Introduction to Computers

1. Introduction to Computers

Defining Computers
Def1: A computer is a digital electronic device that converts input (data) into output
(information) which is useful to people.

Def2: A computer is an electronic device, operating under the control of instructions stored in
its own memory that can accept data (input), process the data according to specified rules,
produce information (output), and store the information for future usage.

Def3: A Computer is a machine that accepts data and processes that data (data may be
numbers, letters or both or even sounds). Information is turned into electrical pulses so that it
may be processed by sorting, collating and deleting mathematical manipulation and other
forms of data processing.

Def4: A computer accepts information using an input device. The information is processed by
a central processing unit or stored in a storage unit i.e., Hard Disk and then processed.

Functions of Computer
1. Accepts data (Input).
2. Processes data (Processing).
3. Produces result (Output).
4. Store results (Storage)

Characteristics of Computers
Computer has the following characteristics:
Introduction to Computers

• Accuracy

• Diligence

• Versatility

• Reliability

• Automation

• Storage

Basic Terms in the Field of Computers:

When we talk about computers, it involves the following basic terms generally:
i. Hardware: A computers hardware consists of electronic devices (every component); the
physical or tangible parts of the computer called hardware. Like Cables, Monitor, Keyboard,
CPU, Mouse, Mother Board, RAM etc.
ii. Software: A program or set of programs, used to give commands to the computer for the
desired results.
iii. Data: A collection of raw facts and figures is called data, which can include text, numbers,
images, audios and videos etc.
iv. Information: The processed form of data is called information. It is an organized but more
meaningful form of data. v. User: A person who uses the computer system and its resources

Types of computers (on the basis of their function and nature)

There are three main types of computers:

• Analog Computers represents data as a continuous spectrum of values, and gives output in
form of voltage signals i.e., between -15 and +15 volts. Slide Rule, Curvimeter were early
analog computers.

• Digital Computers uses number to represent information. Two digits 0 and 1 combine to
make data. Most of the modern computers are digital. Mark-I was first general-purpose digital
computer built in 1940s by Aiken. Examples of digital computers are IBM PC, Apple Mac etc.

• Hybrid Computers are the computers which processes both digital and analog data. It can
be a digital computer that accepts analog signals and process them in digital form. Some of
the applications of hybrid computers are Devices used in petrol pumps, machines used in
hospitals to measure B.P.
Introduction to Computers

Classification (Categorization) of Computers

Computers can be categorized on the basis of size and speed as:
Computers used by individual users
Desktop Computer is personal computer designed for regular use at a single location on or
near a desk or table due to its size and power requirements. Desktop computers are available
in horizontally oriented casing and tower casing e.g., Microsoft PC
Workstations are the specialized, powerful desktop computers designed for engineers,
architects. It's intended for business or professional use (rather than home or recreational
use).
Notebook Computers are small, portable computers, weighs between 3 and 8 pounds and is
about 8 ½ by 11 inches.
A laptop is a small, portable computer -- small enough that it can sit on your lap. Nowadays,
laptop computers are more frequently called notebook computers, though technically laptops
are somewhat larger in size than notebooks, in both thickness and weight.
Tablet Computer commonly known as tablet, is a portable, thin, flat mobile computer with a
touch screen display, which is usually in color, processing circuitry, and a rechargeable battery
in a single device.
Handheld Devices are computing equipment that can be used in the hand, such as PDA,
smart phone or tablet computer. e.g., PDA: - (Personal digital assistant). Smart phones.

Computers used by Organizations

Network Server is a centralized computer (often simply a powerful desktop) that provides
data and network resources to all computers (clients) connected in the network. Multiple
servers in cluster are called server farms.
Super Computers are the most powerful, largest and fastest computers, used to handle large
and complex calculations, processing trillions of operations per second. They are used in
research organizations, weather forecasting e.g., Cray-1 and Cray-2.
Mainframe computers (big computers or big irons) are computers used primarily by large
organizations for bulk data processing, such as census, enterprise resource planning, and
transaction processing. They are large and expensive computer capable of supporting
hundreds, or even thousands, of users simultaneously, with the help of terminals (dumb or
intelligent). They are often used in air Lines, banks, universities etc. IBM S/390 is an example
of mainframe. Terminal consists of a monitor, keyboard and mouse, by using which number of
users can access the systems. It can be dumb or intelligent.
Introduction to Computers

Mini-Computers (mid-range computers), a term no longer much used, are the computers of a
size intermediate between a microcomputer and a mainframe. They are capable of
supporting hundreds of users simultaneously, with the help of terminals e.g., Hewlett-Packard
HP 3000 series, HP 2100 series, HP1000 series.

Micro-Computer is a computer with a central processing unit (CPU) as a microprocessor,

designed for individual use. The term was introduced in the 1970s to differentiate desktop
computer systems from larger minicomputers. It is often used synonymously with the term
"desktop computer," but it may refer to a server or laptop as well e.g., Microsoft PC, Laptop
computers.

Micro-Controllers also called embedded computer, is a compact microcomputer designed to

govern the operation of embedded systems in motor vehicles, robots, office machines,
complex medical devices, mobile radio transceivers, vending machines, home appliances, and
various other devices.

Main parts of a computer system

Four main parts of a computer system are:
• Hardware: physical parts of the computer System Unit (Processor, memory, storage
devices) input/output units
• Software: instructions to the computer (Application and System Software)
• Data: raw facts the computer can manipulate. Data is organized into files. A file is a set of
data that has been given a name, often called a document. Data can be in form of Text
(Alphabetic), Numbers, Alphanumeric or Video Clip (Image & sound)
• People: also known as users. Users have following tasks to perform while working with the
computer:
• Setting up computer System
• Installing Software
• Running Programs
• Managing Files
• Maintaining the System
Introduction to Computers

Some computers are user-less, means they don’t need any user to operate them such as
Dryer, Washers, and many other home appliances.

VON NEUMAN ARCHITECTURE/MACHINE ORGANIZATION

In 1945, just after the World War, two mathematician-scientists Alan Turing and John Von
Neumann were working on breaking the Enigma code using the 'Colossus' computer and to
build the first atomic bomb respectively, which needed vast calculations. Up to that time, the
computers were ‘programmed’ by rebuilding the entire machine to carry out a different task.
For example, the early computer called ENIAC took three weeks to re-wire in order to do a
different calculation. There had to be a better way.
The new idea was that both data and the program processing that data should stored in the
same memory for faster calculation. This 'stored_program' architecture is now commonly
known as the 'Von Neumann' architecture. All computers more or less based on the same
basic design, the Von Neumann Architecture!

Von Newman model is based on the following three characteristics:

1. Computer has four main sub-systems:

• Memory

• ALU (Arithmetic/Logic Unit)

• Control Unit

• Input/output System (I/O)

2. Program is stored in memory during execution.
3. Program instructions are executed sequentially.
Introduction to Computers

Memory
Computer memory is any physical device capable of storing information temporarily or
permanently. For example, Random Access Memory (RAM), is a volatile memory that stores
information on an integrated circuit used by the operating system, software, and hardware.

Type of memory or storage

There are two types of memory or storage:
Primary Storage (Main Memory) Main memory is where programs and data are kept when
the processor is actively using them. When programs and data become active, they are
copied from secondary memory into main memory where the processor can interact with
them. RAM is an example of main memory.
Secondary Storage Secondary Storage is where programs and data are kept on a long-term
basis. Common secondary storage devices are the magnetic disks such as Hard disk, magnetic
tape and optical disks like CD, DVD.

Types of Main Memory

ROM – is a type of non-volatile memory used in computers and other electronic devices.
Data stored in ROM can only be modified slowly, with difficulty, or not at all, so it is mainly
used to store firmware (software that is closely tied to specific hardware and unlikely to need
frequent updates). It contains the basic input output system or BIOS (POST). Different types of
ROM are:

• PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory): Only written once then its contents cannot be
deleted.

• EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory): Designed for recovering the problems
of PROM and ROM. Users can delete the data of EPROM thorough ultraviolet light and it
erases chip is reprogrammed.

• EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory): Similar to the EPROM
but it uses electrical beam for erase the data of ROM. It can be erased using electronic
impulses and written again

RAM
RAM is an acronym for Random Access Memory, a type of fast access computer memory that
can be accessed randomly; that is, any byte of memory can be accessed without touching the
preceding bytes. RAM is the most common type of memory found in computers and other
Introduction to Computers

devices, such as printers. Memory is divided into units or words; each is usually a standard
size or fixed-length. When the computer is running, both Program Data (variables) are stored
in the memory. RAM is Volatile in nature, means all the data disappears when power is off.
Following two technologies are used to build RAM:
1. SRAM: Static RAM

• Faster and expensive

• No need to refresh its contents

• Cache memory: fast memory inside CPU chip

2. DRAM: Dynamic RAM

• Most commonly used technology to build RAM

• Need to be refreshed periodically

• Main memory
Differences between ROM and RAM

Random Access Memory (RAM) Read Only Memory (ROM)

Volatile - Data is lost if the computer crashes Non-volatile - Data is never lost.
or is turned off.
Data is temporary - it is only there as long as Data is permanent - it can never be changed.
the computer is on and it can be changed.
Data can be written to or read from. Data can only be read.

Virtual memory
Virtual memory is a feature of an operating system (OS) that allows a computer to
compensate for shortages of physical memory by temporarily transferring pages of data from
random access memory (RAM) to disk storage.
Processor
CPU (Central Processing Unit): of a computer is a piece of hardware that carries out the
instructions of a computer program. The CPU is like the brains of the computer - every
instruction, no matter how simple, has to go through the CPU.
Basic elements of a processor
CU (Control Unit): Control unit controls the flow of data into and from the Central Processing
Unit. It generates signals to the computer system to execute the programs. It does not itself
execute the programs; rather it directs other parts of system to do so. It must communicate
Introduction to Computers

with ALU, memory and other parts of computer system. It also controls the flow of
information through the processor and coordinates the activities of other units.
ALU (Arithmetic/Logic Unit) ALU: is an electronic circuit that that performs all Arithmetic i.e.
addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and Logical operations such as equal to, less
than, greater than. The process of performing arithmetic and logical operations with the help
of computers is called Electronic Data Processing (EDP).

Registers
Registers are fast storage locations that hold data or instructions temporarily. Type of registers
includes:
• Data registers: Holds data coming from or to be sent to RAM.
• Instruction registers: Used for storing and decoding instructions.
• Accumulator registers: Stores the result of latest calculation.
• Address registers: Keeps the track of where data is stored in memory.
• Program counter: has the address of next instruction to be executed.

Cache Memory
Cache memory, also called CPU memory that a computer microprocessor can access more
quickly than it can access regular RAM. This memory is typically integrated directly with the
CPU chip or placed on a separate chip that has a separate bus interconnect with the CPU.
• L1 is "level-1" cache (2KB-64KB) memory, usually built onto the microprocessor chip itself.
For example, the Intel MMX microprocessor comes with 32 thousand bytes of L1. Instructions
are first searched in this cache. L1 cache is very small in comparison to others, thus making it
faster than the rest
. • L2 (that is, level-2) cache (256KB-512KB) memory is on a separate chip (possibly on an
expansion card). If the instructions are not present in the L1 cache then it looks in the L2
cache, which is a slightly larger pool of cache, thus accompanied by some latency.
System clock refers to a microchip that regulates the timing and speed of all computer
functions. The speed of a computer processor is measured in clock speed, for example, 1 MHz
is one million cycles, or vibrations, a second
Instruction Set is the complete set of all the instructions in machine code that can be
recognized and executed by a CPU (Built-in).
Introduction to Computers

2. History of Computer Development

The history of computer dates back to the period of scientific revolution (i.e., 1543 – 1678).
The calculating machine invented by Blaise Pascal in 1642 and that of Goffried Liebnits
marked the genesis of the application of machine in industry.
This progressed up to the period 1760 – 1830 which was the period of the industrial
revolution in Great Britain where the use of machine for production altered the British society
and the Western world. During this period Joseph Jacquard invented the weaving loom (a
machine used in textile industry).
The computer was born not for entertainment or email but out of a need to solve a serious
number-crunching crisis. By 1880, the United State (U.S) population had grown so large that it
took more than seven years to tabulate the U.S. Census results. The government sought a
faster way to get the job done, giving rise to punch-card based computers that took up entire
rooms. Today, we carry more computing power on our smart phones than was available in
these early models.

EARLY HISTORY OF COMPUTER: One of the earliest and most well-known known devices was
abacus. Then in 1822 , the father of computers, Charles Babbage begin developing that would
be the first mechanical computer. And then 1883 he actually designed an analytical Engine
which has a general purpose computer.
EARLY COMPUTING DEVICES: People used sticks, stones, and bones as counting tools before
computers were invented. More computing devices were produced as technology advanced
and the human intellect improved over time. Let us look at a few of the early-age computing
devices used by mankind.
1. ABACUS: Abacus was invented by the Chinese around 4000 years ago. It’s a wooden rack
with a metal rod with beads attached to them. The abacus operator moves the beads
according to certain guidelines to complete arithmetic computations.
2. NAPIER’S: John Napier’s Bones, a manually operated calculating apparatus. For calculating,
this instrument used 9 separate ivory strips (bones)marked with numerals to multiply and
divide. It was also the first machine to calculate using the decimal point system.
3. PASCALINE: Pascaline was invented in 1642 by Blaise Pascal a French mathematician and
philosopher. It is thought to be their first mechanical automated calculator. It was a wooden
box with gears and wheel inside.
Introduction to Computers

4. STEPPED RECKONER OR LIEBNIZ WHEEL: In 1973, a germen mathematician a philosopher

named Gottfried Wihelm Leibniz improved on Pascal’s invention to create this apparatus. It
was a digital mechanical calculator known as the stepped reckoner because it is used fluted
drums instead of gears.
5. DIFFERENT ENGINE: In the early 1820s, Charles Babbage created the difference Engine. It
was a mechanical computer that could do basic components. It was a steam-powered
calculating machine used to solve numerical tables such as logarithmic tables.
6. ANALYTICAL ENGINE: Charles Babbage created another calculating machine, the Analytical
Engine, in 1830. It was a mechanical computer that took input from punch cards. It was
capable of solving any mathematical problem and storing data in an indefinite memory.
7. TABULATING ENGINE: An American statistician Hermon Hollerith invented this machine in
the year 1890. Tabulating machine was a punch cards-based mechanical tabulator. It could
compute statistics and record or sort data or information. Hollerith began manufacturing
these machines in his company, which ultimately became international business machine
(IBM) in 1924.
8. DIFFERENT ANALYZER: Vannevar Bush introduced the first electrical computer, the
differential Analyzer in 1930. This machine is made up of a vacuum tube switches electrical
impulses in order to do calculations. It was capable of performing 25 calculations in a matter
of minutes.
9. MARK I: Howard Aiken planned to build a machine in 1937 that could conduct massive
calculations or calculation using extreme numbers. The Mark I computer was constructed in
1944 as a collaboration between IBM and Harvard.

2.1 History of Computer Generations

The word ‘Computer’ has a very interesting origin. It was first used in the 16th century for a
person who used to compute i.e., do calculation. The word was used in the same sense as a
noun until 20th century. Women were hired as human computers to carry out all forms of
calculation and computations.
By the last part of 19th century, the word was also used to describe machines that did
calculations. The modern-day use of the word is generally to describe programmable digital
devices that run on electricity
Introduction to Computers

GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS In the history of computers, we often refer to the

advancements of modern computers as the generation of computers. We are currently on the
fifth generation of computers. So let us look at the important features of these five
generations of computers.

First Generation (1940-1956) Vacuum Tubes: -

This was from the period of 1940 to 1955. This was when machine language was developed
for the use of computers. They used vacuum tubes for the circuitry. For the purpose of
memory, they used magnetic drums. These machines were complicated, large, and expensive.
For example, ENIAC, UNIVAC-1, EDVAC, and so on.
Second Generation (1956-1963) Transistors: -
The years 1957-1963 were referred to as the “second generation of computers” at the time.
In second-generation computers, COBOL and FORTRAN are employed as assembly languages
and programming languages. Here they advanced from vacuum tubes to transistors. This
made the computers smaller, faster and more energy-efficient. And they advanced from
binary to assembly languages. For instance, IBM 1620, IBM 7094, CDC 1604, CDC 3600, and
so forth.
Third Generation (1964-1971) Integrated Circuits: -
The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of
computers. Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors,
which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers.

Instead of punched cards and printouts, users would interact with a third-generation computer
through keyboards, monitors and interfaces with an operating system, which allowed the
device to run many different applications at one time with a central program that monitored
the memory. Computers, for the first time, became accessible to a mass audience because they
were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors. High-level programming languages such as
FORTRON-II to IV, COBOL, and PASCAL PL/1 were utilized. For example, the IBM-360 series,
the Honeywell-6000 series, and the IBM-370/168.

Fourth Generation (1971- 89 Present) Microprocessors: -

The invention of the microprocessors brought along the fourth generation of computers. The
years 1971-1980 were dominated by fourth generation computers.
Introduction to Computers

The microprocessor ushered in the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated

circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. The technology in the first generation that filled an
entire room could now fit in the palm of the hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971,
integrated all the components of the computer, from the central processing unit and memory
to input/output controls, on a single chip.

C, C++ and Java were the programming languages utilized in this generation of computers.
For instance, the STAR 1000, PDP 11, CRAY-1, CRAY-X-MP, and Apple II. This was when we
started producing computers for home use.

Fifth Generation (1989 to Present and Beyond) Artificial Intelligence

These computers have been utilized since 1980 and continue to be used now. This is the
present and the future of the computer world. The defining aspect of this generation is
artificial intelligence. The use of parallel processing and superconductors are making this a
reality and provide a lot of scope for the future. Fifth-generation computers use ULSI (Ultra
Large-Scale Integration) technology. These are the most recent and sophisticated computers.
C, C++, Java, .Net, and more programming languages are used. For instance, IwoBM,
Pentium, Desktop, Laptop, Notebook, Ultra book, and so on.
Introduction to Computers

3. Uses and Limitations

3.1 Uses of Computers

Computers are playing a vital role in almost every field and making our day-to-day tasks more
manageable. Computers were only used to perform complex numerical calculations in a
previous time, but they have reached too far and now perform many different roles. They are
now performing diverse set functions from complicated calculations to generating business
reports, bill generation to education, programming or development to entertainment, etc.

Because of their characteristics and powerful functionalities, computers are used in various
fields, such as homes, businesses, government offices, research organizations, educational
institutions, medical, entertainment, etc. Computers have taken industries and businesses to
a whole new level. Below, we have elaborated the most common uses of computers in
different fields:

1. Business
Currently, computers can be seen in almost every business. Computers are almost part of a
business setup because they increase productivity and help race in a competitive environment.
In businesses, computers are primarily used to store and manage accounts and personal data,
maintain projects, track inventory status, and make reports and presentations. Besides,
computers are best suited for transaction processing because they are more accurate and
faster than humans. Computers also help people analyse their investment, expenses, profits,
sales and many other aspects of the business.

Nowadays without computers, we can’t imagine any business. Because Computer is a very
important part of business for handling all type of records of all data which are very crucial
for any business. Computer versatility drives innovation and transforms how businesses
perform and succeed in today’s digital world.
Introduction to Computers

2. Science
Computers are now essential tools in every branch of science. Scientists are amongst one of
those people who use computers as their primary work tool. In science, research and
engineering, computers are best suited for collecting, analysing, categorizing, and storing the
data. They also help scientists to exchange data with each other both internally and
internationally. Computers enable scientists from different locations (such as different
countries) to work together on the same project with cloud support. Besides, computers play
a crucial role in launching, maintaining, controlling spacecraft, and operating many other
technologies.

3. Government
In the government sector, computers are beneficial. They are getting used to performing
various functions in different departments and improving their services' quality, efficiency, and
productivity. Some examples of such services are city planning, traffic control, law
enforcement, infrastructure developments, and tourism. In most cases, the primary purposes
of using computers are performing data processing tasks, maintaining citizens' database, and
promoting a paperless environment. Apart from this, computers are playing a crucial role in
the country's defence system. They are helping in missile development, rocket, and satellite
launches, etc.

4. Health and medical

Computers play a vital role in the day-to-day operations of healthcare (hospitals). Computer
usage in hospitals and other medical facilities has increased drastically over the past few
years as technology has advanced. Many hospitals now use computer carts on wheels that
allow health professionals to have computer access anywhere in the facility. This is beneficial
because it increases efficiency and accuracy when entering patient information, lab results,
and supply orders.
Everything is being digitized with the help of computers. Computers help configure lab-tools,
monitor heart rate, and blood pressure, etc. Doctors get extra advantages in treating patients
with proper drugs and medicines. Additionally, computers enable doctors to exchange
patient's data easily with other medical specialists. Besides, advanced surgical devices are
based on robotics that helping surgeons to conduct complex operations and surgeries
remotely.
Introduction to Computers

5. Education
Computers have revolutionized the education sector. They have become critical tools in
schools, colleges, and universities. They help people get different educational materials (such
as images, videos, e-books, etc.) in one place. All such information can be accessed through
the Internet. Additionally, computers are best suited for online classes, online tutoring, online
examinations, and creating assignments and projects. Apart from this, they can also be used
to maintain and monitor student performance and other information.

The Internet has opened up a treasure trove of learning resources. Students can supplement
classroom education by accessing specialized study platforms online.

Platforms like Khan Academy, Coursera, edX, Udemy, Skillshare, and MasterClass offer
thousands of video lessons and courses on academic and professional topics. Khan Academy
itself has over 120,000 interactive lessons spanning math, science, economics, grammar, and
more.

6. Industry
Computers are used in industries to perform various tasks, such as maintaining inventory,
interior designing, designing samples or virtual products, communicating over video
conferencing, and more. Online marketing has made it easier for people to buy products in
rural areas. Online trading in stock markets has also seen a significant revolution due to its easy
participation potential. Computers have enabled people from different levels of different
locations to participate easily in stock marketing.

7. Banking

Banking has become so advanced in the past few years. Most countries use online banking
systems where customers can access their data directly using computers and the Internet.
People can check their account balance, transfer money, and pay online bills, including credit
cards. Besides, Banks use computers to perform transactions and store customer data,
transaction records, etc. Banks have reduced the number of manual errors, number of
employees, and costs to a great extent by using computers. ATMs are the best example of
computers that are helping people to withdraw and deposit the money themselves.
Introduction to Computers

8. Entertainment

Computers now have a major impact on the entertainment industry. Computers can be used
to watch movies, play games, listen to music, etc. They are employed to create striking
special effects for movies. They are employed in the editing of movies, the creation of
animated features, the creation of multimedia presentations, etc. Computers are used to
simulate games and experiment with different gaming strategies.
With the advancement of video cards and internet speed, movies are now at a click of the
mouse button. Besides, people can also enjoy recording their videos with webcam and apply
several entertaining AI effects. Several Photo editor programs are also available with fabulous
powerful features.

9. Arts

Since the stone age, Art has developed with humankind. The devices and the medium have
changed however the capability of art continues as before. Computers have become part of
art, photography, dance, and culture. Computers with advanced features allow users to draw
their projects directly on it. Besides, people can use computers to digitize their photos. There
are several photo editor softwares that can help people edit and customize their photos.
Apart from this, the dance's movements and steps can be shown live with animations' help.

10. Sports
In today's technologically developed world, computers are being used in almost every sport.
There are many sports activities where computers are making things possible. In sports,
computers are mainly used to maintain scoreboards, records, and other statistics.
Furthermore, they are used to analyse player movements and make various in-game decisions.
Computers help make complex in-game decisions (especially in umpiring), which cannot be
seen by human eyes.

11. Robotics
Robotics is one of the emerging fields of technology that uses computers for science and
engineering as well as designing machines. These machines can be virtual (such as software
bots) and physical ones that can reduce or eliminate human workload. Additionally, some
machines can perform heavy tasks that humans cannot complete, or that may take a long time
Introduction to Computers

to complete. Car manufacturing was one of the first examples where robots helped to
assemble car parts and perform many other heavy tasks.

Agricultural robots are boosting crop yields for farmers through various technologies, including
drones, self-driving tractors, and robotic arms. These innovations are finding unique and creative
uses in farming practices.

Space robots operate in challenging space environments to support various space missions,
including satellite servicing, planetary exploration, and space station maintenance.

12. Safety and Security

Computers are capable of working together with different equipment, tools, and technologies.
When it comes to safety, computers are widely being used with the security camera. Almost
every private and government organizations are equipped with security cameras to monitor
people and goods. Also, these cameras are helping security intelligence agencies to identify
terrorists or criminals in public places. Computers attached with a fingerprint scanner and face-
recognition technology have made it harder for fraudsters to use fake identities and take
government benefits using someone else's identity. Security systems have become so powerful
with the introduction of computer technology and the Internet.
Introduction to Computers

3.2 Limitations of Computers

What are the limitations of a computer Computers are powerful machines that have
revolutionized the way we live and work, but they also have limitations. Here are some of the
major limitations of computers:

1. Lack of Creativity: Computers are unable to be creative in the same way that humans can
be. They can perform tasks that are programmed into them, but they cannot think outside the
box or come up with new ideas on their own.

2. Limited Memory: While computers have the ability to store vast amounts of data, they have
a finite amount of memory. This means that they can only handle so much information at once,
and they may struggle with complex tasks that require a lot of data processing.

3. Inability to Learn: While computers can be programmed to learn and adapt to new
situations, they cannot learn in the same way that humans can. They do not have the ability to
think critically or make decisions based on instinct or intuition.

4. Dependence on Power: Computers require a constant supply of electricity to function. This

means that they cannot be used in areas where there is no power supply, such as in remote
locations or during power outages.

5. Vulnerability to Viruses and Hacking: Computers are vulnerable to viruses and hacking
attacks, which can compromise the security of sensitive information and cause serious damage
to the system.

6. Lack of Emotional Intelligence: Computers are unable to understand human emotions or

communicate on an emotional level. They can recognize certain emotions based on
programmed responses, but they cannot truly empathize with human beings.

7.Environmental Impact: The production and disposal of computers have a significant

environmental impact, including the use of non-renewable resources, the emission of
greenhouse gases, and the creation of electronic waste.

8.Dependence on Software: Computers rely on software to perform tasks, which means that
they are only as good as the software that is available to them. If there is no software available
to perform a certain task, the computer cannot perform it.

In conclusion, while computers have many advantages, they also have limitations that can
impact their effectiveness in certain situations. It's important to understand these limitations
and work around them to ensure that computers are used in the most effective way possible.
Introduction to Computers

4. Basic Units of Personal Computers

A computer system is a collection of electronic and mechanical devices operating as a unit.
These devices can be sorted according to the role they play in the computer system. The
main device categories are:

The main parts of a computer system are:

1. Motherboard

2. Processor

3. RAM

4. Hard Disk Drive

5. Power supply

6. Monitor

7. Keyboard

8. Mouse
Introduction to Computers

1. Motherboard

The Motherboard Often called the mainboard or system board, it is the main circuit board for
the computer system. Every device in the computer system will either be part of the
motherboard or connected to it.

2. Processor

The Processor (CPU) A processor is an integrated circuit (IC) supplied on a single silicon chip.
All of the components and pathways necessary for the movement of data around the
processor are etched on this single chip.
Introduction to Computers

3. Random Access Memory (RAM)

RAM also known as primary storage it is the main working memory of the computer system.
Data and programs currently in use are held in RAM. It is called random access because data
can be accessed in any order. If you are working on a drawing in Solidworks, the Solidworks
program and the drawing under construction are both held in RAM. RAM is volatile which
means that when the computer is turned off, the contents of RAM are lost.

4. Hard Disk Drive (HDD)

A computer hard disk drive (HDD) is a non-volatile data storage device. Non-volatile refers to
storage devices that maintain stored data when turned off. All computers need a storage
device, and HDDs are just one example of a type of storage device.

HDDs are usually installed inside desktop computers, mobile devices, consumer electronics
and enterprise storage arrays in data centres. They can store operating systems, software
programs and other files using magnetic disks.
Introduction to Computers

5. Power Supply

The power supply can be seen from the back of the system unit. The mains cable is plugged
into the power supply. A computer power supply has a number of functions:

• It converts the power from Alternating current (AC) as supplied by the electric supplier to
Direct current (DC) as required by the computer system.

• It transforms the 240 Volts supplied by the electric supplier into the voltages required by
the computer system. The main voltages are:

• 12 volts for the disk drives as they have motors

• 3.3 and 5 volts for the circuit boards in the computer.

Introduction to Computers

6. Monitor

A computer monitor displays images generated by the computer system. Like main memory,
it is a volatile device. When the power is removed, the image is lost. Monitors nowadays, are
almost exclusively LCD (Liquid Crystal Display). CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) monitors are rare and
are now as expensive as LCD monitors. Their physical size, weight and power consumption
has made them unpopular.
Introduction to Computers

7. Keyboard

The keyboard is the primary input device for the computer system. The board is divided into
a number of sections:

• Typing keys: This section contains the letter and number keys. The shift keys, spacebar,
return key etc. are also included in this section.

• Numeric keypad: These keys are arranged as on a calculator and are used in Banks etc.
They allow numeric data to be entered much more quickly than using the numbers at the top
of the typing keys.

• Function keys: These are programmable keys used by software for special functions. E.g. -
F1 is always used for help.

• Control keys: The control keys are used for screen and cursor control. The arrow keys
control the cursor. The Home, End, Page up etc. keys control cursor in software applications.
Introduction to Computers

8. Mouse

A mouse in an input device that uses point and click technology to interact with software
applications. There are two main types:

• Ball mouse: This uses a ball to roll across the surface and move rollers attached to sensors
inside the mouse that reflect the ball movement as cursor movement.

• Optical mouse: This uses a camera to take thousands of images per second and sent them
for digital processing.