combination of names for parts (a) and (b) from the following ① to ⑥.

(a) (b)
① myelin sheath axon
② axon constriction ring
③ synapse axon
④ synapse constriction ring
⑤ dendrite axon
⑥ dendrite constriction ring

(2) Paragraphs (a) and (c) of the following statements about the neurons in the figure apply. Select one of
the following ①~⑥ as the most appropriate combination of words and phrases.

The neuron in the figure is –a--, and the nerve fiber is –b--, so we know that it belongs to –c--.

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 (a) (b) (c)
1 sensory nerve myelinated nerve fiber vertebrate
2 sensory nerve myelinated nerve fiber invertebrate
3 sensory nerve unmyelinated nerve fiber vertebrate
4 motor nerve unmyelinated nerve fiber invertebrate
5 motor nerve myelinated nerve fiber vertebrate
6 motor nerve myelinated nerve fiber invertebrate

Question 4 [Changes in potential of nerve fibers]

Electrodes were placed on the surface of the unmyelinated nerve fibers of the squid as shown in the
figure.Now place A and B apart and measure the potential between the two electrodes. When you
stimulate S in the figure, what will happen if you graph the potential change of electrode A with electrode
B as a reference?

Question 5 [Conduction and transmission]

The diagram is functionally Modeling three connected neurons (nerve cells)

When stimulated in the area indicated by the arrow in the figure, excitation occurred, and the excitation
was transmitted to the neuron. Which of (a) to (4) conveyed the excitement? Choose the most appropriate
combination from among the following ① to ⑥.

axon

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Question 6 : [How to convey the intensity of stimulation]

Stimuli received by the sense organs are transmitted to the brain by the excitement of neurons (nerve cells).
How is the magnitude of the stimulus received by sensory cells transmitted through the nerve fibers of
neurons? Choose the most appropriate one from ① to ④ below.

1) Size of action potential

2) Speed of transmission of action potential
3) frequency of occurrence of action potential
4) Action potential duration length

Question 7 [Function of the central nervous system]

As a description of the human central nervous system, choose incorrect one of the following ① to ⑥.

1) Reactions called reflexes, such as closing your eyes involuntarily when a pole flies in front of
you, are transmitted to the spinal cord and the brain before being transmitted to the cerebrum.
2) The hypothalamus of the interbrain functions as the highest center of the autonomic
nervous system and maintains body temperature and internal environment.
3) The cerebrum, midbrain, and cerebellum are called the brain stem because they play an
important role in sustaining life.
4) The surface of the brain is called gray matter because the cell bodies of nerve cells gather
together and appear black.
5) The midbrain is the center of eye movement and posture maintenance.
6) The spinal cord has white matter on the outside and gray matter on the inside.

Question 8 [muscle contraction]

The following figure is a schematic diagram of skeletal muscle. Answer the questions (1) and (2) below.

(1) Which part does not change in length even if (1) shrinks? Choose the correct one from ① to ⑤
above.

(2) When observed under a microscope, part A in the figure appeared dark. Choose one name for this part
from the following ① to ④.

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1) Actin filament
2) Myosin filament
3) Globulin filament
4) Neuron filament

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Question 9 : animal behaviour

The following sentences are examples of animal behavior. Choose the most appropriate combination of
learned behaviors from among ① to ⑥ below.

a) Male three-spied sticklebacks, which have territories, attack males of the same species that invade
their territory.
b) Ducklings follow moving objects they see for the first time after hatching.
c) Sea hare retracts its gills when it touches a water pipe, but if it touches the water pipe repeatedly,
it will no longer retract.
d) Ants follow chemicals secreted by ants that find food.
e) When the mippachi returns to its nest, it performs a dance to tell its friends the location of the
food.

Question 10 : [Plant tropism]

The following treatments (1), (2), and (3) were applied to coleoptiles of Macara wheat. What will happen
to the young leaf sheath after this? Choose the most appropriate one from ① to ④ below.

(1) Cut off the tip, place it on the original position with gelatin that allows water to pass through, and
illuminate light.
(2) Mica was inserted into one side of the tip and illuminated from the other side.
(3) The cut tip was shifted and placed in a dark place.

gelatin

light
Mica

① Turn right and extend.

② Turn left and extend.
③ Straighten up.
④ It hardly stretches.

Question 11 [Plant hormones]

Choose one of the following incorrect statements about plant hormones from ① to ④.

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 1. In seeds, abscisic acid maintains the dormant state.
2. Gibberellin suppresses the growth of the ovary,
3. Ethylene promotes ripening of fruits.
4. Cytokinin promotes cell division and is used together with auxin in plant tissue culture
techniques.

Question 12 : [Optimal concentration of auxin]

The plant hormone auxin is as shown in the figure, the roots, buds (lateral buds), and stems (apical buds)
differ in their sensitivity to concentration.
promotion
Growth

buds stem
root
suppresion
Growth

Auxin concentration

(1) Based on what you can see from the diagram, choose the most appropriate option from ① to ⑤
below.
1. Increasing the concentration of auxin can promote the growth of all roots, shoots, and stems.
2. At concentrations that promote root growth, bud growth is inhibited.
3. At the concentration that most promotes stem growth, bud growth is inhibited.
4. It has a concentration that promotes the growth of both roots and stems.
5. Sensitivity to auxin is highest in stems and lowest in roots.

(2) In some plants, the auxin concentration in the stem and bud was [A] in the figure, but when the
terminal bud was removed, the auxin concentration in the stem and bud became [B]. What does this plant
look like? Choose the most suitable one from the following ①~④.

1. The growth rate of the stem and the growth rate of the bud (lateral bud) are higher than in
[A].
2. The growth rate of the stem and the growth rate of the bud (lateral bud) are lower than in (A).
3. The growth rate of the stem is higher than that of [A], but the growth rate of the bud (lateral bud)
is lower than that of [A].
4. The growth rate of the stem decreases compared to that of [A], but the growth rate of the bud
(lateral bud) increases compared to that of [A].

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Question 13 : [Flower bud formation]

The figure shows the number of days required for the formation of flower buds after cultivating the plant
(a) to (e) under the same cultivation conditions such as temperature under different sunshine hours per
day. Regarding this, answer the following questions (1) to (3).

Number of days until

flower bud formation

Daylight hours

(a) to (e) plants were cultivated with 10 hours of sunshine per day. What happens if we select all those
that have formed flower buds and arrange them in order of the shortest number of days until flower bud
formation? Please select the most suitable one from the following (1)~(6).

(2) What are the plants that exhibit the properties of (b) and (d), respectively? Please select the most
suitable combination from the following (1) ~ (6).

1. (b) Short-day plant (d) Long-day plant

2. (b) Short-day Plants (d) Neutral plants
3. (b) Long-day plant (d) Short-day plants
4. (b) Long-day plants (d) Neutral plants
5. (b) Neutral plants (d) Short-day plants
6. (b) Neutral plants (d) Long-day plant

(3) Select the most appropriate description of light reception in flower bud formation from (1) ~ (6)
below.
1. A sugar called phytochrome, which is sensitive to blue light, works in leaves.
2. A sugar called phytochrome, which is sensitive to red light and ultra red light, works in leaves.
3. A protein called phytochrome, which is sensitive to blue light, works in leaves.
4. A protein called phytochrome, which is sensitive to red light and ultra red light, works in leaves
5. A protein called phototrophin, which is sensitive to blue light, works in leaves
6. A protein called phototrophin, which is sensitive to red light and ultra red light, works in leaves

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 CHAPTER 9 : ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

Summary of main points

I Population
1 Population and its structure

(1) Population growth curve à Graph showing the growth curve of a population and the increase
in the number of individuals in a population. S-shaped curve (logistic curve).

Carrying capacityà Maximum number of individuals that can grow in an environment

When there are no restrictions on
food, living space, etc.

Population
Carrying
capacity

When there are restrictions on food,

living space, etc.

(2) Density effect à Effects of increasing population density, such as decreasing food and living
space
Final yield à In a certain law of plants, even if the the individual group density is different, the weight
(yield) of the plant per hour per unit area is constant.

(3) Population structure

Composition à Distribution of individuals by age and generation in populations

Age pyramid à Illustrating the age structure
Juvenile type: Since there are many young individuals, the number of individuals will increase in the
future
Stable type: the number of individuals does not change
Geriatric type: Since there are few young individuals, the reproductive individuals will decrease and the
number of individuals will decrease in the future.
Juvenile type Stable type Geriatric type
Old age

Reproductive age

Young age

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2 Interactions within populations

(1) Group animals gather together and act.

(2) In order to secure opportunities for food and reproduction, other individuals of the same species
are excluded and occupy a certain amount of space.
(3) Ranking system: Superior and inferior relationships can be created between individuals in the
group.
(4) Social insects à Individuals related by blood form a group is called a colony. There is a clear
hierarchy or division of labor. Eg ., bees, ants

3 Interaction between individuals

(1) Food relationship à The relationship between eating and being eaten. It fluctuates depending on
the number of individuals.
(2) Competition à Disputes over food, living space, spouses, etc. One population may disappear.
(3) Relationships between heterogeneous populations

Relationship Organism A Organism B Example

Mutualism + + Ants (A) and Aphid (B)
Commensalism + 0 Red shark(A) and shark (B)
Parasitism + - Catfisk (A) and humans (B)
Harm - 0 Bacteria (A) and penicillin producing green mold
(B)

+ : Receiving Profit - : Suffering Damage 0 : No Profit or Damage

II. Bioclusters
The composition of the biocenose

1) Producers à Organic matter is produced from inorganic substances. plants, etc.

2) Consumer à Organic matter synthesized by producers is taken in as food.
3) Decomposer à Organisms that decompose organic matter into inorganic substances such as H2O
and NH4+ and release CO2

Example : Fungi, Bacteria

III. Material production in ecosystems

(1) Carbon cycle
• CO2 in the atmosphere is converted into organic matter by photosynthesis by producers.
• Organic matter moves between living organisms by food chains.
• Organic matter returns to CO2 by the respiration of living organisms.

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 Atmospheric CO2

Fossil fuel

In the ocean

Photosynthesis –光合成
Respiration –呼吸
Producer-⽣産者
Consumer –消費者
petroleum –⽯油
coal - ⽯炭
Dead bodies -死体
Excreta -排出物
Decomposer -分解器
Sediment -堆積物

(2) Nitrogen cycle

Solidification - Producers make organic nitrogen compounds based on NH4+ and NO3-.
Nitrogen fixation - Bacteria such as rhizobia produce NH4+ that can be used by producers from nitrogen in
the atmosphere
Denitrification – Denitrifying bacteria convert NH4+ and NO3-to nitrogen.

N2 fixation
Atmospheric N2
Denitrification

Rhizobium etc,

Producer-⽣産者
Consumer –消費者
Dead bodies -死体
Excreta -排出物
Nitrate Nitrite Ammonium salt

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IV Biodiversity Nitrification
(1 Diversity à Even individuals of the same species have differences in genes, so there are characteristics
in traits and ecology.
Species diversity à Various species can be found in one ecosystem.
Ecosystem diversity à Various ecosystems such as forests, wetlands, and oceans, and diverse populations
adapted to them.

VI Vegetation diversity and distribution

● Transition à The species composition of biological communities, such as vegetation, changes over
time.
(1) Primary transition à Begins with lava flow traces or landslide traces, and other land where soil has
not formed
Grass surface Shrub forest Timber forest mixed forest
Wild surface Shady forest with big trees

(2) Secondary transitions à It starts with a state where there is soil such as wildfire and forest clearings,
and seeds remain in the soil.

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VI Climate and biome

Biomes of the World

(1) Forest

1. Tropical rainforests , Subtropical rainforest à Forests with a developed hierarchical structure.

2. Rain Green Forest àDistributed in the tropics and subtropics. Leaf fall in the dry season.
3. Ever green Forest à Distributed in temperate zones. Evergreen broadleaf tree with a developed
cuticle layer.
4. Summer Green Forest à Distributed in cold and temperate zones. Leaf fall in winter.
5. Hardwood forests à Regions with a Mediterranean climate. Leaf fall in winter period.
6. coniferous forestsà Distributed in the subarctic zone. Evergreen conifers.
(2) Grassland
1. Savanna (tropical grassland)
2. Steppe (temperate grassland)
(3) Wilderness (desert)
1. Sahara
2. tundra
Annual precipitation

Annual average temperature (C)

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 QUESTION

Q1 ：[survival curve]

The chart on the right shows the three types of survival curves. Among the following descriptions (a)~ (e)
of these curves, choose the correct combination from ① to ⑦ below.

Type A

Type B

A.
ve value)

a) The survival curve for type A are in fish that produce a large number of eggs.
b) A type B survival curve is a survival curve for animals in which the number of deaths of
individuals at each age is constant.
c) A type B survival curve is a survival curve for animals in which the mortality rate (death rate ) of
individuals at each age is constant.
d) Type C survival curves have low mortality rates during early development and are more common
in animals that receive parental protection during early development.
e) In animals with type C survival curves, the lower the mortality rate during early development, the
less likely an outbreak will occur.

Q 2 : [Recapture method]

In order to investigate the population of crucian inhabiting a certain swamp, we caught 50 individuals
with a cast net, tagged them, and released them. Three days later, 40 individuals were caught with a cast
net, and 5 of them were tagged.

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(1) What is the estimated population size of crucian carp in this swamp? Select the most appropriate one
from the following ①~⑥.

(2) In order to estimate population size using the marking-and-recapture method, several conditions must
be met. In the experiment above, choose one of the following unnecessary conditions from ① to ⑥.

① Individuals do not come and go between this swamp and other areas.
② Make sure that the attached tag does not affect the swimming of the crucian carp.
③ The sign must not fall off during the survey period.
④ Survival rates of individuals with samples during the study period should be equal to those
without samples.
⑤ During the research period, the tags attached should not affect mating activities.
⑥ All individuals have the same probability of being captured, and tagging does not affect capture
efficiency.

Q 3 : [Territorial size]

The size of the optimal territory is the profit obtained from territory and the cost of maintaining it.
When the profit gained from a territory is as shown in the figure, what is the optimal size of the territory
when the cost of maintaining the territory is a curve like A What is the optimal territory size when there is
a straight line like B?
Profit from Territory
Territory benefits or cost

small Territory size large

when A when B
① near a near b
② near a near c
③ near b near b
④ near b near c
⑤ near c near c
⑥ near c near d

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Q 4 : [Carbon cycle and mass balance]

(1) Select one of the following sentences (1) to (6) as the most appropriate combination of words that
apply to (a)-(c) in the following statement about the carbon cycle in forest ecosystems.

Organisms that make up forest ecosystems are classified into three categories (a) - (c).--(a)-- is an
organism that produces organic matter through photosynthesis, and part of the organic matter produced
through photosynthesis is directly or indirectly delivered to an animal called --(b)--. --(a)--＆--(b)--
produces organic matter through respiration and decomposed into carbon dioxide. Dead carcasses and
excreta are decomposed into carbon dioxide by –(c)-- and released into the air.

(a) (b) (c)

① Consumers Decomposer Producer
② Consumers Producer Decomposer
③ Decomposer Consumers Producer
④ Producer Consumers Decomposer
⑤ Producer Decomposer Consumers
⑥ Decomposer Producer Consumers

(2) In this forest, the following results were obtained as a result of investigating the amount of substances
produced by plants. Units are g (dry weight)/(m². year) and figures are for plants only.

Growth amount Amount eaten Amount respiratory volume

(Increase in existing amount) (amount eaten by other organisms) of death (amount used for breathing)

800 400 500 1500

Select the most appropriate value for the production volume of this forest from the following ① to ⑥.
However, the unit shall be g (dry weight/(m². year).

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Q 5 : [Biodiversity and Disturbance]

Ecosystem diversity is affected by disturbance. Regarding coral reefs in Australia, the scale and frequency
of disturbances caused by typhoons and the number of corals. It is known that there is a relationship as
shown in the figure. About this sentence, choose incorrect one from the following ① and ⑤.

number of corals

Scale and frequency of disturbance

(1) In A, most of the coral reefs are frequently destroyed, so only species that can withstand the harsh
environment live there.
(2) In A, most of the coral reefs are frequently destroyed, so only species that are resistant to interspecific
competition live there.
(3) In B, there are parts that were destroyed by disturbance and parts that were not, so a variety of species
survive, including those that are resistant to harsh environments and those that are resistant to
interspecific competition.
(4) In C, there was little influence from disturbance, so interspecific competition became intense and
competitive exclusion occurred, resulting in fewer species.
(5) Species diversity increases more in areas with moderate disturbance than in areas with no disturbance.
sexuality increases.

Q 6 [Biome]

The figure shows the relationship of temperature, precipitation and biome. (a) to (c) in the figure are
representative biomes of Japanese forests.

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 Annual precipitation (mm)

Annual average temperature (C)

(1) For (a), (b), and (c), choose the most suitable combination of dominant trees from among the
following ① to ⑥.

(a) (b) (c)

① Evergreen / Coniferous tree Evergreen /Broadleaf tree Deciduous/ Broadleaf tree
② Evergreen/Coniferous tree Deciduous/ Broadleaf tree Evergreen /Broadleaf tree
③ Deciduous/Coniferous Deciduous/ Broadleaf tree Evergreen /Broadleaf tree
④ Deciduous/Coniferous Evergreen / Coniferous tree Evergreen/ Broadleaf tree
⑤ Deciduous(fallen leave/ Broadleaf tree Evergreen / Broadleaf tree Evergreen/Coniferous tree
⑥ Evergreen/ Broadleaf tree Deciduous/Coniferous Evergreen/Coniferous tree

(2) For the biome in (d), the combination of the name, distributed area and the main tree species is as
follows:Choose the most suitable one from the following ① to ⑥.

Name of Biome Distribution area Main species

① Sclerophyll forest coastal regions of eastern Asia オリープ,コルクガシ
② Sclerophyll forest Mediterranean region オリープ,コルクガシ
③ Sclerophyll forest coastal regions of eastern Asia
カシ類,タブノキ
④ Evergreen forest Mediterranean region カシ類,タブノキ
⑤ Evergreen forest Mediterranean region オリープ,コルクガシ
⑥ Evergreen forest coastal regions of eastern Asia カシ類,タブノキ

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 CHAPTER 10 EVOLUTION AND PHYLOGENY OF ORGANISMS

Summary of main points

I Origin of Life

1) The First Living à Primitive life forms appeared about 4 billion years ago
2) Prosperity of cyanobacteria à Approximately 2.7 billion years ago. Photosynthesis of
cyanobacteria produced oxygen in the atmosphere, leading to the emergence of organisms that
breathe oxygen.

II. Changes in living things

(1) Precambrian Period à Until 5.40 billion years ago. Ediacaran biota, etc.
(2) Paleozoic Era à 540-250 million (5.4 – 2.5 billioon) years ago
① The Great Camprian Explosion (The number of living things has increased explosively),
Purgesian fauna (Camprian)
② Appearance of fish (Silurian period)
③ Appearance of amphibians, appearance of gymnosperms (Deponian period)
④ Prosperity of tree ferns, appearance of reptiles (Carboniferous)

(3) Mesozoic era à 2.5 billion - 66 million years ago

(1) Appearance of mammals (Triassic period)

(2) Appearance of birds, fear, and prosperity of gymnosperms (Jurassic period)
(3) Appearance of angiosperms, ammonites, extinction of dinosaurs (Cretaceous period)

III. Human evolution

(1) Emergence of primates

• Acquisition of hands that are easy to grasp tree branches à The child acquires thumb opposis
(the thumb faces the other fingers), develops flat nails, and begins to gnaw at things.
• Vision develops à The eyes move to the front of the face, expanding the range of stereoscopic
vision.
(2) Emergence of humanity à Approximately 7 million years ago Sahelanthropus tchadensis (simian
hominid)
(3) Australopithecus (ape hominid) à 3-4 million years ago

supraorbital descent

foramen magnum

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 • The foramen magnum is located directly below the skull. The spine is S shaped. The pelvis
extend laterally.
• The large teeth have degenerated, and the dentition resembles that of humans.
• There are similarities with great apes, such as volume and supraorbital protuberance.

(4) Appearance of Homo erectus (proto-human) à 2 million years ago

(5) Neanderthals (ancient humans) à 200,000 to 300,000 years ago.Same as modern humans.
(6) Homo sapiens (new humans, modern humans) à Born in Africa about 200,000 years ago.

IV Mechanism of evolution

(1) Mutation
• Gene mutation à A change occurs in the base of DNA (Substitutions, deletions, insertions, etc.
• Chromosome mutation

Deletion Duplication Inversion Translocation

(2) Natural selection

1. Natural selectionà If a mutation is advantageous for survival or reproduction, the number of

individuals carrying that gene will increase in the population.
2. Adaptive evolution àAs a result of natural selection, a group of organisms comes to have traits
that are adapted to their environment
3. Adaptive radiation à A group of living things that share a common ancestor come to have traits
that are adapted to various environments and split into many species. Eg.Marsupials of the
country Australia
4. convergent evolution à Different species of organisms that evolved independently under similar
environments come to have similar forms. Eg., The marsupial sugar glider and the eutherian
flying squirrel are similar.

(3) Genetic drift à

1. gene pool à The total number of genes possessed by a population of organisms capable of
interbreeding
2. Gene frequency à Proportion of alleles at one locus
When gene frequency A : a = p : q (p + q = 1)
The result of random mating is
AA : Aa: aa = p2: 2pq : q2
A : a = p2+ pq : pq + q2 = p : q
Genes do not change over generations (Hardy-Weinberg law).

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 3. The size of the genetic population is finite and may change by chance.
4. Bottleneck effect: The number of individuals in a population decreases significantly, and genetic
drift becomes more likely to occur, causing gene frequencies to change significantly from the
original population.
5. Neutralization à Most mutations at the molecular level are neither advantageous nor
disadvantageous to survival, and organisms evolve by accumulating neutral mutations.
(4) Molecular evolution à Examine evolution by examining differences in DNA base sequences and
protein amino acid sequences. The more closely related there are, the fewer differences there are.
molecular clock à Estimating the date when species diverged from differences in amino acid and base
sequences

V Organism strain

(1) Classification hierarchy

Species < Genus < Family < order < Groups < Divisions < Domains

(2) Five world theory

1. Prokaryotes (Bacteria and Algae)

2. Protista (unicellular organisms, algae)
3. plant kingdom
4. Fungi kingdom (fungi)
5. Classified in the animal kingdom (animals)

(3) 3 domain theory

Classified as ① Bacteria, ② Algae ③ Eukaryotes.

VI. classification

(1) Plant classification

plant vascular bundle water seed

moss plant No Absorbed from the Cannot made
body surface
Fern (cider) plant Yes (Tracheids) absorbed through roots
Gymnosperms Can made
angiosperm Yes (duct)

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(2) classification of animals

海
綿
動
物

脱⽪動物 ―Shedding animals

冠輪動物 ―
脊椎動物 ― vertebrate
棘⽪動物 ― echinoderm
節⾜動物 ― arthropod
線形動物 ― linear animals
環形動物 ― annelid
軟体動物 ― mollusk
輪形動物 ― rotifers
扁形動物 ― flatworm
原索動物 ― protochordate
刺胞動物 ― cnidarians
海綿動物 ― sponges
新ロ動物 ー Deuterostome
⼆胚葉動物 ― diploblastic animal
旧ロ動物 ー protostome
三胚葉動物 ― triploblastic animal
無胚葉 ― Aembryonic

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 QUESTION

Question 1 [Biological evolution]

(1) Choose the most appropriate description of the evolution of living things from the following ① to ⑥.

①All organisms of the Ediacaran biota discovered in the early Paleozoic strata had soft, flat bodies.
②As we entered the Paleozoic Era, cyanobacteria flourished and their photosynthesis increased oxygen
in the atmosphere, forming an ozone layer in the sky.
③ Angiosperms appeared in the Cretaceous at the end of the Mesozoic Era.
④At the end of the Paleozoic Era, intense volcanic activity and climate change occurred, leading to the
extinction of marine life such as trilobites and ammonites.
⑤Cooksonia, a plant discovered in the strata of the late Silurian period, also has vascular bundles.
⑥During the Carboniferous period of the Paleozoic Era, tree ferns over 20 meters tall such as calamite
and lepidodendron flourished, but these ferns did not have vascular systems.

(2) From the late Mesozoic to the Cenozoic era, the previously prosperous gymnosperms declined,
replaced by the prosperity of the angiosperms, which continues to this day. One of the reasons for this is
that they have evolved in various ways through interaction with animals, such as using insects for
pollination. In this way, what is called evolution through interactions with other species of organisms?
Select the most appropriate one from ① to ⑦ below.

(1) Adaptive radiation (5) Coevolution

(2) Symbiosis (6) Convergent evolution
(3) Neutral evolution (7) Genetic drift
(4) Natural selection

Question 2 [Human evolution]

Australopithecus, a great ape that lived in Africa between 4 and 1 million years ago, had characteristics in
common with both modern humans (Homo sapiens) and anthropoid apes.

Characteristics shared with modern humans Characteristics shared with apes

(1) Large brain volume The pelvis is wide.

(2) Foramen magnum facing downward There is a bony protuberance
above the eye.
(3) There is a bony protuberance above the eye. Large brain volume
(4) Spinal column curved in an S-shape The pelvis is wide.
(5) Large brain volume walk on two legs
(6) The pelvis is wide. Foramen magnum facing
downward

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(2) What changes have occurred since humans started walking on two legs? Choose the most appropriate
one from the following ①~⑤

(1) They began to stand upright, and their pharynx became longer, allowing them to make complex
vocalizations.
(2) Bipedal walking made it difficult for people to move quickly, so they settled down and started
farming.
(3) The pelvis expands laterally to support internal organs in an upright position, making childbirth
easier.
(4) Because they were able to walk on two legs and run faster, they were able to prey on larger
animals.
(5) Since they could use their hands freely and easily hang from trees, they began to live like trees in
the forest.

Question 3: [gene frequency]

Some people feel bitterness when they lick PTC, while others do not. Taste for PTC in humans is
controlled by a pair of genes (A,a) on the autosomal chromosome, and the trait that senses bitter taste is
dominant (A) and the trait that does not sense (a) recessive. A survey of this taste in a certain area found
that 840 out of 1000 people felt bitterness and 160 people felt no bitterness.

(1) When the gene frequencies of gene A and gene a are p and q, respectively, choose the most appropriate
combination of values of p and q from among the following ① to ⑤.

(2) What is the percentage of people with genotype Aa in this population? Choose the most appropriate
one from ① to ⑥ below.

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Question 4 [Mechanism of evolution]

Choose one statement from ① to ⑦ on the next page that is most closely related to the descriptions in
① to (3) below.

(1) When alleles have no advantage or disadvantage for survival, the frequency of genes passed on to the
next generation may change by chance.

(2) The tufted wolf, a marsupial that lives in Australia, and the eutherian wolf that lives on other
continents have similar morphology.
(3) Due to diastrophism, etc., when homogenous populations are geographically separated for a long
period of time, differences in reproductive organ structure and reproduction timing occur between the
isolated population and the original population. This prevents crossbreeding.

1. neutral evolution
2. genetic drift
3. convergent evolution
4. adaptive radiation
5. bottleneck effect
6. Sexual selection
7. Reproductive isolation

Question 5 : [Molecular evolution]

We compared the amino acid sequences of a homologous protein X in the organism P-S, where he
examined where the amino acids differed. The following table summarizes this, showing that there were
16 amino acid differences between organism P and organism.

Organism P Organism Q Organism R Organism S

Organism P

Organism Q 16
Organism R 70 69
Organism S 27 28 71

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(1) Based on the results in the table, choose the most appropriate one from ① to ⑥ below to determine
what the molecular phylogenetic tree will look like if you create it.

(2) Organisms P and Q are thought to have diverged from a common ancestor about 72 million years ago.
How many tens of thousands of years does it take for one amino acid substitution in protein X? Choose
the most appropriate one from ① to ⑥ below.

1. 4 million years
2. 5 million years
3. 6 million years
4. 7 million years
5. 8 million years
6. 9 million years

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Question 6 : [ Classification of animals]

The figure is a phylogenetic tree that classifies and represents the phylogenetic relationships of animals
by focusing on the characteristics A to E. Choose the most appropriate characteristic that applies to A, B,
and D from among the following ① to ⑥.

A B D

deuterostome protostome diploblastic animal

①
triploblasticanimal
② deuterostome protostome
③ protostome deuterostome diploblastic animal
④ protostome deuterostome triploblasticanimal
⑤ diploblastic animal Triploblastic animal deuterostome
⑥ Triploblastic animal diploblastic animal protostome

節⾜動物 ― arthropod
環形動物 ― annelid
軟体動物 ― mollusk
線形動物 ― linear animals
扁形動物 ― flatworm
脊椎動物 ― vertebrate
原索動物 ― protochordate
棘⽪動物 ― echinoderm
刺胞動物 ― cnidarians
海綿動物 ― sponges

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