Unit IV

Antenna Arrays and special

application Antennas
Book:
Antenna Theory: Analysis and Design by C. A.
Balanis
Array
Single element has relatively wide radiation pattern and
low directivity.
In many applications, high directivity is required to meet
long distance communication demands.

High directivity can be achieved by two ways:

▪ Increasing the electrical size of antenna
▪ Forming an assembly of radiating elements in an electrical
and geometrical configuration.

New antenna, formed by multi elements, is referred to as an

array.
Total field of array= Vector addition
of fields radiated by the individual
elements
Provided that current in each element is the same as that of
isolated element.

To increase directivity,

Fields radiated from the elements of the array constructively add

in desired direction.

Destructively (cancel each other) in the remaining space.

Array Design
Variables
Can be used to shape overall pattern of antenna
1. Geometrical configuration of the overall

array (linear, Circular, Planar)

2. Relative displacements between elements.

3. Element excitation amplitude.

4. Excitation phase of individual elements

5. Relative pattern of the individual elements.

Triangular array of 12 dipoles used as a sectoral base-station antenna for
mobile communication.
Types of
Array
Two element
array
Assumptions:
Two infinitesimal horizontal dipoles positioned along the z
axis.
No coupling between elements
Electric field for infinitesimal dipole is given by

(Far field)
Antenna and Wave Propagation
Geometry of two infinitesimal
dipole and its far field
observation

Fig.1
Total electric field can be given
by

Where β is the difference in phase excitation between the

elements. Magnitude excitation of radiators is identical.

Consider far field observation

Previous equation reduces
to

Field of a single element

positioned at the origin Array Factor (AF)
Array factor can be given
by

Which in normalized form can be written

as

It is a function of the geometry of the array and then

excitation phase.
Pattern
multiplication
For arrays of identical
elements

Also valid for identical magnitudes, phases and/or spacing between

them
Illustration of pattern
multiplication rule

Two element array of infinitesimal horizontal dipoles with identical phase

excitation β=0, d=λ/4
Pattern is normalized to its maximum
Pattern
Multiplication:
Example
Pattern
Multiplication:
Example
Pattern
Multiplication:
Example
Pattern
Multiplication:
Example
Examp
le
Given the array of Fig 6.1 (a) and (b), find the nulls of the total
field when d=λ/4 and β=0.
Soln: The normalized field is given by:

The nulls are obtained by setting total field equal to zero, or

Thus,

And

The only null occurs at θ=90° and is due to the pattern of

individual element.
Examp
le
Given
field
the array of Fig.1 (a) and (b), find the nulls of the total

when d=λ/4 and β=+π/2 and β=-π/2.

N element linear array:
uniform Identical
amplitude
Amplitudes
and
Each succeeding element has β progressive phase lead
spacing current excitation relative to the preceding one
β represents the phase by which the current in each
element leads the current of the preceding element.
Uniform
array
▪An array of identical elements all of identical magnitude and each
with a progressive phase
▪ By using pattern multiplication rule, array factor is given by

Which can be written

as
Multiplying both sides of previous eq. with
ejψ

Subtractin from above

g eq.

Which can also be written

as
If the reference point is the physical center of the
array

For small values of ψ, above eq. reduces

to

Maximum value of above eq. is N, so normalized form can be

written
as

or
Radiation Pattern of Array
factor
To plot radiation pattern, follow below steps:

◦Find Nulls
◦Maxima
◦3-dB point for the array factor
◦Secondary maxima (Side
Lobes)
Null
s To find nulls, array factor equation is set to be
zero

For , AF eq. reduces to its maximum value. Number of nulls that

can exist will be a function of the element
separation d and phase excitation difference β.
Maxim
a
Major lobe maxima occurs when denominator of eq. is
zero.

It has one maximum which occurs at

m=0.

which is observation angle that makes

ψ=0
Antenna and Wave Propagation
3-dB point or Half Power
Beam Width
3-dB points occurs
when

Which can also be written

as

For large values of d(d>>λ), it reduces

to
Sin(x)/x
Table
Half power beam width can be found using for symmetrical
pattern

Second Maxima (Side Lobes)

Side lobe or minor lobe maxima occur approximately when the
numerator of AF attains its maximum value.
Second Maxima (Side Lobes)
 Linear
Array
Broadside Array End Fire Array

Linear Uniform Hansen

Linear Uniform Ordinary Woodyard
Spacing Endfire Array
Spacing, Uniform End fire
Amplitude Non Uniform
Amplitude

Dolph
Binomial Tchebysc
Array hev’s Array
Broadside
array
In many applications, it is desirable to have the maximum radiation
of an array directed normal to the axis of the array.
To obtain optimize design
◦Maxima of single element
◦Maxima of array factor
Both should be directed towards θ=90.

Can be achieved by proper

Can be achieved by separation and excitation of
proper choice of individual radiators
radiators
Referring to
eq.

Maximum of this occur when ψ=0

Since it is desired to have maxima directed toward θ=90

To have maximum of AF ,
All elements have the same
phase excitation and same
amplitude excitation
Separation d can be any value.
10 element uniform
array
To ensure that, there are no maxima in other
direction,

This value of ψ makes AF attain its maximum value,

AF has broadside (θ=90) perpendicular to the antenna & maxima(θ=0 &
180) directed along the axis.
To avoid multiple maxima dmax<λ.
Applicati
on
Radio International CBC (Canada),

Operates 8 arrays

Tuned signals are beamed to Africa, Europe, America, USA & Mexico

Tuning range is 4.9MHz to 21.7MHz.

Ordinary end
Maxima is in the direction of antenna
fire array
axis. To direct Maxima toward θ=0

If the first maximum is desired towards θ=180,

then

If d=λ/2, end fire radiation exists in both direction (0 and

180)
If d=nλ, end fire and broadside radiation.

To avoid maxima in other direction,

Hansen Woodyard End Fire
Array
To increase directivity, Hansen & Woodyard proposed required
phase shift in 1938.

To increase directivity, ψ assumes value

of
For getting condition |ψ|=π,for θ=0° and 180°, spacing
between element choosing

If the number of element is large, above eq. can be

approximated by
HPBW=74° for ordinary HPBW=37° for Hansen
Woodyard
Array factor patterns of a 10-element uniform amplitude Hansen-
Woodyard end-fire array [N = 10, β = −(kd + π/N)].
d=λ/2 fails to realize a
larger
directivity because …..
Which is not equal to
π.
N element linear array:
directivity
Broadside
Broad array & end
side fire array
Array:
AF can be given by

For a small spacing d<<λ, AF can be approximated

by

Directivity in terms of U can be given

by
D
U=
max

U0
Radiation intensity is given
by
U = ra
2
r W
Radiation density can be calculated
d
using

Now radiation intensity in normalized form can be written

as 2
U=
Which takes another En
form
U=
[AF]2
To obtain Umax,
When z=0 in above eq., U becomes
maximum
and that is
Umax=1 To
obtain U0

For finding average value of radiation

intensity
By making change of
variable,
Examp
le
Given a linear, broadside, uniform array of 10 isotropic elements
with a separation of λ/4 between the elements, find the directivity
of the array.

Answer
D0=5 dimensionless
D0 in dB= 6.99dB
Directivity of End fire
Array
For an end fire array, with the maximum radiation in the θ
=0 direction, array factor is given by
0

Which for a small spacing, d<<λ

The corresponding radiation intensity can be written as

Umax=1,
Average value of radiation intensity is given
by
For a large array (Nkd is large) above eq. can be approximated by
extending the limits to infinity.

Which is twice
of broadside
array
Examp
le
Given a linear, end-fire, uniform array of 10 elements with a
separation of λ/4 between the elements, find the directivity of
the array factor.

Answer
D0=10 dimensionless
D0 in dB= 10dB
Same way directivity for Hansen Woodyard
End fire
array is given by

Greater directivity
as compared to
broadside and
endfire array.
Examp
le
Given a linear, end-fire (with improved directivity)
Hansen-Woodyard, uniform array of 10 elements with a
separation of λ/4between the elements, find the directivity of the
array factor.

Answer
D0=18.05 dimensionless
D0 in dB= 12.56dB
Directivity:
Comparison
Phased (Scanning)
Array
Till now, we have seen how to direct major radiation
from an array, by controlling the phase excitation
between the elements, in directions normal
(broadside) and along the axis (end fire) of the
array.

Then logical to assume that maximum radiation can be

oriented in any direction.

That will form a scanning array.

A phased array Antenna is composed of lots of

Phase
Excitation
Let us assume that maximum radiation of the array is required to
be
oriented at an angle θ0 (0° ≤ θ0 ≤ 180°).
To accomplish that,

Basic Principle: By controlling the progressive phase difference between

the elements, the maximum radiation can be squinted in any desired
direction to form scanning array.
 Continuous Scanning
System should be capable of continuously varying phase
between
the elements.
Accomplished electronically by use of ferrite or diode
phase shifters. For ferrite phase shifters, the phase shift is
controlled by the
magnetic field within the ferrite , which in turn is
controlled by
the amount of current flowing through the wires
wrapped around
the phase shifter.

For diode phase shifter, the actual phase shift is controlled

by
Incremental switched line
phase shifter using PIN
Diodes

The differential phase shift , provided by switching on and off

the two paths , is given by
Three and two dimensional array factor of a 10
element uniform amplitude scanning array
 Half Power Beam
Width

Where L is the length of the

array.
Phased Array:
Animation
Advanta
ge
High gain with low side lobes
Without physical movement, steering of antenna
beam Multi function operations for different
applications Reduction of fault signal components
Disadvanta
ge
Complex
shifter)
structure (presence of phase

High cost
Low bandwidth
Applicati
on
RADAR
Tracking
Direction
finding SMART
Antennas
NonUniform Amplitude and Uniform
Spacing

Binomial Array
Broad
side Array Dolph Tchebyscheff array

Firstly, array factor for non uniform amplitude is calculated.

Amplitude excitation is symmetrical about origin.

For even no of
Array of even no of isotropic elements 2M (where M is an
elements
integer) Positioned symmetrically along the z axis.

Separation between element is d, and M elements are placed on each

side of the origin.
Amplitude excitation is symmetrical about the origin, AF can be
written as
Which in normalized form reduces
to

Where an’ s are the excitation coefficients of the array

element
For odd no of
Array of odd no of isotropic elements
elements
2M+1. AF can be written as

Which in normalized form reduces

to

Amplitude excitation of the center element is

2a1
Next step will be to determine the values of the
excitation coefficients.
 Yagi uda
Very practicalAntenna
radiators
HF (3–30 MHz), VHF (30–300 MHz), and UHF
(300–3,000 MHz) range
Consists of linear dipole one of which is energized
directly by a feed transmission line
while the others act as parasitic radiators whose currents
are induced
by mutual coupling.

A common feed element is Folded Dipole

Antenna Exclusively designed to operate as
an end fire array.
 Why Folded
Dipole???
Simple λ/2 dipole has input impedance of Zin≈73+j42.5 and directivity of
D≈1.643.

But, “twin-lead” transmission line (used for TV application) has

characteristic impedance of 300Ω

• The folded dipole is the same length as a standard dipole, but is made with
two parallel conductors, joined at both ends and separated by a distance that
is short compared with the length of the antenna

• The folded dipole differs in that it has wider bandwidth and has
approximately four times the feed point impedance of a standard dipole
General equation for input impedance
z=n2 * 73
Where n = number of half wave dipoles
Current is decomposed into two distinct modes:

Serves as step up impedance

transformer.
Transmission Line
Mode
Antenna to be a part of transmission line
Voltage between the points a and b is V/2, it is
applied to transmission line of length l/2, the
transmission line current is given by

Net radiation is zero in this mode because of

opposite current
 Antenna
Mode
Consider induced current due to current in the arm
connected to the transmission line
Generator points c-d and g-h are each at same
potential.
Current for the antenna mode can be given by

Radiation in antenna mode (current in same

direction)
Yagi-Uda
Antenna
 Design of Yagi
Uda Antenna
A. Length of Driven element- 0.45-0.49λ
(usually less than λ/2)
B. Length of Directors element- 0.4-0.45λ
C. Reflector length- 0.5-0.525λ
D. Separation between reflector and driven - 0.2-0.25λ
E. Separation between directors- 0.3-0.4λ
• This type of Yagi-Uda array uses dipole elements
• The reflector is ~ 5% longer than the driver.
• The driver is ~ 0.5l long
• The first director ~ 5% shorter than the driver,
and
subsequent directors are progressively shorter
• Interelement spacings are 0.1 to 0.2 λ
Characteristic of Yagi Uda
Antenna
Three element array referred as beam antenna
Unidirectional beam of moderate directivity with light weight, low cost

and simple design.

also known as super directive or super gain antenna because it provides

high gain.

can increase directivity by using more no. of directors.

a fixed frequency device i.e. frequency sensitive and sufficient bandwidth
for television reception.

With spacing between antenna elements of 0.1 λ to 0.15 λ a frequency

bandwidth of 2% is achieved.
It provides gain of 8 dB.
It has front to back ratio of 20 dB.
Typical yagis (6 m and
10m)
Design-
Problem
Design
MHz.
6 element yagi uda array at 145
Designed and Simulated
through 4nec2 Software
Geometry 2D and 3D
Geometry with
Current
Distribution
2D Radiation
Pattern
3D Radiation
Pattern
▪ Antenna’s size
▪ Weight
▪ Cost
▪ Performance
▪ Ease of installation

plays very important role.

In Applications like
Aircraft
Spacecraft
Satellite and missile applications
Mobile and radio wireless communications
▪ Light weight, low volume, low profile , planar configuration,

which can be made conformal.

▪ Low fabrication cost and ease of mass production

▪ Linear and circular polarizations are possible

▪ Dual frequency antennas can be easily realized

▪ Feed lines and matching network can be easily integrated with

antenna structure.
▪ Narrow bandwidth (1 to 5%)

▪ Low power handling capacity

▪ Practical limitation on gain (around 30dB)

▪ Poor isolation between the feed and radiating elements

▪ Excitation of surface waves

▪ Tolerance problem require good quality substrate, which are

expensive

▪ Polarization purity is difficult to achieve

▪ Size is large at lower frequency.

▪ Pagers and mobile phones

▪ Doppler and other radars

▪ Satellite communication

▪ Radio altimeter

▪ Command guidance and telemetry in missiles

▪ Feed elements in complex antennas

▪ Satellite navigation receiver

▪ Biomedical radiator
▪ Consists of a rectangular or square metal patch on a thin layer of
dielectric(called as substrate) on a ground plane.
▪ L=length of patch

▪ W=width of patch

▪ Separated by dielectric constant Єr.

▪ Thin metallic patch t<<λ0 (λ0 free space wavelength)

▪ Height above ground plane h << λ0, usually 0.003λ0 ≤ h ≤ 0.05λ0

▪ Design as a broadside radiator(maximum radiation normal to the patch)

▪ Can be worked as end fire radiator by properly selecting mode.

▪ Length L patch λ0/3<L< λ0/2.

▪ Dielectric constant range of

▪ Lower end of range for dielectric constant is preferred because of better

efficiency, larger bandwidth.

▪ Finite dimensions of patch creates fringing
field.
▪ Fields at the edges of the patch undergo

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fringing.
▪ Bending of microstrip line creates radiation.

▪ A patch is of length λ/2 long.

▪ This length is equivalent to a phase of
βl=(2π/λ)*(λ/2)
=π
▪ Often microstrip antennas are also referred
as Patch Antennas.
▪ Microstrip patch antennas radiate primarily because of the

fringing fields between the patch edges and the ground plane.

▪ Fringing effect can be increased by

▪ Lower dielectric constant

▪ Increase substrate height

▪ Higher width of Patch

▪ Effective length of an antenna is increased

Square, rectangular, dipole(strip), and Circular are most common because of
ease of analysis and fabrication and their attractive radiation characteristics,
especially low cross polarization.
1. Microstrip line

Microstrip feed line is also a conducting strip,

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Usually of much smaller width compared
to patch.
▪ Easy to fabricate
▪ Simple to match by controlling inset
position

However, as the substrate thickness increases

surface waves and spurious feed radiation
increases, which for practical deigns limit the
bandwidth (typically 2-5%).
2. Coaxial probe

Inner conductor is attached to the radiation patch

Outer conductor is connected to the ground plane

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Easy to fabricate and match
Low spurious radiation

Narrow bandwidth
More difficult to model, especially for thick
substrates (h > 0.02 λ0)
Both previous modes possesses inherent
asymmetries which generates higher order
modes which produced cross polarization.
3. Aperture-coupled field

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Matching is performed by controlling the width
of feed line and the length of the slot.
Most difficult to
fabricate Narrow
bandwidth

Moderate spurious radiation

Back radiation which makes poor front to back
power ratio.
Cross polarization radiation problem is
overcome.
4. Proximity coupled or
electromagnetically
coupled feed

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Largest bandwidth
Easy to model
Low spurious radiation
▪ Most widely used configuration
▪ Analysed using two models – transmission line and cavity models
▪ Transmission Line Models- the first model introduced
- Very simple
▪ Cavity Model- simple yet accurate for thin substrates
- Gives Physical insights into operation

▪ The transmission line model represents the microstrip antenna by

two slots, separated by a low impedance Zc transmission line of
length L.
▪ A non homogeneous line of two dielectrics; typically the substrate and
air.

▪ As shown in fig b, Most of the electric field lines reside in the substrate
and parts of some lines exist in air.

▪ As W/h >> 1, and ε𝑟 >> 1, the electric field lines concentrate mostly in

the substrate.

▪ Fringing in this case makes the microstrip line look wider electrically
compared to its physical dimensions.
▪ Since some ofthe waves travel in the substrate and some in air, an

effective dielectric constant εreff is introduced to account for fringing

and the wave propagation in the line.
▪ Let us assume that the centre conductor of the microstrip line with its
original dimensions and height above the ground plane is embedded
into one dielectric.
▪ The effective dielectric constant is defined as the dielectric constant
of the uniform dielectric material so that the line of fig (c) has
identical electrical characteristics , particularly propagation constant,
as the actual line of fig (a).
▪ For a line with air above the substrate, the effective dielectric
constant has values in the range of 1<εreff<εr .
▪ For most applications where the dielectric constant of the substrate is
much greater than unity (εr<<1), the value of εreff will be closer to the
value of the actual dielectric constant εr of the substrate.
▪ The effective dielectric constant is also a function of frequency.
▪ As the frequency of operation increases, most of the electric field lines
concentrate in the substrate.
▪ For lower frequency, the εreff is
constant

▪ For intermediate frequency its values

begin to monotonically increase
▪ Eventually approach the values of the
dielectric constant of the substrate.
▪ The initial values (at low frequencies)
of the effective dielectric constant
are referred to as the static values.
▪ They are given by:
▪ Because of the fringing effects, electrically the patch of
the microstip antenna looks greater than its physical
dimensions.
▪ For the principle E plane (xy-plane), this is demonstrated
in fig. where the dimensions of the patch along its length
have been extended on each end by a distance ∆L, which
is a function of εreff and W/h ratio.
▪ A very popular and practical approximate relation for the
normalized extension of the length is

▪ The effective length for L=λ/2 for dominant TM010 mode with
no fringing
TEM Transverse
Electromagnetic
▪ In this mode, both the electric and magnetic fields are purely transverse to the direction of
propagation. There are no components in ’Z′ direction.
▪ Ez=0andHz=0

TE Transverse Electric Wave

▪ In this mode, the electric field is purely transverse to the direction of propagation, whereas
the magnetic field is not.
▪ Ez=0andHz≠0
▪ sometimes called H waves

TM Transverse Magnetic Wave

▪ In this mode, the magnetic field is purely transverse to the direction of propagation, whereas
the electric field is not.
▪ Ez≠0andHz=0
▪ sometimes called E waves
▪ In rectangular waveguides, rectangular mode
numbers are designated by two suffix numbers
attached to the mode type, such as TEmn or TMmn,
where m is the number of half-wave patterns
across the width of the waveguide and n is the
number of half-wave patterns across the height
of the waveguide.

▪ In circular waveguides, circular modes exist and

here m is the number of full-wave patterns along the
circumference and n is the number of half-wave
patterns along the diameter.
▪ For the dominant TM010 , the resonant frequency of the microstrip antenna is a function of
its length. Usually it is given by

▪ Where υ0 is the speed of the light in free space.

▪ The above equation is modify to account fringing effect, to include edge effects and should
be computed by

▪ Where

▪ The q factor referred to as the fringe factor(length reduction factor)

▪ As the substrate height increases, fringing also increases and leads to larger separations
between the radiating edges and lower resonant frequencies.
▪ Practical designs of rectangular microstrip antenna
▪ Specified information are
▪ Dielectric constant of substrate (𝜀𝑟)
▪ The resonant frequency (fr)
▪ The height of substrate (h)
▪ Determine W and L.
▪ Design Procedure:
1. For an efficient radiator, a practical width that leads to good radiation efficiencies
is

Where υ0 is the speed of the light in free space.

2. Determine the effective dielectric constant of the microstrip antenna
using

3. Once W is found, determine the extension of length ∆L

using

4. The actual length of the patch can now be determined

by
▪ Design a rectangular microstrip antenna using a substrate (RT/Duroid 5880) with dielectric
constant of 2.2 , h=0.1588cm so as to resonate at 10GHz.
▪ One degree of freedom
▪ Radius a
▪ TMz modes where z is taken perpendicular to the patch.
▪ The resonant frequency of microstrip antenna is given by

▪ The dominant mode is the TMz110 whose resonant frequency

is
▪ Fringing makes the patch look electrically larger
▪ The actual radius a is replaced by effective radius ae, given by

▪ Therefore, the resonant frequency for TMz110 mode is

▪ Practical design for dominant mode TMz110 mode.
▪ Specified information are
▪ Dielectric constant of substrate ( 𝜀 𝑟 )
▪ The resonant frequency (fr) in Hz
▪ The height of substrate (h) in cm

▪ Determine the actual radius a of the

patch.
a=0.525cm, ae=0.598cm, 𝜀𝑟=2.2, h=0.1588cm, f0= 10GHz, λ0= 3cm
▪ Conventional feed in rectangular and circular patch antennas give linear polarized wave.

▪ Circular and elliptical polarization can be obtained using various feed arrangements.

▪ Circular Polarization
▪ Can be obtained if two orthogonal modes are excited with a 90 time difference between them

with the feed at one edge

▪
with the feed at the other
▪
edge.
Quadrature phase difference is obtained
by feeding the element with a 90 power
divider or 90 hybrid
▪ For Mode TMz110
▪ Two feeds with proper angular

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separation.

▪ Two coax fields separated by 90

which generates fields orthogonal to
the patch as well as outside the
patch.
▪ Using square patch with a very thin slot with dimensions

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▪ Microstrip antenna are not used only as single element but are very popular
in ARRAY

▪ Use of array provides

▪ High gain(narrow bandwidth)
▪ Increased range
▪ Synthesis method to obtain a required pattern
▪ Beam scanning

▪ Greatest advantage of ease of fabrication

▪ Limitations:
▪ Radiate effectively for narrow bandwidth
▪ Cannot operate at high power levels of waveguide, coaxial line
1. Series feed network

▪ Elements are fed by a single line

▪ Patch elements in the array are
connected with microstrip feed
line in series.
▪ Amplitude excitations in each
element is
same

▪ Easy to fabricate
▪ Fixed beam (beam scanning
frequency should vary)
▪ Change in one element affects
overall
performance
▪ Patch elements are supplied with
multiple feed lines.
▪ Amplitude excitation is controlled by
width
▪ Phase excitation is controlled by various
phase shifters.

▪ Beam scanning is possible.

 MITCOE, Pune
Antenna array of 10 × 10 rectangular microstrip patches, 2–2.3 GHz, for space-to-space
communications. (Courtesy: Ball Aerospace & Technologies Corp.)
▪ Higher data rates with better coverage for a wide variety of users

operating with a large variety of different systems

▪ Greater power, interference suppression and multipath mitigation

are needed.

▪ High capacity and wider coverage area for increased subscribers.

▪ Higher transmission quality

▪ Smart or adaptive antennas system is solution.

“Spatial processing remains as the most promising, if not the last frontier, in the
evolution of multiple access systems”- Andrew Viterbi
Space diversity is the main idea of adaptive or smart antennas.
It allows different users to use the same spatial system resources.
▪ The design process of selecting and
allocating the same bands of frequencies
to different cells of cellular base stations
within a system is referred to as frequency
reuse
▪ Clusters use same frequency spectrum
▪ Omnidirectional antenna
▪ Amplitude Radiation pattern is shown in fig.

▪ Only a small percentage of a total energy

reached to desired user and the remaining
energy was radiated in undesired direction.
▪ As the number of users increased , so did the
interference, thereby reducing capacity.
▪ Solution- Cell Splitting
▪ Subdivides congested cells into microcells
▪ Each with its own base station and a corresponding
reduction in antenna height and transmitter power.
▪ Improves capacity by decreasing cell radius R and
keeping the D/R ratio unchanged. Where D is the
distance between centres of clusters

▪ Disadvantages
▪ high cost incurred due to installation of new
base stations
▪ Increasing number of hand offs
▪ Higher processing load per subscriber
▪ The need is to provide more frequencies per coverage area
▪ An omnidirectional antenna is replaced at base station with
several directional antenna.
▪ This technique is referred to as cell sectoring.
▪ Typically a cell is sectorized into three sectors of 120° each.
▪ Cell capacity is improved while keeping the
cell radius unchanged and reducing the D/R ratio.
▪ In other words, by reducing the number of cells in cluster
andthus increasing the frequency reuse, capacity
improvement is achieved.
▪ The cochannel interference in such cellular
systems is
reduced since only two neighbouring cells interfere instead
of six for the omnidirectional case.
▪ The penalty for improved signal-to-interference (S/I ) ratio
and capacity is an increase in the number of antennas at the
base station, and a decrease in trunking efficiency due to
channel sectoring at the base station.
▪ Trunking efficiency is a measure of the number of users that
can be offered service with a particular configuration of fixed
number of frequencies.
▪ Despite its benefits, cell sectoring did not provide the solution needed for the capacity
problem.
▪ Many refer to smart-antenna systems as smart antennas, but in reality antennas are not
smart; it is the digital signal processing, along with the antennas, which makes the system
smart.
▪ Smart antenna systems are basically an extension of cell sectoring in which the sector
coverage is composed of multiple beams.
▪ This is achieved by the use of antenna arrays, and the number of beams in the sector (e.g.,
120°) is a function of the array geometry.
▪ Because smart antennas can focus their radiation pattern toward the desired users while
rejecting unwanted interferences, they can provide greater coverage area for each base
station.
▪ Moreover, because smart antennas have a higher rejection interference, and therefore
lower bit error rate (BER), they can provide a substantial capacity improvement.
▪ These systems can generally be classified as either Switched-Beam or Adaptive Array
▪ Electrical smart-antenna systems work the
same way using two antennas instead of
the two ears and a digital signal processor
instead of a brain
▪ Therefore, after the digital signal
processor measures the time delays from
each antenna element, it computes the
direction of arrival (DOA) of the signal-
of-interest (SOI),
▪ and then it adjusts the excitations (gains
and phases of the signals) to produce a
radiation pattern that focuses on the SOI
while, ideally, tuning out any signal-not-of
interest (SNOI).
▪ A switched-beam system is a system that can choose from one of
many predefined patterns in order to enhance the received signal.
▪ It is obviously an extension of cell sectoring as each sector is
subdivided into smaller sectors.
▪ As the mobile unit moves throughout the cell, the switched-beam
system detects the signal strength, chooses the appropriate
predefined beam pattern, and continually switches the beams as
necessary.
▪ The overall goal of the switched-beam system is to increase the
gain according to the location of the user.

▪ However, since the beams are fixed, the intended user may not be
in the centre of any given main beam.
▪ If there is an interferer near the centre of the active beam, it
may be enhanced more than the desired user
▪ It provide more degrees of freedom since they have the ability to adapt in real time the
radiation pattern to the RF signal environment.
▪ Adaptive array systems can customize an appropriate radiation pattern for each individual
user.
▪ It can direct the main beam toward the pilot signal or SOI while suppressing the antenna
pattern in the direction of the interferes or SNOIs.
▪ Superior performance as compared to switched beam system.
 COMPARISON BETWEEN ADAPTIVE AREA AND
SWITCHED BEAM
Characteristic Switched beam Adaptive array

Low level interference Significant gains over the Significant gains over the
conventional sectored system conventional sectored
system
High level interference Less coverage More coverage

Coverage area Less More

Interference Low High

rejection
capability
Beams and Beam width Multiple fixed directional beams with Steers beam towards SIOs and
narrow beam width nulls at the interference (SNIOs)
Implementation simple fixed phase shifting network Requires DSP technology
as fixed phase shifts are there.
Cost and complexity Less as low technology used High as continuous steering of
and moderate interaction is beam required high interaction
required between mobile between mobile and base
and Base station station.
▪ Technology that sophistically utilize smart antenna system.
▪ Advanced spatial processing capability enables it to locate
many users, creating different beam for each user.
▪ This means that more than one user can be allocated to
the same physical communication channel in the same cell
simultaneously, with only an angle separation.
▪ This is accomplished by having N parallel beamformers at
the base station operating independently, where each
beamformer has its own adaptive beamforming algorithm to
control its own set of weights and its own direction-of-arrival
algorithm (DOA) to determine the time delay of each user’s
signal
▪ Each beamformer creates a maximum toward its desired
user while nulling or attenuating the other users.
▪ This technology dramatically improves the interference
suppression capability while greatly increasing
frequency reuse, resulting in increased capacity and
reduced infrastructure cost.
▪ Basically, capacity is increased not only through intercell
frequency reuse but also through intracell frequency reuse
▪ Motivation: current wireless system
▪ Capacity constrained network
▪ Issues related to quality and coverage

▪ MIMO exploits the space dimension to improve wireless systems

capacity, range and reliability
▪ MIMO-OFDM – the corner stone of future broadband wireless access
– WiFi – 802.11n
– WiMAX – 802.16e (a.k.a 802.16-2005)
– 3G / 4G
▪ MIMO can be used to provide spatial multiplexing and spatial diversity

▪ Space Time Transmit Diversity (STTD) - The same data is coded and
transmitted through different antennas, which effectively doubles the
power in the channel.
▪ This improves Signal Noise Ratio (SNR) for cell edge performance.
▪ Spatial Multiplexing (SM) - the “Secret Sauce” of MIMO. SM delivers parallel
streams of data to rx by exploiting multi-path.
▪ It can double (2x2 MIMO) or quadruple (4x4) capacity and throughput.
▪ SM gives higher capacity when RF conditions are favourable and users are
closer to the BTS.
 Referenc
1.es
C. A. Balanis, “Antenna Theory Analysis and Design”, third
edition
John wiley and sons
2. Girishkumar, “NPTEL course on Antennas”, IIT Bombay.