INDEX

S.NO TOPIC PAGE NUMBER

1. Karl Marx - Biography 3
2. Dialectics 4
3. Theory of historical materialism 10
3.1. Modes of production 12
3.2. Class Struggle 26
4. Theory of Alienation 40
5. Commodity Fetishism 44
6. Marx - Critical Analysis 50

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KARL MARX - BIOGRAPHY

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 DIALECTICS
Origin

Dialectic , also known as the dialectical method, refers originally to dialogue between people holding
different points of view about a subject but wishing to arrive at the truth through reasoned
argumentation. Dialectic resembles debate.It has its origins in ancient philosophy and continued to
be developed in the Middle Ages.

The Hegelian dialectic

The Dialectic , Vladimir Lenin (1972) said that no one can fully understand Marx’s work without a
prior understanding of the German philosopher G.W.F. Hegel.

Hegelian dialectics describes changes in the forms of thought through their own internal
contradictions into concrete forms that overcome previous oppositions.

It is a way of thinking about how ideas change and develop. It says that when two ideas or beliefs
clash (contradict each other), they create a new idea that combines parts of both, overcoming the
original conflict. This process keeps repeating, leading to new ideas and progress. A contradiction in

relationship which serves the purpose of generating higher level of truth.

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Let's take example of the idea of freedom. In the past, people might have thought that freedom
meant being able to do whatever you want without any rules (thesis). But then they realized that this
could lead to chaos and harm (antithesis). So, they developed a new idea of freedom that includes
having some rules and laws to protect everyone's freedom (synthesis).

1. Reality is mental or spiritual: This means that according to Hegel, the most important parts
of reality are thoughts, ideas, and spiritual concepts, rather than physical things like rocks or

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 trees. Hegel's view that reality is mental or spiritual doesn't mean that physical things like
rocks or trees don't exist or aren't important. Instead, he believed that the way we understand
and interpret the world is through our thoughts and ideas.

For example, when you see a tree, you don't just see a physical object; you also have thoughts and
ideas about what a tree is, its purpose, how it fits into the natural world, etc. Hegel believed that these
thoughts and ideas are crucial to understanding the true nature of reality.

2. Dialectical process unfolds in the realm of ideas: The "dialectical process" is a way of
thinking about how ideas change and develop over time. Hegel believed that ideas evolve
through a series of stages, where each stage (or idea) contains within it the seeds of its own
contradiction or opposite.
3. Leading to the Absolute Idea or Spirit: Hegel believed that this process of ideas evolving
and changing eventually leads to the "Absolute Idea" or "Absolute Spirit," which is the highest,
most complete form of knowledge or understanding.

MARX DIALECTICS

Marx adopted Hegel's dialectical method but inverted it from idealism to materialism. He retained
the idea of contradictions driving historical change but applied it to the material world.

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 • Marx accepted the centrality of contradictions to historical change. We see this in such well-
known formulations as the “contradictions of capitalism” and “class contradictions.”
• However, unlike Hegel, Marx did not believe that these contradictions could be worked out in
our understanding, that is, in our minds. Instead, for Marx these are real, existing
contradictions .
• For Marx, such contradictions are resolved not by the philosopher sitting in an armchair but
by a life-and-death struggle that changes the social world. This was a crucial transformation
because it allowed Marx to move the dialectic out of the realm of philosophy and into the
realm of a study of social relations grounded in the material world.
• Materialist View of Reality: Marxists believe that the most important parts of reality are
material things, like the economy, social structures, and the physical world. They see ideas
and thoughts as reflections or products of material conditions, rather than the other way
around. An example of the materialist view of reality in Marxism is the relationship between
economic conditions and political ideologies. Marxists argue that the dominant ideas in
society, such as political beliefs or cultural norms, are influenced by the material conditions
of that society, particularly the economic system.

For instance, in a capitalist society where the means of production are privately owned, the
dominant ideology might emphasize individualism, competition, and the importance of free
markets. Marxists would argue that these ideas reflect the economic interests of the capitalist class,
who benefit from such a system

ASPECT HEGELIAN DIALECTICS MARXIAN DIALECTICS

Idealist: Reality is fundamentally Materialist: Reality is fundamentally

mental or spiritual. The dialectical material. The dialectical process
process unfolds in the realm of ideas, unfolds in the material world, driven
Nature of Reality leading to the Absolute Idea or Spirit. by economic and class relations.

Progress is driven by the

development of productive forces
Progress is driven by the development of and the resulting class struggle,
Historical ideas and the realization of the Absolute leading to changes in the mode of
Progress Spirit through history. production and social relations.

Contradiction arises from the

Contradiction arises in the realm of material conditions of society,
Role of
ideas, leading to the development of particularly the conflict between the
Contradiction
higher forms of thought through the ruling class (bourgeoisie) and the
dialectical process. working class (proletariat).

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 ASPECT HEGELIAN DIALECTICS MARXIAN DIALECTICS

The dialectical process culminates

The dialectical process culminates in in communism, where class
the Absolute Idea or Spirit, where all distinctions and exploitation are
End Goal
contradictions are resolved and the eliminated, and a classless,
highest form of truth is realized. stateless society is achieved.

Emphasizes the role of ideas, Emphasizes the role of material

philosophy, and intellectual conditions, economics, and class
development in understanding history struggle in shaping history and
Methodology and society. society.

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9
 THEORY OF HISTORICAL MATERIALISM

Clearest exposition of the theory of historical materialism is contained in Marx’s ‘Preface’ to A

contribution to the Critique of Political Economy (1959). Here, he says that the actual basis of
society is its economic structure.

Marx’s general ideas about society are known as his theory of historical materialism. Materialism is
the basis of his sociological thought because, for Marx, material conditions or economic factors
affect the structure and development of society.

The earlier view, that of Hegel, was that ideas were the cause of change. Marx opposed this view and
instead argued that ideas were a result of objective reality, i.e., matter and not vice versa.

Marx’s theory of society, i.e., historical materialism is historical. It is historical because Marx has
traced the evolution of human societies from one stage to another. It is called materialistic because
Marx has interpreted the evolution of societies in terms of their material or economic bases.
Materialism simply means that it is matter or material reality, which is the basis for any change.

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 FEATURES OF THEORY

1. MATERIAL BASIS OF SOCIAL LIFE

People need food, clothing, shelter and other necessities of life in order to survive. They
cannot get all these things ready-made from nature. To survive, they produce material goods
from objects found in nature. Material production has always been and still is the basis of
human existence. For Karl Marx, the history of human societies is the story of how people
relate to one another in their efforts to make a living. He said, “The first historical act is…the
production of material life. This is indeed a historical act, a fundamental condition of all
history” (see Bottomore 1964: 60). According to Marx, economic production or production of
material life is the starting point from which society as an inter-related whole is structured.
He speaks of a reciprocity between economic factors and other aspects of historical
development of mankind.

“The first historical act is, therefore, the production of material life.”

2. INFRASTRUCTURE AND SUPERSTRUCTURE

According to Marx, every society has its infrastructure and superstructure.

▪ Social relations are defined in terms of material conditions which he calls infrastructure.
The economic base of a society forms its infrastructure. Any changes in material
conditions also imply corresponding changes in social relations. Forces and relations of
production come in the category of infrastructure.
▪ Within the superstructure figure the legal, educational and political institutions as well
as values, cultural ways of thinking, religion, ideologies and philosophies.

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 3. MODE OF PRODUCTION

According to Mam, the production of material wealth is the basis of human existence, and the
mode of production of wealth is the determining factor of social development. Society as a
distinct entity is a part of nature. It is inseparable from the rest of nature, and constantly interacts
with it. People cannot exist without food, clothing, shelter, and other necessities of life. Nature,
however, does not provide things readymade. Thus, people must work to produce these things.
Labour, or productive activity, is, therefore, the basis of social life.

The mode of production, which determines the economic structure of society, has two aspects:

• The forces of production, according to Marx, appear to be the capacity of a society to

produce. This capacity to produce is essentially a function of scientific and technical
knowledge, technological equipment, and the organisation of labour.
• The relations of production arise out of the production process but essentially overlap with
the relations in ownership of means of production. Marx says that as a general principle, the
production of material requirements of life, which is a very basic necessity of all societies,

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 compels individuals to enter into definite social relations that are independent of their
will.

FORCES OF PRODUCTION

▪ What are forces of production?

The forces of production express the degree to which human beings control nature. The
more advanced the productive forces are, greater is their control over the nature and vice
versa. The forces of production are the ways in which material goods are produced.

▪ What all forces of production includes?

The forces of production, according to Marx, include means of production and labour
power

They include

• technological know-how
• the types of equipment in use and goods being produced for example, tools,
machinery, labour and the levels of technology are all considered to be the forces
of production.
• Labour power, the skills, knowledge, experience, and other human faculties
used in work

The development of machinery, changes in the labour process, the opening up of new sources of
energy and the education of the workers are included in the forces of production. In this sense

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 science and the related skills can be seen as part of the productive forces. Some Marxists have
even included geographical or ecological space as a productive force.

RELATIONS OF PRODUCTION

The forces of production are not the only factors in material production. People are able to
produce jointly by organizing in a society. In this sense, labour is and always has been social in
character.

According to Marx, in order to produce, people enter into definite relations with one another. Only
within these social relations does production take place.

It refers to a particular set of property relations which determines the nature of society's class
structure. The relations of production, or the economic relations between people, determine the
relation between man and machine. These relations are called production relations.
According to Marx, production relations are based on the form of ownership of means of
production.

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 The form of ownership depends on :

a) the position (dominating, or subordinate) of various social groups in production

b) their relations (exploitative, or cooperative) in the production process

c) the distribution of wealth, i.e., mutual exchange of their activity

Dialectics of the Mode of Production

Society develops in accordance with the dialectical principle inherent in its structure. This means
that the mode of production has a logic of its own. The mode of production changes because of
inherent necessity, and is not due to any external force. The working of the mode of production is
governed by three laws:

• The Law of Unity: This law states that the productive forces and the production relations,
taken together, determine the mode of production of material wealth. They are linked by
an inner unity, i.e., a specific level of productive forces requires specific production
relations.
• The Law of Correspondence: This law states that production relations tend to
correspond to productive forces. The changes in the productive forces induce
adjustment in the production relations. The correspondence of production relations to
productive forces operates only as an economic tendency. It imposes no rigid

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 mechanical dependence of the former on the latter. It is not a 'law of obligatory
correspondence'.
• The Law of Conflict: This law states that conflict stems from the intrinsic nature of the
two sides of the mode of production, i.e., the forces of production, and the relations of
production. This conflict is not accidental. It is inherent in the mode of production. It
brings development in the mode of production.

Historical Evolution of Society

According to Marx, the history of society consists of the history of the sequence of
socioeconomic formations, or the replacement of one mode of production by another.

According to him there are five different stages of social evolution:

• Ancient Mode of Production / Primitive communism

• slavery
• feudalism
• capitalism
• socialism

ANCIENT MODE OF PRODUCTION / PRIMITIVE COMMUNISM

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 Features

• The primitive-communal system was the first and the lowest form of organisation of
people and it existed for thousands of years.
• Forces of Production : Men and women started using primitive tools like sticks and
stones for hunting and food-gathering. Gradually they improved these tools, and learned
to make fire, cultivation and animal husbandry.

• Relations of production : relations of production were based on common ownership of

the means of production. Therefore, these relations were based on mutual assistance
and cooperation. These relations were conditioned by the fact that people with their
primitive implements could only withstand the mighty forces of nature together,
collectively.
• In such a situation, exploitation of humans by humans did not exist because of two
reasons. Firstly, the tools used (namely, means of production) were so simple that they
could be reproduced by anyone. These were implements like spear, stick, bow and arrow
etc. Hence no person or group of people had the monopoly of ownership over the tools.
Secondly, production was at a low-scale. The people existed more or less on a
subsistence level. Their production was just sufficient to meet the needs of the people
provided everybody worked.

Therefore, it was a situation of no master and no servant. All were equal. Gradually with time,
people started perfecting their tools, their craft of producing and surplus production started
taking place. This led to private property and primitive equality gave way to social inequality. Thus
the first antagonistic classes, slaves and slave owners, appeared. This is how the development
of the forces of production led to the replacement of primitive communal system by slavery.

FRIEDRICH ENGELS: ‘THE ORIGIN OF FAMILY, PRIVATE PROPERTY AND STATE’

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 a) Labour played a crucial role in transformation of Anthropoid Ape into a Homosapien. It is
through use of implements of labour that certain features like Evolution of Hand, Upright
Gait, Refection of Sensory Organs and Language developed.
b) There was no concept of PRIVATE PROPERTY as :
➢ Struggling with nature required cooperation.
➢ There as no surplus production
➢ Very low division of labour - No Exchange Relations.
c) TRANSITION TO CLASS - BASED SOCIETY.

SLAVE MODE OF PRODUCTION

• Forces of Production
➢ Technological advances in Agriculture
➢ Mining and Metallurgy
➢ Separation 0f Crafts-from Agriculture
➢ Greater domestication & Animals

The development of this type of forces of production also changed the relations of production.

Relations of Production

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 ➢ based on the slave owner’s absolute ownership of both the means of production and
the slave and everything they produced.
➢ System of production the master has the right of ownership over the slave and
appropriates the products of the slave’s labour. The slave is not allowed to
reproduce.
➢ The master’s profit is constituted by the difference between what the slaves produce
and what they consume. But what is usually forgotten is that beyond this, the slaves
are deprived of their own means of reproduction.
➢ The owner left the slaves only with the bare minimum necessities to keep them from
dying of starvation. In this system, the history of exploitation of humans by humans
and the history of class struggle began. The development of productive forces went
on and slavery became an impediment to the expansion of social production.
• Limits in development of productive forces:
➢ Production demanded the constant improvement of implements, higher labour
productivity, but the slaves had no interest in this as it would not improve their
position.
➢ To acquire Slaves - physical conquest of new areas was the only means. This led to
progressive expansion of Territory Central State authority could be enforced only
weakly in the farflung areas.
➢ In order to avoid work, the Slave was prone to destroy the implements. Hence only
very crude implements could be given. This compromised productivity.
➢ The basic productive force of society , that is - Slave Labour was prone to systematic
destruction - due to existence of inhuman conditions.

With the passage of time :

➢ The class conflict between the classes of slave- owners and the slaves became acute
and it was manifested in slave revolts. These revolts, together with the raids from
neighbouring tribes, undermined the foundations of slavery .
➢ Further development of productive forces hence required:
i. Human Labour Power replenished
ii. Tools preserved and Improved.
iii. Absence of Continuous Wars.
iv. Improvement in productivity & Land.

It is to bring about these improvements the Feudal Mode of Production emerged.

FEUDAL MODE OF PRODUCTION

Feudalism Is the third mode of production where by the major means of production was land.
The fall of the Western Roman Empire returned most of Western Europe to subsistence

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 agriculture, dotted with ghost towns and obsolete trade-routes. Authority too was localised, in a
world of poor roads and difficult farming conditions. The new social form which, by the ninth
century, had emerged in place of the ties of family or clan, of sacred theocracy or legal citizenship
was a relationship based on the personal tie of vassal to lord, cemented by the link to landholding
in the guise of the fief.

• Forces of production :
➢ The progressive development of the productive forces continued under feudalism.
➢ People started using inanimate sources of energy, viz., water and wind, besides
human labour.
➢ The crafts advanced further, new implements and machines were invented and old
ones were improved. The labour of craftspersons was specialised, raising
productivity considerably.
• Relations of production
➢ The development of forces of production led to emergence of feudal relations of
production. These relations were based on the feudal lords’ ownership of the serfs or
landless peasants.
➢ These relations were based on the feudal lords’ ownership of the serfs or landless
peasants. The production relations were relations of domination and subjection,
exploitation of the serfs by the feudal lords.
➢ Nevertheless, these relations were more progressive than in slavery system,
because they made the labourers interested, to some extent, in their labour. The
peasants and the artisans could own the implements or small parts of land.

LIMITS TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF PRODUCTIVE FORCES

• Division of territories into numerous Estates - and imposition of toll and trade duties
created a fragmented Market which obstructed trade.
• Guild based Artisanal Production was no longer able to Serve the demands of world
Markets. The restrictions placed by guilds on the quality and quantity of production did
not allow for free development of productive forces.
• The Complicated ownership pattern in land between KING - CHIEF - SERF was not
conducive for further development of agriculture: Consolidated agricultural land based
on clear private ownership was required.
• The forces of production underwent changes due to new discoveries, increasing
demands for consumption caused by population increase and discovery of new markets
through colonialism.

All this led to the need and growth of mass scale manufacture. This became possible due to
advances in technology. This brought the unorganized labourers at one place i.e. the factory.

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 This sparked off already sharpened class conflict leading to peasant revolution against
landowners. The new system of production demanded free labourer whereas the serf was tied to
the land, therefore, the new forces of production also changed the relations of production
culminating into a change in the mode of production from feudalism to capitalism.

PRIMITIVE ACCUMULATION
A concept used by Marx in "The Capital" to describe the transition from Feudalism to
Capitalism in England.

The development of Capitalism requires two essential conditions :

(a) FREE LABOUR
(B) ACCUMULATION OF WEALTH FOR INVESTMENT IN COMMODITY PRODUCTION.

In the 17th Century a combination of feudal lords and rich peasants succeeded in driving
away a large majority of independent peasant owners from their land & occupied them.
• This deprived a large population of the means of production and they transitioned
into Urban wage - Labourers.
• The process resulted in emergence of capitalist agriculture - and the surplus
generated from this was used as investment in capitalist manufacturing.

This process was achieved through the help of state support through legislations such
as the enclosures act.

CAPITALIST MODE OF PRODUCTION

Capitalism refers to a mode of production in which capital is the dominant means of production.
Capital can be in various forms. It can take the form of money or credit for the purchase of labour
power and materials of production. It can be money or credit for buying physical machinery.

• In capitalist mode of production, the private ownership of capital in its various forms is
in the hands of a class of capitalists. The ownership by capitalists is to the exclusion of
the mass of the population.

As a mode of production, capitalism first emerged in Europe. The industrial revolution starting in
England and spreading across different countries saw a rapid growth of technology and
corresponding rise of capitalist economies. Marx viewed capitalism as a historical phase, to be
eventually replaced by socialism.

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 The Capitalist Economic System

According to Marx, capitalism is an economic system with the following elements

• a capitalistic society is divided into two classes: the capitalists, and the workers. The
capitalists own the means of production, while the workers do not. The workers sell their
services, i.e., labour power, to the capitalists for wages. a commodity forms the unit of
production in a capitalistic society.
• A commodity is defined as the carrier of use-value (utility) and exchange- value (with
other commodities)
• the growth of capitalism is based on the exploitation of labour. Labour produces surplus
value which is appropriated by the capitalist.
• All commodities are produced with a profit motive and the exchange equation is m-C-M.
The capitalist purchases commodity, C, (labour power) with money, m, with an intention
to sell it (after production) for profit, M.

• The motive force behind capitalism is profit. The capitalist always reinvests the profit in
his business to upgrade technology.
• Capitalists adopt labour saving machinery which creates a 'reserve army of the
unemployed'. It results in growing the misery of the working class.

The Labour Theory of Value

• According to Marx, the value of a commodity is determined by the quantity of labour

required to produce it.

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 • Marx was an advocate of the labour theory of value and believed that all production
belongs to labour, because workers produce all value within society.
• According to Marx, labor is the source of all value in commodities, and the capitalist
system exploits this by extracting surplus value from the laborers, leading to alienation
and inequality.

The Theory of Surplus Value

Labour power has the unique characteristic of being capable of producing more than its own
value when it is put to productive use.

The excess of value produced by labour power over its own value is called surplus value. The aim
of the capitalist is to, always, increase this surplus value.

Surplus value refers to the extra labour of the worker, for which he receives nothing from the
producer or employer. It is appropriated by the capitalist. This implies exploitation of labour. It is
the only cause of class conflict, or class struggle.

According to Marx, surplus value is the value generated by labor in excess of the cost of labor
power, which is appropriated by capitalists as profit.

Components

1. Labour Power: The capacity of workers to perform work that adds value to commodities.
2. Labour: The actual exercise of this capacity, which adds value to the products.

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 3. Value of Labour Power: The wage paid to workers for their labour power, which is typically
less than the value their labour adds to the product.

Process

1. Investment by Capitalists: Capitalists invest money to purchase goods (raw materials,

machinery, and labour power).
2. Production: Workers use their labour power to transform raw materials into finished
products.
3. Value Addition: Through the process of labour, workers add value to these products, which
is greater than the cost of their wages.
4. Sale of Products: Capitalists sell the finished products for a higher price than the total cost
of production, including wages.

Creation of Surplus Value

• Extraction of Labour: Capitalists extract surplus labour from workers. The time
workers spend producing value equivalent to their wages is called necessary labour
time. The additional time they work beyond this is surplus labour time.
• Surplus Labour Time: During surplus labour time, workers produce surplus value,
which is appropriated by capitalists.

Profit Generation

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 • Wages vs. Value Added: The value paid to workers (wages) is less than the value their
labour adds to the commodity.
• Surplus Value: This difference constitutes surplus value, which is the source of profit in
a capitalist system.

CLASS & CLASS STRUGGLE

CLASS

The word ‘class’ originated from the Latin term ‘classis’ which refers to a group called to arms, a
division of the people. In the rule of legendary Roman king, Servius Tullius (678-534 B.C.), the
Roman society was divided into five classes or orders according to their wealth. Subsequently,
the world ‘class’ was applied to large groups of people into which human society came to be
divided.

Marx recognised class as a unique feature of capitalist societies. This is one reason why he
did not analyse the class structure and class relations in other forms of society. Marx has used
the term social class throughout his works but explained it only in a fragmented form. The most
clear passages on the concept of class structure can be found in the third volume of his famous
work, Capital (1894).

Under the title of ‘Social Classes’ Marx distinguished three classes, related to the three sources
of income:

• owners of simple labour power or labourers whose main source of income is labour
• owners of capital or capitalists whose main source of income is profit or surplus value
• landowners whose main source of income is ground rent.

In this way the class structure of modern capitalist society is composed of three major classes
viz., salaried labourers or workers, capitalists and landowners. At a broader level, society could
be divided into two major classes i.e. the ‘haves’ (owners of land and / or capital) often called as
bourgeoisie and the ‘have-nots’ (those who own nothing but their own labour power), often called
as proletariats. Marx has tried to even give a concrete definition of social class. According to him
‘a social class occupies a fixed place in the process of production’.

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 CRITERIA FOR DETERMINATION OF CLASS

In order to have a better understanding of the concept of class and class structure, one must be
able to respond to the question – “What are the criteria for determination of class”?

A social class has two major criteria: (i) objective criteria (ii) subjective criteria.

• Objective Criteria

People sharing the same relationship to the means of production comprise a class.

Let us understand it through an example – all labourers have a similar relationship with
the landowners. On the other hand all the landowners, as a class, have a similar
relationship with the land and labourers. In this way, labourers on one hand and
landowners on the other hand could be seen as classes.

However, for Marx, this relationship alone is not sufficient to determine the class.
According to him it is not sufficient for class to be ‘class in itself ’ but it should also be
‘class for itself’

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 What does this mean?

By ‘class in itself ’ he means the objective criteria of any social class. Obviously, Marx is
not simply satisfied with objective criteria above. Hence he equally emphasizes upon the
other major criteria i.e., “Class for itself” or the subjective criteria.

• Subjective Criteria

Any collectivity or human grouping with a similar relationship would make a category, not
a class, if subjective criteria are not included. The members of any one class not only
have similar consciousness but they also share a similar consciousness of the fact that
they belong to the same class. This similar consciousness of a class serves as the basis
for uniting its members for organizing social action. Here this similar class
consciousness towards acting together for their common interests is what Marx calls
– “Class for itself”. In this way, these two criteria together determine a class and class
structure in any given society.

FROM CLASS IN ITSELF TO CLASS FOR ITSELF

“It is not the consciousness of men that determines their being, but on the contrary, their social
being determines their consciousness.”

Marx believed that workers would collectively develop class consciousness from their
experience of the contradictions inherent within capitalist relations of production, i.e. the
division of labour, ownership of private property by the Capitalists, & use of labour power of the
workers for their profit & self-interest & the common feeling of alienation. These common
experiences of the contradictions by the workers in the Capitalist world thus drive the Proletariats
in their "struggle for class consciousness".

The Stages in which class in itself becomes class for itself can be summarized as under:

• Accentuation of Capital : the Essence of Capitalism is to proceed from Money to Money

be way of Commodity (C-M-C to M-C-M) & end up with more Money than one had at the
outset. Thus, the Capital gained , according to Marx is from the Capitalist Mode of
Production results into a similar class position & consciousness which unites
Proletariats to go for Revolution.
• Importance of Property- According to Marx, Classes are determined on the basis of
individual’s relation to the Means of production, which in Capitalist Society are owned by
the Capitalists. Thus, “Property divisions are the crucial breaking lines in the class
structure”.

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 • Identification of Economic & Political Power & Authority- According to Marx, the
political power of the Ruling class stems from the ownership & control of the forces of
production (economic in nature). Thus, the political power & ideology seems to serve the
same functions for the Capitalists that Class Consciousness serves for the Proletariats.
• Polarisation of Classes- In the Capitalist Society there exists 2 classes i.e. The
Capitalists, who own the means of production & the Proletariats who own nothing but
their own labour. Though Marx, had repeatedly referred to the intermediate state such as
the “small capitalists”, the “petty bourgeoisie” & the “lumpen proletariat”, but he was of
the firm belief that at the height of the conflict these would be drawn into the ranks of the
Proletariat. RAYMOND ARON has termed this process as “Proletarianisation”.
• The theory of Surplus Value- According to Marx's theory, surplus value is equal to the
new value created by workers in excess of their own labour-cost, which is appropriated
by the capitalist as profit when products are sold. Thus , the creation of the Surplus of the
workers is used by the Capitalists for their own use i.e more ‘profit’ & from here starts the
exploitation & the main source of conflict between the “haves” & ‘have-nots”.
• Pauperisation-Exploitation of the Proletariats only add to their misery & poverty. But the
same exploitation helps the rich to become richer. With this society gets divided into Rich
& Poor.
• Alienation- it results from lack of sense of control over the social world, leaving them
‘alien’ ( aloof) in the very environment that they have created. The workers get caught in
the vicious circle of exploitation find no way to get out of it. Hence , they lose interest in
their work , which now becomes an enforced activity than a satisfying or creative one.
This , situation of the Alienation ripens the mood of the worker for a conflict.
• Class Solidarity- The resultant exploitation & alienation in the Capitalist Mode of
Production makes the Proletariats more homogenous & they develop Class Solidarity
among themselves & intensify the Class Struggle by forming Unions against the
Capitalists & goes for riots & revolts.
• Revolution- when the class struggle reaches its height, a violent revolution breaks out
which destroys the Capitalist Structure & calls for the Dictatorship of the Proletariats.
• Classless Society- after attaining success in the Proletarian Revolution, a new
SOCIALIST SOCIETY will be established which will be Classless & free from all sorts of
exploitation.

CLASS STRUGGLE

Development of forces of production

The development of forces of production reflects the constant struggle of human beings to
master nature through their labour. The development of the forces of production is primary
because it results from a factor, which is, in a sense, exogenous. The motive force lies outside the
forces and relations of production and acts first upon the former. The motive force is the rational

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 and ever-present impulse of human beings to try to better their situation and overcome scarcity
by developing the productive forces. Human beings are, above all, like animals producing society
by acting upon nature through their labour. Productive forces transform nature into use values
and exchange values. The productive forces compel the creation and destruction of successive
systems of production relations between human beings.

Productive forces and the production relations enter into conflict

• Productive forces have an intrinsic tendency to develop, as human beings’ knowledge

and mastery over nature increase. As these forces develop, successive social relations
of production develop and consequently give way.
• At a particular point of development the productive forces and the production relations
enter into conflict: the latter being unstable to contain the former.
• Any restructuring of relations of power, forms of domination and of social organisation
has been mostly the outcome of struggles. The condition and character of the struggle
are determined by changes in material life.

People become conscious of this by recognizing the existence of class struggle, between those
whose activity fits them for the new economic structure, and those who are guardians of the
old. Different socio-economic organisations of production, which have characterised human
history, arise or fall as they enable or impede the expansion of society’s productive capacity.

The growth of the productive forces thus explains the general course of human history. The
productive forces, however, include, as we have already noted, not just the means of production
(tools, machines, factories and so on), but. The productive forces represent the powers society
has at its command in material production.

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INHERENT CONTRADICTIONS & CLASS STRUGGLE

In primitive communal stage there was no surplus production and hence it had no inequality and
exploitation caused by the private ownership of means of production. The means of production were
common property of the community.

With the development and improvements in the forces of production there was increased
productivity. This caused private ownership of means of production and change in the relations of
production. This marked the end of primitive-communal system and thus began the long history of
inequality, exploitation and class conflict, coinciding with the emergence of slave-owning society.

In the slave-owning society the class conflict between the slave owners and slaves reached a peak
causing a change in the mode of production from slavery to feudalistic mode of production. Marx has
said that the history of hitherto existing society is a history of class struggle. This means that the
entire history of society is studded with different phases and periods of class struggle.

This history of class struggle begins in the slave-owning society and continues through feudal
society where this class struggle is between classes of the feudal lords and the landless agricultural
labourers or serfs. Due to change in mode of production and class struggle a new stage of society
i.e., capitalism replaces the age-old feudal system.

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In the capitalistic mode of production the class antagonism acquires most acute dimensions. The
working class movement begins to concretize and reaches its peak. Through a class conflict between

the class of capitalists and the class of industrial labourers, the capitalist system is replaced by
socialism. This violent change has been termed as revolution by Marx.

Marx said that the class antagonism and subsequently the class conflict in the capitalist system will
usher in socialism in place of capitalism through a revolution. Here the question arises what is the
basis of this antagonism?

Marx’s answer is that the contradiction between the forces and the relations of production is
the basis of this antagonism.

• The bourgeoisie is constantly creating more powerful means of production. But the relations
of production that is, apparently, both the relations of ownership and the distribution of
income are not transferred at the same rate.
• The capitalist mode of production is capable to produce in bulk, but despite this mass
production and increase in wealth, majority of the population suffers from poverty and
misery.

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 • On the other hand, there are a few families who have so much wealth that one could not even
count or imagine. These stark and wide disparities create some tiny islands of prosperity in
a vast ocean of poverty and misery.
• The onus of this disparity lies on the unequal, exploitative relations of production which
distribute the produce in an unequal manner. This contradiction, according to Marx, will
eventually produce a revolutionary crisis.
• The proletariat, which constitutes and will increasingly constitute the vast majority of the
population, will become a class, that is, a social entity aspiring for the seizure of power and
transformation of social relations.
• Marx asserted that the progress of society meant the succession of victories of one class over
the other. He assigned his life to planning a victory for the proletariat. In a way, he became a
commander, engaged in a campaign. With his solitary aim of defeating the enemy, Marx
stressed on acquiring the knowledge of the history of society and the laws that regulate its
organisation.

His monumental work, Das Kapital (Capital, 1861-1879), provided an analysis in which Marx was not
concerned with arguments for a class-war. He treated the necessity for such arguments as an
unnecessary task.

According to Marx, the bottom rung of the social stratification is the proletariat. Below it there is no
class and therefore emancipation of the proletariat will, in fact, be the emancipation of mankind.
Marx accepts the right of the bourgeoisie to fight the final war. But for the proletariat the battle is for
its very survival and it has to win.

END RESULT

• This would mean that the private ownership of property will be abolished. The proletariat will
jointly own means of production and distribute the produce according to the needs of the
members of the society.
• This stage is called the stage of dictatorship of proletariat. This stage will later on convert
into a stateless society where the communist system will finally be established in the society.
This will also end all kinds of social classes and of all kinds of class conflicts for future. This
will also mean de-alienation of the proletariat.

The revolutions of the proletariat will differ in kind from all past revolutions.

• All the revolutions of the past were accomplished by minorities for the benefit of minorities.
The revolution of the proletariat will be accomplished by the vast majority for the benefit of

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 all. The proletarian revolution will, therefore, mark the end of classes and of the antagonistic
character of capitalist society.
• Transformation is for the Self-Realisation of Human Nature and not merely the further
development of Forces of Production.
• Factory-Based manufacturing remains the main system of production - but relations of
production are transformed. That is, forces of Production remain unchanged - only relations
of productions undergo transformation.
• In earlier forms of class-struggle economic change first occurred and was followed by
political change.In Socialist revolution the working Class first ceases political power - and
using this power transforms the economic relations.
• The future society differs from existing society in the 4 main ways:

1) No Individual ownership of Means of Production.

2) Reduction i n the Necessary Labour Time.

3) Non- Alienating work.

4) The State withers away

SUMMARY

1. Historical materialism is a materialist interpretation of social, cultural and political

phenomena. It propounds that social institutions and related values are determined by the
mode of production processes rather than ideas in the explanation of history. However, the

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 word ‘determined’, in the Marxian sense, refers to determination in the last analysis and
should not be taken in an absolute sense.
2. Historical materialism is a dialectical theory of human progress. It regards history as the
development of human beings’ efforts to master the forces of nature and, hence, of
production. Since all production is carried out within social organisation, history is the
succession of changes in social system, the development of human relations geared to
productive activity (mode of production) in which the economic system forms the base and
all other relationships, institutions, activities, and idea systems are “superstructural”.
3. History is progress because human beings’ ability to produce their “forces of production”
continually increases. It is regression because in perfecting the forces of production they
create more and more complex and oppressive social organisation

CONTRIBUTION OF HISTORICAL MATERIALISM TO SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY

The theory of historical materialism played an essential part in the formation of modern sociology.
Marx’s ideas had been foreshadowed in the works of earlier thinkers as diverse in other respects as
Hegel, Saint-Simon and Adam Ferguson. All of them greatly influenced Marx.

• Marx elaborated his conception of the nature of society, and of the appropriate means to
study it. He did so in a more precise, and above all more empirical fashion than did his
predecessors. He introduced an entirely new element to understand the structure of each
society. It was derived from the relations between social classes. These relations were
determined by the mode of production. It was this feature of historical materialism which
was widely accepted by later sociologists as offering a more promising starting point for exact
and realistic investigations of the causes of social change.

• Secondly, historical materialism introduced into sociology a new method of inquiry, new
concepts, and a number of bold hypotheses to explain the rise, development, and decline of
particular forms of society. All of these came to exercise, in the later decades of the
nineteenth century, a profound and extensive influence upon the writings of sociologists.

• Thirdly, originality of historical materialism was in its immense effort to synthesize in a critical
way, the entire legacy of social knowledge since Aristotle. Marx’s purpose was to achieve a
better understanding of the conditions of human development. With this understanding he
tried to accelerate the actual process by which mankind was moving toward an association,
in which the free development of each was the condition for the free development of all. The
desired system would be based upon rational planning, cooperative production, and equality
of distribution and most important, liberated from all forms of political and social
exploitation.

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 • Lastly, historical materialism not only provides a method to understand the existing social
reality; it is a method to understand the existence of other methods. It is a persistent critique
of the aims and methods of social sciences.

CRITICISM

Mode of Production

• Superstructure's Role: Critics argue that historical materialism downplays the significance
of the superstructure (ideology, culture, politics) in shaping historical developments. While
Marx acknowledged the superstructure's role, critics believe it is not given enough weight in
his theory.
• Deterministic - Historical Materialism does not allow for the possibility of human agency or
free will. Often criticized for its deterministic view of history, suggesting that historical
development follows a predetermined path leading inevitably towards socialism and
communism. This teleological perspective ignores the contingencies and uncertainties of
historical processes.
• Eurocentric - Critics argue that Historical Materialism is based on a Western view of history.
It does not take into account the experiences of other cultures.
• Outdated - Critics argue that Historical Materialism is no longer relevant in the modern
world, where capitalism has taken on new forms.
• Reductionism: Critics argue that historical materialism reduces all aspects of society,
including culture, politics, and religion, to economic factors and class struggles. This
reductionist approach overlooks the complexity of human societies and the influence of non-
economic factors.
• Oversimplification: By focusing primarily on economic bases, historical materialism can
oversimplify the intricate and multi-faceted nature of societal changes and developments.
• Modern Complexity: The modern world, with its intricate global interconnections, advanced
technology, and diverse social movements, poses challenges to the applicability of historical
materialism. Critics question whether the theory can adequately address contemporary
issues such as environmental degradation, gender inequality, and cultural globalization.

Class , Class Antagonism & Class Struggle

• J. Westergaard, in his study of Britain society argues that though class inequalities are on the
rise, yet there appears to be ‘less class consciousnesses. This is so because political

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 parties responsible for articulating and mobilizing ‘class interests’ are riven with internal
disputes.
• Post-Modernists, Pakulski and Waters in their book, ‘The Death of Class’ claim that not that
social inequality is disappearing, but ‘class based division’ is losing it’s significance . New
‘cleavages’ that are appearing in post –class society , over shadow class differences .
It therefore , implies that if people do not see class based issues as of special
significance , they do not see class based issues of ‘class - consciousness ‘ as of any
special significance .
• V. Lenin, workers left to them would create only a ‘trade union consciousness,’ seeking
limited social and economic reforms, and not a true ‘revolutionary awareness’. Also
inequalities of wealth and income had been reduced, because of ‘changes in the social
structure’ and because of ‘measures taken by the state’. Social mobility has become more
common, thereby affecting class-solidarity. Also because of the ‘managerial revolution ‘
managers rather than owners exercised daily control over the means of production.
Thus , conflict was no longer based upon the ownership or non –ownership of wealth .
• Max Weber saw no evidence to support empirically the idea of the polarization of classes.
According to him , ‘capitalist enterprises’ and the ‘ modern nation state’ requires a
‘rational’ bureaucratic administration , which has led to the growth and expansion of
the ‘middle class ‘. He thus , saw a diversification of classes , rather than polarization.
Weber further rejected the idea of ‘inevitability of the proletariat revolution’. According
to him, individual manual workers who were dissatisfied with their ‘class situation’ would
respond in a variety of ways. They may grumble, ‘sabotage industrial machinery, or take
strike action.’

RELEVANCE IN 21st CENTURY

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 • Income Inequality: The widening gap between the wealthy elite and the working class in
many countries mirrors Marx's prediction of increasing class polarization under capitalism.
The widening gap between the rich and the poor in many countries can be seen as a result of
the capitalist mode of production, where the bourgeoisie accumulate wealth through the
exploitation of the proletariat.

“The ‘Billionaire Raj’ headed by India’s modern bourgeoisie is now more unequal than the British Raj
headed by the colonialist forces," says a new study by the World Inequality Lab.

• Technological Advancement: Historical materialism can help explain how technological

advancements, such as automation and artificial intelligence, are impacting society. These
changes are not just about technological progress but also about the social relations they
create, including issues like job displacement and economic inequality.
• Gig Economy: The rise of precarious and temporary work arrangements, such as freelance
or gig work, highlights the vulnerability of workers and the potential for exploitation by
capitalist interests.
• Globalization: The globalization of capital has led to the outsourcing of jobs to countries with
lower labor costs, often at the expense of workers in more developed countries. . It reflects
the interests of the capitalist class in expanding markets and increasing profits, often at the
expense of workers in both developed and developing countries.
• Corporate Power / Monopolisation / Cartelization: The dominance of multinational
corporations in shaping economic and political policies can be seen as a form of capitalist
control over society, consistent with Marx's critique of the bourgeoisie's influence.
• Social Movements: The emergence of social movements advocating for workers' rights,
such as the Fight for $15 movement in the United States, demonstrates ongoing class
struggles and the pursuit of economic justice.
• Automation: The increasing use of automation and artificial intelligence in production
processes raises concerns about job displacement and further exacerbating inequalities
between capital owners and workers.

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 • Housing Crisis: The housing affordability crisis in many urban areas reflects the
commodification of housing and the impact of speculative real estate practices on working-
class individuals and families.
• Political Polarization: The growing divide between left-wing and right-wing ideologies in
many countries can be understood, in part, as a reflection of class interests and conflicts
within society.
• Environmental Crisis: Marx's theory can also help analyze the environmental crisis, as it
emphasizes the exploitation of natural resources for profit. The focus on endless growth and
consumption in capitalist societies has led to environmental degradation and climate
change.

These examples illustrate how Marx's theory of class continues to provide a framework for
understanding contemporary social and economic issues related to inequality, exploitation, and
class conflict.

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 THEORY OF ALIENATION

The course of human history involves a progressive development of the means of production - a
steady increase in human control over nature, This is paralleled by a corresponding increase in
human alienation, an increase that reaches its height in capitalist society.

The alienated labour in Karl Marx's Manuscripts refers to forced and involuntary labour in which the
worker finds no purpose, no pleasure or contentment, no needs fulfilment, no independence or
power, no mental growth or physical development. This is a state in which a person feels isolated,
humiliated, unworthy, and insignificant. It is an operation that belongs to someone else and it is not
random and it simply is a way of meeting the needs of physical life. It is a pure wage-earning practice
in the political economy.

The theoretical basis of alienation is that a worker invariably loses the ability to determine life and
destiny when deprived of the

• right to think (conceive) of themselves as the director of their own actions

• to determine the character of these actions
• to define relationships with other people
• to own those items of value from goods and services, produced by their own labour

Although the worker is an autonomous, self-realized human being, as an economic entity this worker
is directed to goals and diverted to activities that are dictated by the bourgeoisie—who own the
means of production—in order to extract from the worker the maximum amount of surplus value in
the course of business competition among industrialists

FEATURES OF ALIENATION

“We live in an age in which the dehumanization of man, that is to say the alienation between him and
his own works, is growing to a climax which must end in a revolutionary upheaval; this will originate
from the particular interest of the class which has suffered the most from dehumanisation, but its
effect would be to restore humanity to all mankind”. -MARX

The fundamental novelty of capital consists in two points, which entail wholly different view of
capitalist society from that of the classical economists:

a) what the worker sells is not his labour but labour power, and that labour has two aspects –
abstract and concrete. Exploitation consists in the worker selling his labour power and thus
divesting himself of his own essence; the labour process and its results become hostile and
alien, deprivation of humanity instead of fulfillment.
b) Marx discovered that labor has two aspects: it creates goods that have a practical use (use
value) and can be traded for money (exchange value). In capitalism, the main goal of

39
 production is to keep increasing exchange value, not to meet people's needs. As a result,
people's activities become focused on creating exchange value, which is something they
can't directly use. This makes the community feel dominated by its own creations, as these
products become powerful and alien. This leads to a distorted consciousness and political
structures.

ASPECTS OF ALIENATION

In his Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts (EPM) published in 1844, Marx analyses various
aspects of alienation

• Alienation from the product of his labour

➢ The product in which he expresses and realizes himself does not belong to him. The
design of the product and how it is produced are determined, not by the producers who
make it (the workers), nor by the consumers of the product (the buyers), but by the
capitalist class who besides accommodating the worker's manual labour also
accommodate the intellectual labour of the engineer and the industrial designer who
create the product in order to shape the taste of the consumer to buy the goods and
services at a price that yields a maximal profit.
➢ It is appropriated by the capitalists and sold on the market. With realization of surplus-
value capital grows, and with capital the alien power which controls and dominates the
life of the worker. The more he works, the better he produces, the stronger becomes
this alien power of capital.

• Alienation from production process

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 ➢ Workers are alienated from the act of production itself. They do not control the conditions
under which they work, the tools they use, or the methods of production.
➢ In the capitalist mode of production, the generation of products (goods and services) is
accomplished with an endless sequence of discrete, repetitive motions that offer the
worker little psychological satisfaction for "a job well done."
➢ This makes work a means to an end (earning wages) rather than a fulfilling activity.

• Alienation from Other Workers: Workers are alienated from their fellow workers due to the
competitive nature of capitalism. Instead of collaborating, workers often see each other as
competitors for jobs and wages. This competition undermines social connections and
solidarity among workers.

• Alienation from ‘Gattungswesen’ (Species-Being) :

▪ This refers to the alienation from what Marx calls "species-being," or the essence of
human nature.
▪ Conceptually, in the term species-essence, the word species describes the intrinsic
human mental essence that is characterized by a "plurality of interests" and
"psychological dynamism," whereby every individual has the desire and the tendency to
engage in the many activities that promote mutual human survival and psychological
well-being, by means of emotional connections with other people, with society. The
psychic value of a human consists in being able to conceive (think) of the ends of their
actions as purposeful ideas, which are distinct from the actions required to realize a given
idea.
▪ Humans are naturally creative and productive beings, but in a capitalist society, this
creativity is stifled because workers are forced to perform repetitive, monotonous tasks
that do not allow for self-expression or personal fulfillment.

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CAUSES OF ALIENATION

• Private Property: The ownership of the means of production by capitalists creates a division
between those who own and those who work, leading to alienation.
• Division of Labour: Inherent to capitalism, it thwarted the human nature (Gattungswesen)
of workers.
• Mechanistic Role of Workers: Workers became mere parts of the industrial system, losing
their ability to define value through purposeful activity.
• Exploitation by Bourgeoisie: Near-total mechanization allowed the bourgeois capitalist
class to exploit workers, diminishing their ability to materially survive.

• Commodity Fetishism: The social relations in a capitalist system are mediated by

commodities, making social relations appear as relationships between things rather than
people.
• Exploitation: The extraction of surplus value from workers by capitalists intensifies the
alienation, as workers see their labour power commodified and exploited.

IMPACTS OF ALIENATION

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 • Dehumanization: Alienation leads to the dehumanization of workers, who are reduced to
cogs in the capitalist machine.
• Psychological Effects: Alienation can result in feelings of powerlessness, dissatisfaction,
and disconnection from work and society.
• Social Fragmentation: Alienation contributes to the fragmentation of society, as individuals
become isolated and disconnected from communal life and collective action.

MARX'S VISION FOR OVERCOMING ALIENATION

• Proletarian Revolution: The working class, as a developed political force, would eventually
revolutionize the relations of production.
• Shift to Communist Production: Transition from capitalist to communist mode of
production.
• Equality in Communist Society: Fundamental relation of workers to the means of
production would be equal and non-conflictual.
• Respect for Humanity (Gattungswesen): No artificial distinctions in the value of labor;
respect for workers' humanity.
• End of Alienation: In a communist society, men and women would not become alienated.

COMMODITY FETISHISM

Commodity fetishism is a concept in Karl Marx's critique of political economy. It refers to the way in
which commodities (goods or services) are imbued with social power and value, often obscuring the
social relations and labor processes that underlie their production. Here are some examples of
commodity fetishism in modern society:

• Brand Loyalty: Consumers often develop strong attachments to brands, believing that they
hold special qualities or status. This can obscure the fact that these brands are produced
through labor and are part of a system of capitalist production.
• Luxury Goods: Luxury items often carry high prices and are associated with prestige and
social status. This can create a fetishistic relationship where the object itself becomes more
important than the labor that went into producing it or the social relations it represents.
• Advertising: Advertising plays a significant role in creating fetishistic relationships with
commodities by presenting them as essential to happiness, success, or identity. This can
obscure the true nature of the products and the social relations involved in their production.
• Global Trade: The global trade in commodities often involves complex supply chains that
obscure the labor and environmental costs of production. Consumers may not be aware of
the conditions under which the goods they consume are produced.
• Digital Goods: In the digital age, commodities such as software, music, and movies are often
treated as infinitely replicable and disposable, leading to a detachment from the labor and
resources required to produce them.

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Overall, commodity fetishism highlights how the social relations of capitalism can be obscured by
the fetishistic focus on commodities themselves, leading to a distorted understanding of the true
nature of production and consumption.

BIRKIN BAG & COMMODITY FETISHISM

The example of Birkin bags and luxury brands exemplifies Marx's theory of commodity fetishism. The
emphasis on the high quality, symbolic value, and exclusivity of luxury goods can lead consumers to
attribute almost magical qualities to these commodities, overlooking the labor that went into their
production.

The high price, rarity, and unique aesthetics of Birkin bags contribute to their allure, creating a
perception of value that is detached from the social relations and labor processes involved in their
production. This phenomenon highlights how commodities can be fetishized, with their social and
labor aspects obscured by their perceived value in the market.

Moreover, the idea that commodities appear to have an inherent value compared to all other
commodities, as mentioned in "Removing the Veil," further underscores Marx's argument that the
social relations of production are hidden behind the exchange value of commodities. This illustrates
how capitalist societies can fetishize commodities, leading to a distortion of their true value and the
labor embedded within them.

CONTEMPORARY SOCIETY - RELEVANCE OF THEORY OF ALIENATION

• Exploitation without Job Perks: The rise of gig economy jobs and precarious work
arrangements can lead to a sense of alienation, as workers may lack job security, benefits,

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 and a sense of belonging to a larger community of workers , echoing Marx's idea of workers
being separated from the fruits of their labor and having no control over their work process.
• Job insecurity : Workers in such as Uber and Lyft drivers or informal sectors, arrangements
often feel disconnected from stable employment, facing uncertain futures and vulnerable to
exploitation.
• Consumer Culture: In consumer societies, individuals often seek fulfilment through the
consumption of goods and services, leading to a sense of alienation from their true needs
and desires, as well as from their social and natural environment. False needs - people find
their soul in automobile shopping provide a highly motivated labour force & works to
consume. Constant pursuit of material goods and commodification of social relationships
can create a sense of detachment and meaninglessness, hindering genuine human
connection.
• Globalisation: The global nature of modern capitalism can lead to a sense of alienation from
local communities and cultures, as well as from the decisions that affect people's lives being
made by distant corporations and governments. Globalisation has led to labor alienation in
supply chains, where workers in low-wage countries lack influence over decision-making
and are separated from the final products they create, mirroring Marx's concept of alienation.
• Mental Health: Alienation can contribute to mental health issues such as depression and
anxiety, as individuals may feel disconnected from themselves, others, and the world around
them.
• HERBERT MARCUSE (One Dimensional Man) alienation in advanced industrial societies is
to found move in (consumption of products) rather than process of production. (‘False
needs’ people find their soul in automobile shopping)
provide a highly motivated labour force & works to consume
• C.W. MILLS in a study of American middle class ‘White collar workers’ he finds that there is
shift from skills with things to skill with persons'. He called this as PROSTITUTIZATION OF
PERSONALITY which is alienated from true self. For example : a receptionist smiling day long
while greeting anyone who enters office.
• HARRY BARVERMEN introduction of new technology led to reduction in creative human
input leading to DESKILLING OF WORKERS.
• ROBERT BLAUNER
Robert Blauner, in his book "Alienation and Freedom," discusses the different dimensions
or degrees of alienation experienced by workers in an industrial society. He identifies four
main dimensions:
• Powerlessness: The extent to which workers feel they lack control over their work
activities and the outcomes of their labor.
• Meaninglessness: The degree to which workers find their work activities to lack
purpose or significance.
• Isolation: The feeling of being socially isolated from others, including coworkers
and the broader community.

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 • Self-estrangement: The extent to which workers feel disconnected from their own
sense of self due to the nature of their work.

Type Industry Alienation

Craft Printing Alienation is low because craft industries require the use of
uniquely human creative skills.
Assembly Automobile Alienation is high because there is high standardization of work.
Line This leads to de-skilling, and workers perceive work as
meaningless and repetitive.
Process Chemical- Alienation is low because work involved high-skilled tasks.
Refining Workers felt valued, and there was more creative communication
between them.

GIG ECONOMY & THEORY OF ALIENATION

Erosion of Collective Bargaining Power: The gig economy's individualised nature makes it difficult
for workers to collectively organise, highlighting the importance of collective action and labor unions
to protect workers' rights and well-being.

• Social Isolation and Lack of Solidarity: The gig economy can contribute to social isolation
among workers, emphasising Marx's view on the importance of social connection and
collective action to challenge oppressive labor conditions.
• Fragmentation and Lack of Fulfilment: The gig economy's focus on repetitive and
specialized tasks can lead to monotony and a sense of alienation, limiting workers' ability to
find fulfillment and utilize their full potential, as seen in platform-based freelancers.
• Precarious Working Conditions: Job insecurity in the gig economy results in unpredictable
schedules, lack of security, and limited benefits, leading to heightened stress and financial
insecurity for workers, as seen in food delivery workers.

WORK FROM HOME & THEORY OF ALIENATION

• Separation from the Products of Labor: In the IT sector, workers often create digital
products or services that are intangible and may not have a direct connection to the physical
world. This can lead to a sense of alienation, as workers may feel disconnected from the
tangible outcomes of their labor.
• Lack of Control over Work Process: Despite the flexibility offered by remote work, IT
workers may still experience a lack of control over their work processes. They may be subject
to tight deadlines, micromanagement through digital surveillance tools, or changes in
project requirements that they have little say in, leading to feelings of powerlessness.

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 • Isolation and Lack of Solidarity: Remote work can be isolating, with limited opportunities
for social interaction and camaraderie with colleagues. This lack of social connection can
contribute to feelings of alienation and a sense of being disconnected from the broader
workplace community.
• Fragmentation and Lack of Fulfillment: IT work often involves specialized, technical tasks
that can be repetitive or narrowly focused. This specialisation can lead to a sense of
monotony and alienation, especially if workers feel that their skills are not being fully utilised
or that their work lacks meaning.
• Exploitation and Precariousness: While remote work offers flexibility, it can also blur the
boundaries between work and personal life, leading to longer working hours and increased
stress. Additionally, remote workers may be more easily replaced or outsourced, leading to
a sense of insecurity and vulnerability.

CRITICISM

• Marx understood Alienation merely in terms of production process whereas ignored

alienating influences of other aspects off superstructure. Example according to Ivan
Illich in book ‘Deschooling society’ present education system smothers the creativity of
child and may bring alienation.

• Marx failed to take into account the positive effects of alienation as force behind
creativity. A number of scientists artists were considered alienated but created knew
things. Example Karl Popper considers alienation as a force behind creativity.

• Marx attributed alienation to production process in a very simplified way whereas

different production process may have different degree of alienation. ROBERT BLAUNER
in ‘Alienation and Freedom' talks about varying degree of alienation.

• Marx deals with work for capitalist seeing the roots of alienation only in exchange of
labour on private property. Similar feelings and causes of alienation may be related to
ethnicity race gender.

• The contemporary process of production, however differ from the capitalist mode of
production, outlined by Karl Marx. When Marx outlined his views on alienated labor,
workers in industry worked between 12-16 hours a day. However today, significant
reduction in working hours and steady rise in 'living standards' of population.

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 • In a fast changing society, individuals tend to identify increasingly with a number of
meaningful groups like religious, ethnic, local etc. ALAS BAIR CLAYRE — Marxian model
of alienation tends to lump together ‘diverse occupations' and create a simple model.

• Marx states economy solely driven by production but ignored the role of consumption
which forms central role in modern economy which encourages some form of creativity
and entrepreneurship. Example : Movie directors , Musicians

• Stress on human resources and resultant welfare schemes, also options like work from
home . 'Social' need of workers as discussed by Elton Mayo has replaced scientific
management of work.

• The 'knowledge workers of contemporary knowledge economy' in post industrial

societies, have greater control over factors of production which is the creation and
transmission of knowledge.

• Marx proposed alienation is at peak in capitalistic mode of production but the

postmodern society indicate even higher levels of alienation. It is said nowadays man is
alienated from superstructure which is indicated by high incidences of crime, drug
addiction, mental health issues etc. Marx advocated a total change in society to address
the problem of alienation in society but ignored the alternative remedies. For example
Durkheim suggested a strict code of ethics for tackling the problem of alienation.

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 MARX - CRITICAL ANALYSIS

• TECHNOLOGICAL DETERMINISM

It is the idea that social change happens mainly due to technological change. However
there are empirical instances significant social change without any Technological change:

Example : Fascism in Germany , Authoritarian Capitalism in China.

At the same time there may be a development in technology but without social adoption of
that technology no social change occurs. Marx ignored this complex relationship between
Technology and Society.

• UNI-DIRECTIONAL CAUSAL THEORY

In Marx's account Social Super-Structure is determined by the Economic Base. The

direction of causality is from the Base to Super-structure. Weber criticized this approach as
Economic Reductionism.

NEO-MARXIST THEORISTS have proposed alterations to this Model:

➢ GRAMSCI: Argued that the direction of influence may be a two way process. The Super
structure can aloo influence the economic base in some circumstances. Example-
Industrialisation of Japan was the accomplishment of a conscious effort by stare
➢ LOUIS ALTHUSSER: Pointed out that Superstructure has relative autonomy? Base
determines super-structure only in the last instance.

• MONO CAUSALITY

In Marx's account Social changes are always caused by Economic factors: In reality,
however, as Max Weber has Shown, Non-Economic factors like religion can also cause
Social and economic changes.

• IDEAS DETERMINE MATTER

According to ROTHBARD Marx is wrong to consider that only Matter Causes/determines "
ideas." With respect to Technology, in the ultimate analysis, it is Ideas which produce it. Mark
tended to systematically under-emphasize the role of ideas in Society.

• NO THEORY OF REVOLUTION

According to CRANE BRINTON Marx only has a "notion of revolution" but not a "theory of
revolution". Man's work does not tell us why revolutions are successful in some instances and
unsuccessful in other instances.

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 • MARX THE PROPHET:
The history of last 100 Years has shown that Mary's predictions about Capitalist Society did
not come true:
➢ Class Polarisation did not occur
➢ Middle-class expanded.
➢ Rates of Profit did not fall.
➢ Socialist revolutions occurred in Agrarian Societies - not modern capitalist societies.

• PREDICTION OF PROLETARIAN REVOLUTION

Marx predicted that capitalism would inevitably lead to a proletarian revolution. Critics
point out that such revolutions have not occurred in most advanced capitalist societies,
and where communist revolutions did occur, they often resulted in authoritarian regimes
rather than the classless, stateless societies Marx envisioned.

• LABOR THEORY OF VALUE

Marx's labor theory of value, which posits that the value of a commodity is determined by the
socially necessary labor time required to produce it, has been criticized as being outdated.
Modern economists argue that value is more accurately determined by supply and demand
dynamics in the market.

• UTOPIAN VISION

Critics argue that Marx's vision of a classless, stateless society is overly idealistic and
utopian. They question the practicality of achieving and maintaining such a society, given
human nature and historical precedents.

• UNDERESTIMATION OF CAPITALISM’S ADAPTABILITY

Marx underestimated capitalism's ability to adapt and reform. Capitalist economies have
demonstrated considerable resilience and capacity for self-correction through mechanisms
such as social welfare policies, labor rights, and regulatory frameworks.

• NEGLECT OF INDIVIDUAL AGENCY

Marx’s focus on large-scale social and economic structures can be seen as downplaying the
role of individual agency. Critics argue that individuals have more power to influence their
circumstances than Marx’s theory allows.

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 • FAILURES OF COMMUNIST STATES

The practical implementation of Marxist ideas in various countries, such as the Soviet Union and
Maoist China, often resulted in authoritarian regimes with significant human rights abuses and
economic inefficiencies. Critics argue that these failures discredit Marx's theories.

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