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Innovative Medical Devices
Series Editors: Guang-Zhong Yang · Yubo Fan
Yao Guo
Giulio Dagnino
Guang-Zhong Yang
Medical
Robotics
History, Challenges,
and Future Directions
Innovative Medical Devices
Series Editors
Guang-Zhong Yang, Shanghai Jiao Tong University
Shanghai, China
Yubo Fan, Bioengineering Department
Beihang University
Beijing, China
By involving China and international experts in medical devices and allied
technologies, the book series covers both original research and practical approaches
to device innovation and aims to be served as an important reference to researchers
and developers in medical devices and related fields. The book series include 7
topics, which are strategic frontiers, medical imaging, in vitro diagnosis, advanced
therapeutics, medical rehabilitation, health promotion and biomedical materials.
The book series reflects the latest developments in the fields and is suitable for
senior undergraduates, postgraduates, managers, and research and development
engineers in medical devices companies and regulatory bodies, as well as medical
students. The book series is also suitable for training in related topics.
Yao Guo • Giulio Dagnino
Guang-Zhong Yang
Medical Robotics
History, Challenges, and Future
Directions
Yao Guo Giulio Dagnino
Institute of Medical Robotics Robotics and Mechatronics
Shanghai Jiao Tong University University of Twente
Shanghai, China Enschede, Overijssel, The Netherlands
Guang-Zhong Yang
Institute of Medical Robotics
Shanghai Jiao Tong University
Shanghai, China
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721,
Singapore
v
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank our colleagues at the Institute of Medical Robotics, Shanghai
Jiao Tong University, and the Robotics and Mechatronics group, University of
Twente, for their contribution during the preparation of this book. In particular, we
would like to thank Prof Weidong Chen, Dr Dennis Kundrat, Mr Xiao Gu, and Ms
Rui Gu for their help with contributing materials used in this book. Our special
thanks go to Ms Ziyi Zhang for her beautiful and meticulous graphical illustrations
specially designed for us.
We would also like to thank Dr Christina Flann at the University of Twente for
the proofreading service, and the editorial staff of Shanghai Jiao Tong University
Press and Springer in helping with the editorial matters.
vii
Contents
1 Introduction������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 1
1.1 Rise of Surgical Robotics�������������������������������������������������������������������� 2
1.2 Popularity of Rehabilitation and Assistive Robotics�������������������������� 5
1.3 Emergence of Hospital Automation Robotics������������������������������������ 8
1.4 Emerging Technologies and Challenges �������������������������������������������� 10
1.4.1 Robotic Surgery���������������������������������������������������������������������� 10
1.4.2 Robots for Cognitive Rehabilitation and Social Assistance���� 11
1.4.3 Robots for the Future of Smart Hospitals ������������������������������ 12
1.5 Overview of This Book���������������������������������������������������������������������� 14
References���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 14
2 Robotic Surgery ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 19
2.1 Introduction���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 19
2.2 Surgical Robots and Clinical Needs��������������������������������������������������� 21
2.2.1 Standard Laparoscopy������������������������������������������������������������ 21
2.2.2 Neurosurgery and Orthopedics ���������������������������������������������� 23
2.2.3 Robotic Laparoscopy and Endoluminal Intervention ������������ 23
2.3 New Challenges, New Technologies�������������������������������������������������� 26
2.3.1 Superhuman Dexterity and Human–Robot Cooperation�������� 26
2.3.2 Vision and Sensing in Robotic Surgery���������������������������������� 26
2.3.3 Image-Guided Robotic Surgery���������������������������������������������� 28
2.4 Conclusions���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 31
References���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 32
3 Surgical Robotics �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 35
3.1 Introduction���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 35
3.2 Evolution Trends of Surgical Robots�������������������������������������������������� 36
3.2.1 Neurosurgery and Orthopedics ���������������������������������������������� 36
3.2.2 Robotic Laparoscopy and Flexible Robots for Endoluminal
Interventions �������������������������������������������������������������������������� 41
3.2.3 Untethered Microrobots���������������������������������������������������������� 44
3.3 Technologies for Robotic Surgery������������������������������������������������������ 45
3.3.1 Human–Robot Interaction and Levels of Autonomy�������������� 46
ix
x Contents
Contents
1.1 Rise of Surgical Robotics 2
1.2 Popularity of Rehabilitation and Assistive Robotics 5
1.3 Emergence of Hospital Automation Robotics 8
1.4 Emerging Technologies and Challenges 10
1.5 Overview of This Book 14
References 14
Fig. 1.1 Taxonomy of medical robotics. Medical robotics can be categorized into surgical robot-
ics, rehabilitation and assistive robotics, and hospital automation robotics
Since the end of the 1960s, when Driller and Neumann published the very first
medical robot-related paper [1], the field of medical robotics has been in constant
development. However, it was only in the mid-1980s that the concept of Health and
Service Robotics was introduced, when the United States Congress was urged to
support “innovative research in functional rehabilitation of cognitive capabilities,
speech, mobility, and manipulation.” During that period, robots in medicine were
considered mainly as rehabilitation devices and nursing assistants [2]. In 1985, a
conventional industrial robot, the Puma 200 (Unimation Inc., Danbury, CT) [3], was
experimentally employed in a surgical procedure of needle insertion, demonstrating
the first example of a surgical robot in history. Since then, an ever-increasing num-
ber of platforms from both commercial and research organizations have been devel-
oped and successfully used in a wide range of surgical specializations, such as
neurosurgery, Ear-Nose-Throat (ENT), orthopedics, laparoscopy, and endoluminal
intervention [2, 4–12].
Figure 1.2 shows the timeline of surgical robots, showing some of the platforms
that have marked the last 30 years of surgical robotics development. The first gen-
eration of surgical robots relates to stereotaxic interventions in neurosurgery and
orthopedics. For example, the Neuromate system (Renishaw, New Mills, UK)
allows accurate neurological tool positioning procedures [14] (e.g., for biopsy, neu-
roendoscopy, and electrode implantation) using a robotic tool handler. ROBODOC
(Curexo Technology, Fremont, CA) was the first surgical robotic system for ortho-
pedics (i.e., hip replacement) that reached the market in 1994 [15].
The 1990s signified a move from stereotaxic robotic systems to the second-
generation surgical robots, i.e., rigid yet dexterous robots for Minimally Invasive
Surgery (MIS). The ZEUS platform (Computer Motion, Goleta, USA) [16] is the
1.1 Rise of Surgical Robotics 3
Fig. 1.2 Timeline of surgical robots. Since the first application of a robot in surgery in 1985, a
growing number of robotic surgical platforms have been developed and applied to several clinical
specializations. From bulky industrial arms adapted to be used in clinical applications—typical of
the infancy of robotic surgery—robotic platforms have been bespoke designed to facilitate clinical
usability and have become smaller and smarter. This figure reports key milestones in robotics
surgery (only commercial platforms) over the last 40 years. Neuromate, Renishaw, © 2023;
ROBODOC (CC BY 4.0); ZEUS/AESOP, © Computer Motion; CyberKnife, (CC BY 2.0); da
Vinci/da Vinci SP/Ion, Intuitive Surgical Inc., © 2023; Sensei and Niobe (adapted with Springer
Nature permission from [13]); Mazor Robotics Renaissance, Mazor Robotics; Navio, Smith &
Nephew, © 2023; Mako, Stryker, © 2023; Monarch, Johnson & Johnson MedTech, © 2023
4 1 Introduction
first platform developed for laparoscopy in 1998. It presents several robotic arms
that operate inside the patient controlled by the surgeon sitting on a remote console.
ZEUS was first applied to cardio-surgery and became famous in 2001 for the trans-
oceanic cholecystectomy successfully performed by Marescaux and colleagues
[17]. A patient in Strasbourg, France, had her gall bladder removed using ZEUS and
was teleoperated by surgeons in New York. The da Vinci system (Intuitive Surgical,
Sunnyvale, USA)—now likely the most famous commercial surgical robot world-
wide—replaced ZEUS in 2003. The da Vinci systems feature immersive 3D visual-
ization of the surgical scene via a remote console that allows the teleoperation of the
laparoscopic instruments. Such configuration allows hand–eye coordination while
providing stereo-vision of the surgical field, something not possible in standard
laparoscopy. Intuitive Surgical developed many versions of the da Vinci system
(e.g., the multi-arm version da Vinci Xi, and the single port version da Vinci SP),
which have been used in many clinical applications such as cardiosurgery, colorec-
tal surgery, prostatectomy, and many others [18].
The evolution of surgical robots toward smaller and smarter devices continues in
the first decade of this millennium, allowing robots to be used in transluminal or
endoluminal procedures. The third generation of surgical robots, i.e., flexible robots
for MIS, includes small and steerable devices, such as robotic catheters or snake-
like robots, which can access and operate in constrained regions of the human body
not previously reachable with rigid laparoscopy. Endovascular procedures can be
executed under robotic assistance, using, for example, the two major commercial
platforms developed by Hansen Medical (acquired by Auris Health Inc., Redwood
City, USA): the Sensei X2 (for electrophysiological (EP) procedures) and the
Magellan (for endovascular applications) [19, 20]. The i-Snake developed by Yang
and his colleagues [21], a snake-like system, allows exploration of a large area of
the anatomy through Natural Orifice Transluminal Endoscopic Surgery (NOTES)
without requiring laparoscopic-style external manipulation, and it has full retroflec-
tion capabilities [22].
Concentric tube robots [5] address the limitations of catheter robots by pro-
viding higher stiffness while maintaining the required steerability. They are cre-
ated by a number of pre-curved interconnected elastic tubes that steer when
translated and rotated with respect to one another. Since 2005, this technology
has become attractive for robot-assisted surgical applications thanks to the pio-
neering work of Sears & Dupont [23], Webster [24], and Furusho et al. [25], and
further evolved to the current stage thanks to technical advances in design [26],
control [27], sensing [28], and image guidance [29]. For example, the Monarch
platform (Auris Health Inc., Redwood City, USA) integrates robotics and
enhanced navigation (3D imaging and sensing) for bronchoscopy applications
and received Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval in April 2018.
Untethered micro-surgical devices, such as wireless capsules for endoscopy and
micro- and nano-robots, are the fourth generation of surgical robots [30].
Endoscopy capsules were introduced in the early 2000s and have evolved thanks
to the research of several groups worldwide [31–33], becoming an alternative to
traditional endoscopy of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract [31–34].
1.2 Popularity of Rehabilitation and Assistive Robotics 5
Fig. 1.3 Research states of rehabilitation and assistive robots: from past to current state of the art.
With the advancement in multidisciplinary technologies, recent research attention has been shifted
from large/grounded systems to lightweight/wearable ones. Handy 1 (adapted with Springer
Nature permission from [43]); MIT-MANUS (adapted with Taylor & Francis permission from
[44]); MIME (adapted from [45] (CC BY 4.0)); Lokomat (adapted from [46] (CC BY 4.0));
ARMin (adapted from [47] (CC BY 4.0)); EKSO, Ekso Bionics, © 2022; ReWalk, ReWalk
Robotics Inc., © 2023; HAL, Copyright by CYBERDYNE Inc.; MyoPro, Myomo, © 2023;
C-Leg4, Copyright by Ottobock; Zeus, Aether Biomedical, © 2023; Hero Arm, Open Bionics, ©
2022; Kinova Jaco, Kinova Inc., © 2023; Obi, Obi, © 2023; Whill, WHILL lnc., © 2015–2023
1.2 Popularity of Rehabilitation and Assistive Robotics 7
In addition to medical robots that are directly used in the clinical treatment and
diagnosis during surgery, as well as rehabilitation training and personal assistance
in daily life, another significant category lies in automation robots that aim to
improve the level of automation in hospitals. Specifically, the scenarios for hospital
automation robots can be classified into five categories: (1) robotics for hospital
logistics; (2) pharmacy and drug management; (3) patient transfer and care; (4) high
throughput lab automation; and (5) robots for diagnosis and imaging, as illustrated
in Fig. 1.4.
In recent years, different service robot systems have emerged in hospitals to help
with logistic and routine tasks, including reception, disinfection, inventory manage-
ment, and in-hospital delivery. For instance, logistic robots can automatically navi-
gate through the complicated environment in the hospital, dispensing or collecting
medical supplies or wastes. Nowadays, more and more robots with speech interac-
tion and interactive interfaces can serve as receptionists, providing guidance for
those patients who need help. Especially during the spread of Coronavirus Disease
2019 (COVID-19), such robots for hospital logistics demonstrated prominent poten-
tial in combating infectious diseases [57, 58], preventing medical staff from expo-
sure to potential risks. In addition, disinfection robots have become widely available
during the fight against COVID-19 [59]. Robotic disinfection embraces multiple
approaches, but the most commonly used ones use Ultraviolet (UV) light to destroy
microorganisms. A recent study demonstrated the effectiveness of UV treatment
against three different viruses, including SARS-CoV-1 [60].
Pharmacy and drug management is labor-intensive and requires meticulous
attention in hospitals, where robotic systems can significantly improve the effi-
ciency, accuracy, and safety of the workflow in the pharmacy department [61].
These robots aim to help medical staff reduce labor-intensive and repeated tasks
(e.g., picking and placing drugs in bins) and allow them to focus on their area of
expertise. Currently, robotic arms are widely used for drug management and dis-
pensing, which can provide dexterous manipulation and grasping like human beings
[62]. Moreover, robotic systems can help reduce the potential contamination
induced by human workers, enabling zero-touch and zero-error pharmacy automa-
tion. Robots can also be used for drug blending with high speed, such as intravenous
drugs and anti-tumor chemotherapy drugs.
Another significant role of hospital automation robotics is for nursing purposes.
These robots can provide oversight not only in inpatient wards but also in the
Intensive Care Unit (ICU), providing 24/7 monitoring and assistance for patients
with needs. In particular, for paraplegic patients or people with motor weakness,
nursing and transfer robots have emerged to provide support for patients to com-
plete sit-to-stand/stand-to-sit or transfer them from one place to another, which can
significantly save the effort of caregivers [63]. In addition, some service robots are
developed to cooperate with surgeons, assisting in surgery in the operation room
[64]. It should be emphasized that most transfer robots (e.g., intelligent wheel-
chairs) are built upon mobile platforms. By integrating advanced sensing [e.g., com-
puter vision, Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR)] technologies], localization
1.3 Emergence of Hospital Automation Robotics 9
Fig. 1.4 Main categories of available hospital automation robots. The figure shows the hospital
automation robots that are working for hospital logistics (TUG, Aethon © 2018; Guardian II,
Guangdong Jaten Robot & Automation Co., Ltd., © 2022), drug management (YuMi, ABB, ©
2023; Moxi, Diligent Robotics Inc., © 2023), patient transfer and care (PTR, Copyright © PTR
Robots; Robear, Copyright © RIKEN, Japan), high throughput lab automation (Pharma, DSG
Robotics, © 2017–2020 by Netech; YuMi, ABB, © 2023), and diagnosis and imaging (CyberKnife,
Wikimedia Commons (CC BY 2.0); MELODY, adapted from [56], CC BY 4.0)
10 1 Introduction
For surgical robotics, this process started long ago with the first endoscope (Bozzini,
1806), followed by the discovery of X-rays (Roentgen, 1895). A few years later,
Computer Tomography (CT) and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) allowed us to
acquire and visualize 3D data of the anatomy, paving the way to improved pre-
operative planning and the intra-operative navigation of clinical procedures thanks
to computer assistance. The so-called Computer Assisted Intervention (CAI) was
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1.4 Emerging Technologies and Challenges 11
born, and its main goal was to assist clinicians to perform better both in terms of
diagnosis and treatment of diseases. CAI is used in combination with surgical robots
to connect patient-specific data with precision technology able to sense and interact
with the human body. In this sense, the integration of sensing and imaging with
robotics is fundamental not only to support clinical decisions but to enable autono-
mous or semiautonomous navigation features.
Surgical robots are becoming smaller following the advances in precision manu-
facturing, microfabrication, and materials. Micro-robots can navigate the human
body to perform treatment and diagnosis of pathologies. In the future, micro- and
nano-robots will be able to reach target cells, recognize the pathology, and attack it
locally while preserving the healthy tissues [2]. This will be possible thanks to
advances in the areas of microfabrication, power optimization, imaging, and sens-
ing technologies [4].
Artificial Intelligence (AI) and machine learning will make robots smarter and
able to interact with the clinical environment with increased levels of autonomy
[67]. This will necessarily grow hand-in-hand with enhanced navigation and map-
ping techniques so that robots will be able to understand the clinical procedure and
cooperate with the clinician to achieve one or more clinical tasks, or even make
decisions in full autonomy [68]. According to Yang et al. [69], “the grand challenge
for robotic navigation is to develop systems able to effectively learn from unmapped/
unknown environments and dynamically adapt to them, similar to how human per-
ception works. Robotic navigation requires semantic understanding and representa-
tion of scenes and active interactions.”
Another key point is the interaction between users and robots (i.e., HRI). HRI
aims to establish uni- or bi-directional communication/interaction between robotic
systems and humans, including haptic feedback, brain–machine interfaces, ges-
tures, and eye or vocal control [70]. Physical interfaces, currently the most com-
monly used, are generally master controllers that the user manipulates to operate a
remote surgical robot and accomplish tasks such as tissue manipulation or tool han-
dling [71]. Those basic approaches can be combined with Learning from
Demonstration (LfD) of human experts to gain autonomy for task execution [72].
Designs of HRI are governed by task-specific requirements, ergonomics, and guide-
lines, as summarized in Adamides et al. [73], especially when used for clinical
applications where easiness of use and clinical acceptance are of paramount
importance.
In the past decades, there has been extensive attention paid to the development of
rehabilitation and assistive robots focusing on therapeutic training or personal assis-
tance of human physical functions. However, the number of patients encountering
neurological disorders [e.g., Alzheimer’s Disease (AD), Parkinson’s Disease (PD),
and Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)] has dramatically increased recently. These
patients have demonstrated various types of impairment in memory, learning ability,
12 1 Introduction
communication, and social interaction, thus requiring extensive effort in care and
companionship. Therefore, it is of paramount significance in the development of
cognition rehabilitation and socially assistive robots [74].
Due to the patients’ behavioral and cognitive abnormalities, one of the prerequi-
sites of such robots is to establish intelligent and reliable HRI to understand their
behavior and cognition [51, 75]. For instance, human posture and action could indi-
cate their motion intention, while facial expression and eye movement imply their
emotions and mental states. In addition, analysis of their brain activities plays a
significant role in exploring the underlying mechanism between patients’ behavior
and cognition. To achieve this, multimodal sensing techniques along with dedicated
machine learning algorithms are critical steps [76].
Commonly, the intervention provided by specialists is the main treatment for
patients with cognitive impairment. As disparity exists among patients and there are
differences in their behaviors, another significant challenge is to establish personal-
ized intervention, including cognition assessment, treatment plan development, and
social interaction [77]. Hence, there remain great opportunities to develop personal-
ized artificial intelligent algorithms and HRI mechanisms.
Another important topic within cognitive rehabilitation and socially assistive
robots is delivering effective feedback to patients, such as facial expression, pronun-
ciation and intonation, eye contact, and body language [78]. Along this line, robots
can gain the trust of users, which could facilitate effective social interaction between
patients and robots. Moreover, ethics and regulations are very important in the
development of such robots, as they may live/work with patients in their homes.
Moreover, data storage, privacy, and encryption are also significant issues that need
to be considered.
Figure 1.5 points out several key characteristics of the future of smart hospitals.
First of all, it is essential to push the less-complex medical support out of major
hospitals and into a home-based environment and local community. Hence, a hier-
archical healthcare delivery system could be established, including in-home care,
polyclinics, community hospitals, and super hospitals. The advancement of perva-
sive sensing and telepresence robots enables the deployment of better and cheaper
diagnostics and monitoring in the home. For most patients, polyclinics and com-
munity hospitals with walk-in distance are able to provide face-to-face care, where
standard medical treatment and healthcare support could be given. For those who
want to receive high-quality and all-round healthcare service, super hospitals are
able to provide personalized medicine through long-term monitoring of multimodal
healthcare data.
As one of the cutting-edge technologies, medical robotics has been extensively
applied to solve problems in clinical treatment, and the problems found in clinical
practice are fed back to indicate the direction of research focus, so as to achieve a
closed loop of technological innovation and clinical translation. Therefore, smart
1.4 Emerging Technologies and Challenges 13
super hospitals with levels of automation will become prevalent in the near future
[4]. Rather than robot-assisted surgery and rehabilitation, increasing attention has
been gained on building robotics systems that engage in hospital logistics, phar-
macy, drug management, and patient transfer and care. The development of future
service robots could focus on the integration of multiple intelligent systems to form
a complete and automated workflow in hospitals. Each robot is not only responsible
for a specific task but can cooperate with other robots to achieve more complicated
tasks. In addition, future service robots in a smart hospital should be multi-
functional, which means that they can undertake different tasks automatically, col-
laborating with human workers in a safe and seamless manner. Robots for diagnosis
and imaging will be more widely used in routine clinical practice. This will require
advances in imaging and sensing technologies to guarantee safe and reliable appli-
cations of robotic devices to perform diagnoses on patients. Autonomy will play a
key role in the advances of such systems to perform diagnostic and treatment
14 1 Introduction
procedures with minimum human supervision and interaction. However, this will
introduce safety and ethical concerns that must be addressed. On the other hand,
high throughput robots for sample testing, target screening, in vitro diagnostics, and
a wide range of applications in single-cell transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabo-
lomics are emerging technologies, which are also faced with grand challenges and
opportunities.
To help close the loop for research and development of precise treatment and
early intervention, the integration of omics technology, bioinformatics, and AI tech-
nologies will facilitate technological innovation and clinical verification in the
future of smart hospitals. We can foresee an increasing number of miniaturized,
implantable, and intelligent medical robots in the near future.
These are some of the key elements that are covered in this book to provide a fresh
and up-to-date overview of medical robotics. This book focuses on three areas of
medical robotics: (1) robotic surgery (Chaps. 2 and 3), (2) rehabilitation robotics
(Chaps. 4 and 5), and (3) hospital automation (Chap. 6). For each area, clinical
needs and technical aspects will be discerned in detail, focusing on robotic systems
and publications that represent key advances in medical robotics, thus providing the
readers with an overview of the current state of the art. Open challenges and future
directions are identified and discussed in Chap. 7. This book is intended to provide
an overview of medical robotics by reporting on systems that have proceeded to
clinical translation or commercialization from academia, highlighting their practi-
cal impact and innovation.
References
1. Driller J, Neumann G. An electromagnetic biopsy device. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng.
1967;1:52–3.
2. Bergeles C, Yang G-Z. From passive tool holders to microsurgeons: safer, smaller, smarter
surgical robots. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng. 2013;61(5):1565–76.
3. Kwoh YS, Hou J, Jonckheere EA, et al. A robot with improved absolute positioning accuracy
for CT guided stereotactic brain surgery. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng. 1988;35(2):153–60.
4. Troccaz J, Dagnino G, Yang G-Z. Frontiers of medical robotics: from concept to systems to
clinical translation. Annu Rev Biomed Eng. 2019;21:193–218.
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Elle tenait la petite Jeannette sur un de ses bras. Elle étendit
l’autre vers Kazan en répétant à plusieurs reprises :
— Loup ! Loup ! Loup !
Kazan ne la perdit pas du regard. Il comprit qu’elle lui parlait et
avança légèrement vers elle.
Longtemps après que Jeanne fut rentrée dans la tente et
couchée, le vieux Pierre Radisson était encore dehors, à veiller,
assis devant le feu, sur le rebord du traîneau, avec Kazan à ses
pieds.
Soudain, le silence fut rompu par le hurlement solitaire de Louve
Grise. Kazan leva la tête et se reprit à gémir.
— Elle t’appelle, petit, fit Pierre, qui comprenait.
Il toussa, appuya sa main sur sa poitrine, que la douleur semblait
déchirer. Puis, parlant à Kazan :
— Poumon mangé par le froid, vois-tu. Gagné cela au début de
l’hiver, tout là-bas, vers le lac. J’espère pourtant que je pourrai
regagner à temps le logis, avec mes deux Jeanne.
C’est une habitude que prend bientôt l’homme, dans la solitude
et le néant du Wilderness, de monologuer avec lui-même. Mais
Kazan, avec ses yeux pétillants d’intelligence, était un interlocuteur
tout trouvé. C’est pourquoi Pierre lui parlait.
— Il nous faut, mon vieux, les ramener à tout prix, continua-t-il,
en caressant sa barbe. Et cela, toi seul et moi, nous le pouvons
faire.
Une toux creuse le secoua. Il respira avec oppression, en
s’étreignant la poitrine, et reprit :
— Le gîte est à cinquante milles, en ligne droite. Je prie Dieu que
nous puissions y parvenir sains et saufs, et que mes poumons ne
m’abandonnent pas auparavant.
Il se releva, en chancelant un peu, et alla vers Kazan. Il attacha
la bête derrière le traîneau ; puis, après avoir jeté d’autres branches
sur le feu, il entra sous la tente, où Jeanne et l’enfant dormaient.
Trois ou quatre fois au cours de la nuit, Kazan entendit la voix de
Louve Grise appelant le compagnon qu’elle avait perdu. Mais Kazan
comprenait qu’il ne devait plus lui répondre. Vers l’aurore, Louve
Grise approcha à une courte distance du campement, réitéra son
appel et, pour la première fois, Kazan lui répliqua.
Son hurlement réveilla Pierre, qui sortit de la tente et regarda le
ciel, que commençait à blanchir l’aube. Il raviva le feu et se mit à
préparer le déjeuner.
VIII
L’INTERSIGNE DE LA MORT
Quinze milles ! Et son père lui avait affirmé qu’elle pouvait couvrir
sans encombre cette distance. Mais Pierre n’avait point prévu sans
doute ce froid mordant et redoutable, ni ce vent coupant, qui eût
terrifié les plus braves.
Le bois, maintenant, était loin derrière elle et avait disparu dans
les demi-ténèbres d’une brume livide. Il n’y avait plus, partout, que le
Barren impitoyable et nu, où serpentait le fleuve de glace. S’il y avait
eu seulement quelques arbres, dans ce paysage désolé, il semblait
à Jeanne que le cœur lui aurait moins failli. Mais non, rien. Rien où
reposer son regard parmi ce gris blafard, uniforme et spectral, où le
ciel paraissait toucher la terre et bouchait la vue, à moins d’un mille.
Tout en avançant, la jeune femme interrogeait le sol à chaque
pas, s’efforçant de découvrir ces poches d’air que lui avait signalées
Pierre Radisson et où elle aurait pu soudain disparaître. Mais elle ne
tarda pas à s’apercevoir que tout devenait semblable, sur la neige et
sur la glace, pour sa vue brouillée par le froid. Les yeux lui cuisaient,
avec une douleur croissante.
Puis le fleuve s’épanouit en une sorte de lac, où la force du vent
se fit à ce point terrible que Jeanne en trébuchait à toute minute et
que quelques pouces de neige lui devenaient un obstacle
insurmontable.
Kazan continuait, sous les harnais, à tirer de toutes ses forces. A
peine réussissait-elle à le suivre et à ne point perdre la piste. Ses
jambes étaient lourdes comme du plomb et elle allait péniblement,
en murmurant une prière pour son enfant.
Il lui parut soudain que le traîneau n’était plus devant elle qu’un
imperceptible point noir. Un effroi la prit. Kazan et bébé Jeanne
l’abandonnaient ! Et elle poussa un grand cri. Mais ce n’était là
qu’une illusion d’optique pour ses yeux troubles. Le traîneau n’était
pas distant d’une vingtaine de pas et un bref effort lui fut suffisant
pour le rejoindre.
Elle s’y abattit avec un gémissement, jeta ses bras éperdument
autour du cou de bébé Jeanne et enfouit sa tête dans les fourrures,
en fermant les yeux. L’espace d’une seconde, elle eut l’impression
du « home » heureux… Puis, aussi rapidement, la douce vision se
fondit et elle revint au sens de la réalité.
Kazan s’était arrêté. Il s’assit sur son derrière en la regardant.
Elle demeurait immobile, étendue sur le traîneau, et il attendait
qu’elle remuât et lui parlât. Comme elle ne bougeait toujours point, il
vint sur elle et la flaira. Ce fut en vain.
Et voilà que tout à coup il leva la tête et renifla, face au vent. Le
vent lui apportait quelque chose.
Il recommença à pousser Jeanne, de son museau, comme pour
l’avertir. Mais elle demeurait inerte. Il gémit, lamentablement et lança
un long aboi, aigu et plaintif.
Cependant la chose inconnue qu’apportait le vent se faisait plus
sensible et Kazan, tendant vigoureusement son harnais, se remit en
marche, en traînant Jeanne à sa suite.
Le poids, ainsi alourdi, qu’il tirait, exigeait de ses muscles un
effort considérable et le traîneau, dont grinçaient les patins, avançait
péniblement. A tout moment, il lui fallait s’arrêter et souffler. Et,
chaque fois, il humait l’air de ses narines frémissantes. Il revenait
aussi vers Jeanne et gémissait près d’elle, pour l’éveiller.
Il tomba dans de la neige molle et ce ne fut que pouce par pouce
qu’il réussit à en sortir le traîneau. Puis il retrouva la glace lisse et il
tira avec d’autant plus d’entrain que la source de l’odeur mystérieuse
apportée par le vent lui semblait plus proche.
Une brèche, dans une des rives, donnait issue à un affluent du
fleuve, gelé comme lui en cette saison. Si Jeanne avait eu sa
connaissance, c’est de ce côté qu’elle eût commandé au chien-loup
de se diriger. Le flair de Kazan lui servit de guide.
Dix minutes après, il éclatait en un joyeux aboi, auquel
répondirent ceux d’une demi-douzaine de chiens de traîneau. Une
cabane de bûches était là, au bord de la rivière, dans une petite
crique dominée par un bois de sapins, et de son toit une fumée
montait. C’était cette fumée dont l’odeur était venue jusqu’à lui.
Le rivage s’élevait en pente rude et unie vers la cabane, Kazan
rassembla toutes ses forces et hissa le traîneau, avec son fardeau,
jusqu’à la porte. Après quoi, il s’assit à côté de Jeanne inanimée,
leva le nez vers le ciel obscur, et hurla.
Presque aussitôt, la porte s’ouvrit et un homme sortit de la
cabane.
De ses yeux rougis par le froid et le vent, Kazan vit l’homme,
poussant une exclamation de surprise, se pencher vers Jeanne, sur
le traîneau. En même temps, on entendit sortir de la masse des
fourrures la voix pleurnichante et à demi étouffée du bébé.
Kazan était exténué. Sa belle force s’en était allée. Ses pattes
étaient écorchées et saignaient. Mais la voix de l’enfant l’emplit de
joie et il se coucha tranquillement, dans son harnais, tandis que
l’homme emportait mère et poupon dans la vivifiante chaleur de la
cabane.
Puis l’homme reparut. Il n’était point vieux comme Pierre
Radisson.
Il s’approcha de Kazan et, le regardant :
— Alors c’est toi, juste ciel ! qui, tout seul, me l’as ramenée…
Mes compliments, camarade !
Il se pencha sur lui, sans crainte, et déliant les harnais, l’invita à
entrer à son tour.
Kazan parut hésiter. A ce moment précis, il lui avait semblé, dans
la fureur du vent qui ne s’était pas apaisé, entendre la voix de Louve
Grise. Il détourna la tête, puis se décida pourtant à entrer.
La porte de la cabane se referma sur lui. Il alla se coucher dans
un coin obscur, tandis que l’homme préparait pour Jeanne, sur le
poêle, des aliments chauds.
La jeune femme, que l’homme avait étendue sur une couchette,
ne revint pas immédiatement à elle. Mais, de son coin, Kazan, qui
somnolait, l’entendit soudain qui sanglotait et, ayant levé le nez, il la
vit qui mangeait peu après, en compagnie de l’inconnu.
Kazan, en rampant, se glissa sous le lit. Ensuite, la nuit étant
complètement venue, tout, dans la cabane, retomba dans le silence.
Le lendemain, au point du jour, dès que l’homme entr’ouvrit la
porte, Kazan en profita pour se glisser dehors et filer rapidement
dans la plaine. Il ne tarda pas à trouver la piste de Louve Grise et
l’appela. Sa réponse lui parvint, du fleuve glacé, et il courut vers elle.
Un boqueteau de sapins leur servit d’abri et tous deux s’y
dissimulèrent. Mais vainement Louve Grise tenta de persuader à
Kazan de fuir avec lui, en de plus sûres retraites, loin de la cabane
et de l’odeur de l’homme.
Un peu plus tard, Kazan, toujours aux aguets, aperçut l’homme
de la cabane qui harnachait ses chiens et installait Jeanne sur le
traîneau, l’emmitouflant de fourrures, elle et l’enfant, comme eût pu
le faire le vieux Pierre. Puis, le traîneau s’étant mis en route, Kazan
emboîta sa piste et, toute la journée le suivit, à quelque distance en
arrière, suivi lui-même par Louve Grise, qui glissait sur ses pas,
comme une ombre.
Le voyage se continua jusqu’à la nuit. Le vent était tombé. Sous
les étoiles brillantes et sous la lune calme, l’homme pressait
l’attelage. Ce ne fut qu’à une heure avancée que le traîneau atteignit
une seconde cabane, à la porte de laquelle l’homme vint cogner.
De l’ombre épaisse où il se tenait, Kazan vit une lumière
apparaître et la porte s’ouvrir. Il entendit la voix joyeuse d’un autre
homme, à laquelle répondit celle de Jeanne et de son compagnon.
Alors, il s’en alla rejoindre Louve Grise.
Trois jours après, le mari de Jeanne s’en retourna chercher le
cadavre gelé de Pierre Radisson. Kazan profita de son absence
pour revenir à la cabane, vers la jeune femme et vers la caresse de
sa main.
Durant les jours et les semaines qui suivirent, il partagea son
temps entre cette cabane et Louve Grise. Il tolérait près de Jeanne
la présence de l’homme plus jeune qui vivait avec elle et avec
l’enfant, comme il avait toléré celle de Pierre Radisson. Il comprenait
que c’était pour elle un être cher et que tous deux aimaient le bébé
d’un égal amour.
A un demi-mille de distance, au faîte d’une énorme masse
rocheuse que les Indiens appelaient le Sun Rock [16] , lui et Louve
Grise avaient, de leur côté, trouvé leur « home » dans une crevasse
propice. Ils y avaient établi leur tanière, d’où ils descendaient chacun
dans la plaine, pour y chasser. Souvent montait jusqu’à eux la voix
de la jeune femme, qui appelait :
[16] Le Roc du Soleil.
Le Sun Rock s’élevait d’un seul jet, dominant le faîte des sapins
qui l’entouraient. Sa tête chauve recevait les premiers rayons du
soleil levant et les dernières lueurs du couchant s’y accrochaient
encore. Sur ce sommet ensoleillé, la tanière de Kazan était bien
abritée contre les mauvais vents, à l’opposé desquels elle s’ouvrait,
et il s’y reposait délicieusement des six terribles mois d’hiver
écoulés.
Presque tout le jour il dormait, avec Louve Grise couchée près de
lui, à plat ventre, les pattes étendues, les narines sans cesse
alertées de l’odeur de l’homme, qui était proche.
Elle ne cessait de fixer Kazan avec anxiété, tandis qu’il dormait et
rêvait. Elle grognait, en découvrant ses crocs, et ses propres poils se
hérissaient, lorsqu’elle voyait ceux de son compagnon se dresser
sur son échine. Parfois aussi, une simple contraction des muscles
des pattes et un plissement du museau indiquaient seuls qu’il était
sous l’effet du rêve.
Alors il arrivait souvent que, répondant à la pensée du chien-
loup, une voix s’élevait et venait jusqu’au Sun Rock, tandis que sur
le seuil de sa cabane une jeune femme aux yeux bleus apparaissait.
— Kazan ! Kazan ! Kazan ! disait la voix.
Louve Grise dressait ses oreilles, tandis que Kazan s’éveillait et,
l’instant d’après, se mettait sur ses pattes. Il bondissait vers la pointe
la plus haute du rocher et se prenait à gémir, tandis que la voix
renouvelait son appel. Louve Grise, qui l’avait doucement suivi,
posait son museau sur son épaule. Elle savait ce que signifiait cet
appel et, plus encore que le bruit et l’odeur de l’homme, elle le
redoutait.
Depuis qu’elle avait abandonné la horde de ses frères et vivait
avec Kazan, la Voix était devenue la pire ennemie de Louve Grise et
elle la haïssait. Car elle lui prenait Kazan et, partout où la Voix était,
il allait aussi. Chaque fois qu’il lui plaisait, elle lui volait son
compagnon, qui la laissait seule rôder, toute la nuit, sous la lune et