Chapter 1 – Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry

1. How are physical properties different from chemical properties?

Ans: Color, odor, and other physical properties can be measured or observed without changing the substance's identity or
composition, whereas chemical properties require a chemical change to be measured.

2. What is the SI unit of density?

Ans: Kg m-3Kg m-3 or Kg/m3Kg/m3 is the SI unit of density.

3. State law of definite proportions.

Ans: Law of definite proportions also known by the name of the law of constant proportions which states that a given element
always contains exactly the same proportion of elements by weight.

4. State Avogadro’s law.

Ans: Avogadro’s law states that at the same temperature and pressure, gases that have equal volume will contain an equal number
of molecules.

5. Define one atomic mass unit (amu).

Ans: One atomic mass unit is defined as the mass that is exactly equivalent to 1/12 th of the mass of a carbon atom, whereas the
mass of a carbon atom is 12.0107 u.

6. What is stoichiometry?
Ans: Stoichiometry is formed by combining two Greek words: stoikhein, which means element, and metron, which means
measurement. As a result, we may say that stoichiometry is concerned with calculating the masses of reactants and products in
chemical processes.

7. How can we say that sugar is solid and water is liquid?

Ans: Sugar's constituent particles are densely packed, and it also has its own volume and form, making it a solid, whereas water's
constituent particles are not as densely packed. It has a defined volume but no defined form, therefore it is classified as a liquid.

8. Write seven fundamental quantities and their units.

Ans: The seven fundamental quantities and their SI units are listed as follows:

9. What does the following prefixes stand for:

a. Pico
Ans: Pico = 10-12Pico = 10-12
b. Nano
Ans: Nano = 10-9Nano = 10-9
c. Centi
Ans: Centi = 10-2Centi = 10-2
d. Deci
Ans: Deci = 10-1Deci = 10-1
 10. Explain the law of multiple proportions with an example.
Ans: The law of multiple proportions states that if two elements can combine to form more than one compound, the masses of one
element which combine with a fixed mass of another element are in a ratio of small whole numbers. For example: Hydrogen and
oxygen can combine to form water (whose chemical formula is H2OH2O) as well as hydrogen peroxide (whose chemical formula is
H2O2H2O2).
Here, the masses of oxygen (16g and 32 g) combines with a fixed mass of hydrogen (2g) element bear a simple ratio which is 16:32
= 1:2

11. Write Postulates of Dalton’s atomic theory.

Ans: Postulates of Dalton’s atomic theory are as follows–
1. Matter consists of indivisible atoms.
2. All atoms of an element have a similar atomic mass. But atoms of different elements have different atomic masses.
3. Compounds are formed when atoms of different elements combine in a fixed ratio.
4. Chemical reaction involves the reorganization of atoms. These are neither created nor destroyed

12. Calculate the molecular mass of-

C2H6, C12H22O11, H2SO4, H3PO4C2H6, C12H22O11, H2SO4, H3PO4
Ans: The molecular mass is the sum of the atomic masses of the individual elements present in a molecule. The molecular masses
of the given compounds are calculated as follows with the help of the molar masses of the elements.
The molar mass of C= 12
The molar mass of H= 1
The molar mass of O= 16
The molar mass of S= 32
The molar mass of P= 31
C2H6 = (2 × 12) + (6 × 1) = 30 g/ molC2H6 = (2 × 12) + (6 × 1) = 30 g/ mol

C12H22O11 = (12 × 12) + (22 × 1) + (11 × 16) = 342 g/ molC12H22O11 = (12 × 12) + (22 × 1) + (11 × 16)
= 342 g/ mol

H2SO4 = (2 × 1) + (32) + (16 × 4) = 98 g/ molH2SO4 = (2 × 1) + (32) + (16 × 4) = 98 g/ mol

H3PO4 = (3 × 1) + (31) + (16 × 4) = 98 g/ molH3PO4 = (3 × 1) + (31) + (16 × 4) = 98 g/ mol

13. Give one example each of molecule in which empirical formula and molecular formula are

i. Same

Ans: Molecule having same molecular formula and the empirical formula is Carbon dioxide, that is CO2CO2.

ii. Different
Ans: When molecular formula and empirical formula are different, the example of such molecule is,
Hydrogen peroxide: the molecular formula is H2O2H2O2 and empirical formula is HO.
14. Calculate the number of moles in the following masses:
i. 7.85g of Fe
Ans: Given 7.85g of Fe
56g of Fe contains 6.022 × 10236.022 × 1023 atoms = 1 mole
56g of Fe = 1 mole
So, 7.85 g of Fe = 156 × 7.85 = 0.14 moles7.85 g of Fe = 156 × 7.85 = 0.14 moles
i. 7.9 mg of Ca
Ans: As, 40g of Ca = 40 × 103 mg40 × 103 mg of Ca
40g of Ca contain 1 mole of Ca
Or we can write 4 × 104 mg Ca = 1 mole4 × 104 mg Ca = 1 mole
Therefore, 7.9 mg of Ca = 7.94 × 1047.9 mg of Ca = 7.94 × 104
= 1.97 × 10-4 moles= 1.97 × 10-4 moles

15. Calculate the weight of lime CaO obtained by heating 200kg of 95% pure limestone CaCO3CaCO3 .
Ans: 100 kg impure sample has pure CaCO3CaCO3 = 95% = 95 kg
Therefore, 200kg impure sample has pure CaCO3CaCO3 = 95 × 200/100 = 190 kg
From the below reaction: CaCO3→ Δ CaO + CO2CaCO3→ Δ CaO + CO2
We can observe that 100kg CaCO3CaCO3 will give CaO = 56 kg
Therefore, 190 kg CaCO3CaCO3 will give CaO = 56 × 190/100 = 106.4 kg

16. Write an expression for molarity and molality of a solution.

Ans: Molarity is the number of moles of solute per litre of a solution, that is,
Molarity = number of moles of solutes/Volume of solution in Litres
While molality is the number of moles od solute per kilogram of a solvent, that is,
Molality = number of moles of solutes/Mass of solvent in kg.
 Chapter 2: Structure of Atom

1. (i) What is the mass of a proton?

(ii) What is the charge of a proton?
Ans: (i) The mass of a proton is 1.676×10−27kg1.676×10−27kg
(ii) The charge of a proton is +1.602×10−19C+1.602×10−19C.

2. (i) What is the mass of a neutron?

(ii) What is the charge of a neutron?
Ans: (i) The mass of a neutron is 1.676×10−24g1.676×10−24g .
(ii)Neutrons are electrically neutral i.e. it has a charge of 0.

3. Name the scientist who first gave the atomic model.

Ans: J.J. Thomson, in 1898 first proposed the atomic model called raising-pudding model. The negative charges(raisins) were
spread around in the plum pudding.

4. What is an isotope?
Ans: Atoms of the same elements which have the same atomic number but different mass number are called isotopes. Chemical
properties of isotopes are almost similar.
e.g.

5. What are isobars?

Ans: Atoms of different elements which have the same mass number but different atomic numbers are called isobars. Isobars differ
in chemical property but have same physical properties
e.g.

6. What are isotones?

Ans: Atoms of different elements which contain the same number of neutrons. Isotones have no similarity, when it comes to
chemical properties.
e.g.

7. What is an atomic number?

Ans: Atomic number is the measure of the number of protons which is present in the nucleus of an atom. For example, has an
atomic number of 1.

8. Give the drawbacks of J.J. Thomson’s experiment.

Ans: The drawbacks are:
(i) It failed to explain the origin of the spectral lines of hydrogen and other atoms.
(ii)It failed to explain scattering of α- particles in Rutherford’s scattering experiment.

9. Why Rutherford’s model could not explain the stability of an atom?

Ans: According to the electromagnetic theory of Maxwell, when charged particles are accelerated then they should emit
electromagnetic radiation. Therefore, an electron in an orbit will continue to emit radiation for infinite time ; the orbit will then
continue to shrink which is not the case in an atom.

10. Define photoelectric effect.

Ans: The phenomenon in which the surface of alkali metals like potassium and calcium emit electrons when a beam of light with
high frequency is projected on them is called the photoelectric effect.

11. Give the de-Broglie’s relation.

Ans: Every particle in motion is associated with a wavelength and other wave characteristics. The wavelength (λ) of a particle in
motion is equal to the Planck’s constant (h) divided by the momentum (p) of the particle.
i.e. λ=h/p=1/mv
Where m is the mass, v is the velocity of the particles.

12. Which orbital is non-directional?

Ans: S- orbital is spherically symmetrical i.e. it is non-directional. It has a spherical shape, like a hollow ball.
1. What is the mass (m) of an electron?
Ans: mass of an electron (m)=e(e/m)
 So, the mass of an electron is of the mass of a hydrogen atom.

13. Give the main features of Thomson’s Model for an atom.

Ans: The features are:
 An atom hosts a sphere, which is positively charged, and the electrons are present in it and spread all over.
 There is balancing of charges, total positive charge is equal to the total negative charge.
14. What did Rutherford conclude from the observations of the α−ray scattering experiment?
Ans: Rutherford proposed the nuclear model of an atom as
(i) The positive charge was concentrated in a small space at the centre, which is the nucleus.
(ii) The nucleus is surrounded by electrons that move around it in orbits with a very high speed.
(iii) Most of the space inside the atom is empty as most of the rays pass undeflected.

15. What is the relation between kinetic energy and frequency of the photoelectrons?
Ans: Kinetic energy of the ejected electron is proportional to the frequency of the electromagnetic radiation. As the kinetic energy is
increased, the light incident on the metal has more energy, and for that, the time period of the electrons ejected reduces, which
increases the frequency.

16. Give the mathematical expression of uncertainty principle.

Ans: Mathematically, it can be given as

17.
 Chapter 3: Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties

1. How many elements are known at present?

Ans: At present 114 elements are known to us.
2. State the modern ‘Periodic law’?
Ans: Elements are arranged according to their physical and chemical properties and with the increase in atomic
numbers.
3. Define and state Mendeleev’s periodic law.
Ans: This law states that elements are arranged according to their atomic weight.
4. Give the general characteristics of the long form of the Modern periodic table?
Ans: General characteristics of the long form of Periodic table can be discussed as follows:
1. 18 vertical columns known as groups.
2. Their groups are numbered from left to right as 1-18.
3. Seven horizontal rows are known by the name periods.
4. The elements present in groups 1, 2 and 13-17 are called main group elements.
5. The elements present in groups 3-12 are called transition elements.
5. Define electronic configuration.
Ans: Electronic configuration defines how electrons are distributed into orbitals of an atom.
6.What is the electronic configuration when elements are classified group wise?
Ans: Those elements which are in the same group have the same number of valence electrons and also show
similar physical and chemical properties.
7.Why do Li and Mg show resemblance in chemical behaviour?
Ans: As these are diagonally related to each other so they show similar chemical behaviour.
8. The atomic radius of elements decreases along the period but Neon has the highest size among III period
elements? Why?
Ans: Neon contains Vander Waal radius while all other elements contain covalent radius and Vander wall radius
have greater value as compared to covalent so we can say Neon has the highest size.
9. Define valency.
Ans: Valency is defined as the combining capacity of an element.
10. How does valency vary in a group and period in the periodic table?
Ans: Valency remains constant in a group and increases while moving in a period from left to right.
11. What is the valency of noble gases?
Ans: Valency acquired by noble gases is zero.
12. How do metals react in a period?
Ans: Reactivity resembles the property by which an element loses an electron while moving in a period from left to
right reactivity decreases due to a decrease in size.
13. How do metals react in a group?
Ans: Reactivity resembles the property by which an element loses an electron while moving down a group reactivity
increases due to an increase in size.
14. What is amphoteric oxide?
Ans: Oxides that can behave as acids, as well as bases, are known as amphoteric oxides.
15. Define a neutral oxide.
Ans: Neutral oxides are those oxides that have neither show acidic nor basic properties.
16. What is the general outer electronic configuration of f – block elements?
Ans: The general outer electronic configuration of f – block elements is shown in this way
17. Why do Na and K have similar properties?
Ans: Na and K show similar properties as they contain the same number of valence electrons.
18. Arrange the following elements in the increasing order of metallic character: Si, Be, Mg, Na, P.
Ans: P > Si > Be > Mg > Na
19. How did Mendeleev arrange the elements?
Ans: Mendeleev arranged elements in the form of a table which contains horizontal rows and vertical columns and
elements are arranged in these columns and rows according to their atomic weight in an increasing manner and
arrangement is in such a way that the elements having similar properties are in the same vertical column or group.

20. Name the two elements whose existence and properties were predicted by Mendeleev though they did
not exist then.
Ans: Gallium and Germanium are two elements whose existence as well as some physical properties were also
explained by Mendeleev though they did not exist at that time.
21. Give the main features of s-block elements.
Ans: Those elements whose last electron will enter in the s subshell which is its outermost energy shell are called s-
block elements. It contains only two elements named hydrogen and helium. The general configuration of s-block
elements is as s subshell can acquire a maximum of 2 electrons.
22. Give the main features of p-block elements.
Ans: Those elements whose last electron will enter the p subshell which is its outermost energy shell are called p-
block elements. It contains elements of groups 13-18. The general configuration of p-block elements is , p
subshell can contain maximum 6 electrons.
23. Give the main features of d-block elements.
Ans: Those elements whose last electron will enter in the d subshell which is its outermost energy shell are called d-
block elements. d block elements are generally present between the s and p block elements. It contains elements of
groups 3-12. The general configuration of d-block elements is d subshell can contain maximum 10
electrons.
24. Give the main features of f-block elements.
Ans: Elements whose last electron will enter in the f subshell which is its outermost energy shell are called f-block
elements. The elements of f-block elements are present below the periodic table in the form of two lines. The general
configuration of f-block elements is f subshell can contain maximum 14 electrons.
25. Define ionization enthalpy and electron gain enthalpy.
Ans: Ionization enthalpy: It generally represents the energy that is required to remove an electron from an isolated
gaseous atom in the ground state which further gives us protons i.e. form a positive ion. The reaction can be shown
as:
Electron gain enthalpy: The change in enthalpy accompanying during the process is defined in which an electron is
gained by any neutral gaseous atom and it converts that atom into a negative ion is known as electron gain enthalpy.
The reaction of this can be shown as:
26. How does metallic character change in a group?
Ans: While moving down the group metallic character increases.
27. The atomic number of an element is 16. Determine its position in accordance with its electronic
configuration.
Ans: Electronic configuration of an element having atomic number 16 is given by 1s 22s22p63s23p4 as we can see that
the last electron will enter into p subshell and said to be p block element and placed in the third period and 16 th group
of the periodic table.
28. Why are elements at the extreme left and extreme right the most reactive?
Ans: The maximum chemical reactivity at the extreme left which is present among alkali metals can be exhibited due
to the loss of an electron which leads to the formation of a cation due to its low ionization enthalpy and at the extreme
right where halogens are present which is shown by the gain of an electron forming an anion due to its high electron
affinity.
29. Why does the ionization enthalpy gradually decreases in a group?
Ans: Ionization enthalpy gradually decreases while moving down a group due to an increase in its atomic and ionic
radii.
30. Why does the electronegativity value increases across a period and decreases down a period?
Ans: Electronegativity value generally corresponds with the attraction between outer electrons and the nucleus which
increases with the decrease in atomic radius along a period and in this case electronegativity value also increases. In
a similar manner electronegativity value decreases with the increase in atomic radii as we move down a group.
31. How do electronegativity and non – metallic characters related to each other?
Ans: Electronegativity is directly related to the non – metallic character of elements while in the case of metallic
properties it is inversely related. Thus the increase in electronegativity’s across a period is defined by an increase in
non – metallic properties of elements and the decrease in electronegativity by moving down a group is defined by a
decrease in its non – metallic properties of elements.
32. Describe the main features of Mendeleev’s periodic table?
Ans:
1. Mendeleev table is discovered by the scientist Mendeleev in which the elements were arranged in vertical columns
and horizontal rows. The vertical columns are called groups while the horizontal rows are called periods.

2. Total there are eight groups in this table represented as Group I to VIII. The group numbers were designed with
Roman numerals.

3. There are seven periods which accommodate more elements and the period 4, 5, 6 and 7 are further divided into
two halves. The first half of the elements are placed in the upper left corner and the second half in the lower right
corner of each box.
 Chapter 4- Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure

1.Define a chemical bond.

Ans: Chemical bond is defined as the attractive force which is responsible for the holding or we can say which holds
the different constituents of atoms like electrons, protons or neutrons or any other ions together in various chemical
species

2. Give the main feature of Lewis' approach of chemical bonding.

Ans: Lewis mainly approached that the atoms attain the stable octet when they are linked with the help of chemical
bonds. He also discovered that atoms contain a positively charged center called nucleus and the outer shell of the
atom can attain a maximum of eight electrons. These electrons are present at the corners of a cube and revolve
around the center. Lewis also introduced Lewis symbols which are simple notations that represent valence electrons
in an atom.

3. Write electron dot structure (Lewis structure)

of Na, Ca, B, Br, Xe, As, Ge, N3−.

Ans: Lewis symbols are simple notations that represent valence electrons in an atom with the help of a dot so they
are also known as electron dot structure or lewis structure.

4.Define an ionic bonding.

Ans: An ionic bond which is also known as electrovalent bond can be defined as the bond which is formed by the
complete transference of one or more of outermost electrons from the atom of any metal to that of a non – metal.

5.Define bond order.

Ans: Bond order is defined as the number of bonds between two atoms in a molecule. It can be calculated by the
difference between bonding and antibonding number of electrons.

6. What type of bond is formed when atoms have a high difference of electronegativity?

Ans: When atoms have a high difference of electronegativity and bond formed is known as electrovalent or ionic
bond.

7. Define dipole moment.

Ans: Dipole moment is defined as the product of the magnitude of the charge and the distance between the centers
of positive and negative charge present in any compound.

8. Give the mathematical expression of the dipole moment.

Ans: Mathematically dipole moment is product of magnitude of charge represented by the letter Q and distance
represented by r whereas dipole moment is represented by M. Dipole moment is usually expressed in Debye
units (D). Expression can be written as follows:
Dipole moment (M)=charge(Q) × distance of separation (r).

9. Why is the dipole moment of CO2,BF3,CCl4 is zero?

Ans: Dipole moment of CO2,BF3,CCl4 is zero this can be explained on the basis of the shape of these molecules
these all have symmetrical shapes which cancels the dipoles effect of each other and their net dipole moment
become zero.
10. Why is BF3 non-polar?
Ans: BF3 is said to be non-polar in nature; this can also be explained on the basis of its symmetrical shape due to
which the net dipole moment becomes zero and it becomes non – polar in nature.

11. What is a sigma bond?

Ans: Sigma bond is a type of covalent bond which is formed due to the overlapping of orbitals of the two atoms along
their same orbital axis.

12. What is pi – bond?

Ans: Pi bond is also a type of covalent bond which formed between the two atoms due to their sideways overlap
along their p – orbitals.

13. What type of bond is formed due to orbital overlap?

Ans: Covalent bonds are generally formed due to the overlapping of orbitals which are able to move freely in space.
The overlapping may be straight sides of sideways which form sigma and pi bonds respectively

14. How do covalent bonds form due to orbital overlapping?

Ans: Orbital overlap concept gives us the information about the formation of a covalent bond between two atoms
which are formed as results of pairing of electrons present in the valence shell which attains opposite spins.

15. Define hybridization.

Ans: Hybridization is defined as the process of intermixing of orbitals which are different to each other in their
energies therefore to redistribute their energies they are able to form new sets of orbitals of equivalent energies and
shape.

16. What is the state of hybridization of carbon atoms in diamond and graphite?

Ans: Hybridization of carbon in diamond is Sp3 and in graphite it shows Sp2 hybridization.

17. Define bonding molecular orbital.

Ans: This can be defined as the molecular orbital which is formed by the addition of atomic orbitals is called bonding
molecular orbital. This can be represented as follows: σ=ΨA+ΨB

18. Define anti-bonding molecular orbital.

Ans: This can be defined as the molecular orbital which is formed by the subtraction of atomic orbitals is called anti-
bonding molecular orbital. This is represented as: σ+=ΨA−ΨB
19. Why are bonding molecular orbitals more stable than antibonding molecular
orbitals?

Ans. Bonding molecular orbital is said to be more stable as compared to its anti-bonding molecular orbital; this can be
explained due to its lower energy and greater stability as compared to its corresponding anti-bonding molecular
orbital.

20. Define bond order.

Ans: Bond order which is generally represented by B.O. is defined as one half of the differences between the number
of electrons present in the bonding and the anti- bonding orbitals. The formula can be written as:

Bond Order (B.O) =1/2(Na−Nb)

If Nb>Na, molecule is stable and

If Nb<Na, the molecule is unstable.

31. Define hydrogen bonding.

Ans: Hydrogen bond can be defined as the attractive force which binds hydrogen atom of one molecule with other
electronegative atom like (F, O or N) of another molecule.
21. What are the types of H- bonding? Which of them is stronger?

Ans: Hydrogen bonding is generally of two types known by the name

a. Intermolecular H�- bonding and

b. Intramolecular H�- bonding.

Out of these two intermolecular H-bonding is stronger as compared to intramolecular H-bonding.

22. Define electrovalent bond.

Ans: Electro covalent bond is defined as the formation of bonds due to the result of electrostatic attraction between
their positive and negative ions.

23. Give the main feature of Kossel’s explanation of chemical bonding.

Ans: Kossel gives explanation towards the chemical bonding have gives us the following features:

1. Highly electronegative halogens and highly electropositive alkali metals present in the periodic table are separated
by noble gases.

2. Formation of a negative ion from a halogen atom and a positive ion from an alkali metal atom is generally
associated with a gain and loss of an electron by their respective atoms.

3. The negative and positive ions formed generally attain stable noble gas electronic configurations. Noble gases are
those gases which have eight electrons in their outermost shell and have a general configuration of ns2np6.
The ve and +ve ions are stabilized by electrostatic attraction.

24. Write the significance of octet rule.

Ans: The main significance of octet rule is it is useful for giving the proper concept about the structures of most of the
organic compounds. Octet rule mainly applies towards the second period elements of the periodic table.

25. What changes are observed in atoms undergoing ionic bonding?

Ans: Ionic bonding is formed due to the transference of electrons and it will give following changes:

1. Both the atoms will acquire stable noble gas configuration.

2. The atom which loses electrons becomes a +vely charged ion known as cation whereas the other atom which
gains electrons becomes a −vely charged ion called anion.

3. These cations and anions are held together by the Coulombic forces of attraction which further form an ionic bond.

26. Mention the factors that influence the formation of an Ionic bond.

Ans: Formation of Ionic bond mainly depends upon the following three factors:

1. Low ionization energy: Those elements which have low ionization enthalpy have greater tendency to form an ionic
bond.

2. High electron gain enthalpy: Those compounds which have high negative value of electron gain enthalpy generally
favors the formation of ionic bonds.

3. Lattice energy: Compounds having high lattice energy value favors ionic bond formation.

27. Out of covalent and hydrogen bonds, which is stronger.

Ans: Out of covalent and hydrogen bonds, covalent bonds are said to be stronger.

28. Give the main features of VSEPR Theory.

Ans: The main postulates of VSEPR theory can be explained as follows:

1. The shape of any molecule generally depends upon the number of valence shell electron pairs around the central
atom.

2. Pairs of electrons in the valence shell repel each other, that’s why their electron clouds are negatively charged.

3. The pairs of electrons tend to occupy that position in space which minimize repulsion and maximize the distance
between them.

4. The valence shell is considered as a sphere with the electron pairs localizing on the sphere at maximum distance
from one another.

5. A multiple bond is treated as a single electron pair and two or three electron pairs of a multiple bond is treated as a
super pair.

6. When two or more resonance structures can represent a molecule, the VSEPR nodal is applicable to any type of
structure.

29. What's the difference between lone pair and bonded pair of electrons?
Ans: The main difference between lone pair and bond pair is that lone pair electrons do not take part in bond
formation whereas bond pair electrons take part in bond formation.