1

COMPARISION BETWEEN INDIA,PAKISTAN AND BANGLADESH:

A COMPARITIVE ANALYSIS

BA POLITICAL SCIENCE 3RD SEM

28 NOVEMBER,2024
 2

ABSTRACT:

This paper presents a comparative analysis of the historical, social, and political
developments of India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, three countries that share a common
colonial past but have taken distinct paths in their post-independence trajectories. The study
explores key themes such as the formation of governments, the impact of major wars, the
role of religion and ethnicity in shaping national identities, and significant political events
such as India's Emergency (1975-77) and the Assam Accord (1985). The paper also examines
the socio-political dynamics of Muslim migration, particularly in the context of post-partition
migration between India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. By analyzing these factors, the paper
aims to offer a nuanced understanding of the challenges and achievements of these nations,
highlighting the complex interplay between historical events, governance systems, and social
structures that continue to influence the political landscapes of South Asia.

INTRODUCTION:

India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, all emerging from the remnants of British colonial rule,
share a common historical foundation yet present a remarkable contrast in their political
structures, social systems, and international relations. The partition of British India in 1947
led to the creation of India and Pakistan, a division largely based on religious lines that
sowed the seeds for decades of tension and conflict. Bangladesh, once part of Pakistan as
East Pakistan, gained its independence in 1971 after a violent liberation war. The trajectory
of each country has been shaped by its response to these formative events, with India
becoming the world’s largest democracy, Pakistan facing alternating military and civilian
governments, and Bangladesh struggling with political instability and economic
development.

This paper aims to provide a comparative analysis of these three nations, focusing on their
historical evolution, social structures, and political dynamics. Key areas of exploration
include the historical events that led to the creation of these nations, the wars that have
defined their relations, and the role of religion and ethnicity in shaping national identities.
Special attention is given to India’s Emergency period, the Assam Accord, and the complex
issue of Muslim migration in the region. By examining these diverse factors, the paper seeks
to understand the shared experiences and divergent paths of India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh,
offering insight into their current political and social landscapes and the ongoing challenges
they face in the modern world.
 3

HISTORY

 HISTORY OF INDIA:-

PERIOD EVENT DETAILS

ANCIENT INDIA Indus Valley One of the world’s oldest urban
Civilization (c. cultures, known for its advanced cities
3300–1300 BCE) like Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro.
VEDIC PERIOD Vedic Age (c. Arrival of the Aryans, composition of
1500–500 BCE) the Vedas, and the foundation of Hindu
philosophy.
MAURYA EMPIRE Maurya Empire (c. Founded by Chandragupta Maurya, the
322–185 BCE) empire reached its peak under Ashoka,
promoting Buddhism and non-violence.
GUPTA EMPIRE Gupta Empire (c. Known as the "Golden Age of India,"
320–550 CE) with advancements in science,
mathematics, art, and literature.
MEDIEVAL INDIA Delhi Sultanate A series of Muslim dynasties that ruled
(1206–1526) much of the Indian subcontinent,
contributing to cultural and architectural
developments.
MUGHAL EMPIRE Mughal Empire Founded by Babur; at its height under
(1526–1857) Akbar, it expanded across much of
India, known for art, culture, and the
construction of iconic structures like the
Taj Mahal.
BRITISH British Raj (1858– India came under British control; major
COLONIAL 1947) events include the Indian Rebellion of
PERIOD 1857 and the Indian independence
movement.
INDIAN Indian India gained independence from Britain
INDEPENDENCE Independence on August 15, 1947, leading to the
(1947) partition into India and Pakistan.
POST- Republic of India India became a republic in 1950, and
INDEPENDENCE (1950–present) has since developed into the world’s
largest democracy, with significant
political, social, and economic progress.
 4

 HISTORY OF PAKISTAN:-

PERIOD EVENT DETAILS

Pre-Pakistan Partition of British India In 1947, British India was divided
(1947) into two countries: India and
Pakistan, based on religious
demographics, with Pakistan formed
as a Muslim-majority state.
Early Years of Creation of Pakistan Pakistan was established as a separate
Pakistan (1947) nation, initially with two parts: East
Pakistan (now Bangladesh) and West
Pakistan (modern-day Pakistan).
First Kashmir Kashmir Conflict (1947– First war between India and Pakistan
War 1948) over the Kashmir region, ending in a
UN-mediated ceasefire and the
creation of the Line of Control.
Pakistan's Constitution of Pakistan Pakistan became the Islamic Republic
Constitution (1956) of Pakistan with its first constitution.
Military Various Military Pakistan experienced multiple
Dictatorships Regimes (1958–1971) military coups; notably, Ayub Khan
(1958), Yahya Khan (1970), and Zia-
ul-Haq (1977).
Bangladesh Bangladesh Liberation East Pakistan (now Bangladesh)
Liberation War War (1971) seceded from Pakistan after a brutal
war of independence, leading to the
creation of Bangladesh.
Post-1971 The Cold War and Kargil Tensions with India continued,
Developments War (1947–1999) including the Kargil War (1999).
Pakistan aligned with the US during
the Cold War but faced internal
political and economic instability
Democratic Democratic Transitions Pakistan has seen periods of
Transitions and and Military Influence democratic rule (e.g., Benazir Bhutto,
Struggles (2000–present) Nawaz Sharif) but also military
leadership (e.g., Pervez Musharraf).
Major political instability persists.
 5

 HISTORY OF BANGLADESH

PERIOD EVENT DETAILS

Ancient Bengal Bengal in Ancient Bengal, a region rich in culture and commerce,
History (c. 600 BCE– was part of various empires such as Maurya,
1200 CE) Gupta, and Pala Empires.
Medieval Bengal Bengal Sultanate The Bengal Sultanate was an important Muslim-
(1204–1576) ruled kingdom in South Asia. Later, Bengal
became part of the Mughal Empire.
British Colonial British Rule in Bengal was part of British India, contributing
Era Bengal (1757–1947) greatly to the economy but also facing
exploitation, famines (e.g., the 1943 Bengal
famine), and resistance movements.
Partition of Partition of Bengal In 1947, Bengal was split between India and East
Bengal (1947) Pakistan (present-day Bangladesh) after the
creation of Pakistan.
Bangladesh Bangladesh East Pakistan sought independence from West
Liberation War Liberation War Pakistan, leading to a brutal conflict. Bangladesh
(1971) was officially established as an independent
nation on December 16, 1971.
Post- Modern Bangladesh Bangladesh faced political instability post-
Independence (1971–present) independence, but has made significant progress
in economic development, particularly in textiles
and social welfare.
 6

SOCIAL STRUCTURE(ELITES)

The social structure in India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh has historical, cultural, and political
roots that significantly shape the elites in each country. The elites in these societies often
refer to those who hold economic, political, social, and cultural power, and they may differ
based on caste, class, religious background, and regional influences. Here's a detailed
comparison in a table format to outline the key types of elites in each country:

ASPECT INDIA PAKISTAN BANGLADESH

Historical India’s elite class has Pakistan’s elite class Bangladesh’s elites
Context its roots in emerged from the emerged from the
colonialism, traditional partition of India in partition of British India
caste systems, and 1947, with a focus on (1947), the liberation
post-independence Muslim identity and war of 1971, and post-
politics. military influence. independence political
dynamics.

Key Elites 1. Caste-Based Elites: 1. Military Elites: The 1. Political Elites:

Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Pakistan military is a Dynastic political
Vaishyas have dominant force in families (e.g., Sheikh
historically dominated politics and business. Hasina's family, Ziaur
politics, culture, and 2. Political Elites: Rahman’s family).
economy. Families (e.g., Bhutto, 2. Business Elites:
2. Political Elites: Sharif) and local Industrialists like the S
Dynastic political political dynasties. Alam Group,
families (e.g., Gandhi 3. Business Elites: Bashundhara Group.
family, Nehru family). Industrialists and 3. Military Elites: The
3. Business Elites: entrepreneurs, often military plays a
Corporate families linked to military or significant role in
(e.g., Ambanis, political connections. politics and business.
Birlas). 4. Religious Elites: 4. Cultural Elites:
4. Cultural Elites: The influence of Influential figures in
Influential figures in conservative religious Dhaka's cultural and
Bollywood, academia, parties and figures media circles,
media, and arts. (e.g., Jamaat-e-Islami). particularly in arts and
literature.
Economic A significant portion The business elites are The business elites in
Dominance of the elite class often closely tied to Bangladesh are less
controls large swathes the military, with diversified compared to
of India's economy, major industrial India and Pakistan but
especially in sectors conglomerates like still dominate key
 7

like technology, Ittefaq Group and industries such as

infrastructure, and Dewan Group being textiles, garments, and
manufacturing. The controlled by political agriculture. Families like
business families or military the S Alam Group are
elite,represented by figures. The military's powerful. The military
conglomerates like involvement in also has a stake in large
Tata, Reliance, and business gives it businesses.
Adani, plays a critical significant economic
role in shaping power.
national economic
policy.

Political India's political elite is The political elite is Political elites are
Power often divided between often led by a few typically concentrated in
regional and national powerful families a few powerful families
factions. Parties like (Bhuttos, Sharifs). The (e.g., Sheikh Hasina’s
the BJP (Bharatiya military exerts family, Khaleda Zia’s
Janata Party), substantial influence family). The military has
Congress, and regional over national politics, historically played an
parties play a large with coups and influential role in
role in shaping military rulers (e.g., politics, with periods of
governance, and General Zia, General military rule in
dynastic politics are Musharraf) playing a Bangladesh’s history.
prevalent (e.g., the central role in
Gandhi family). Pakistan’s history.

Social and The Indian elites have Pakistan’s cultural Bangladesh’s cultural
Cultural significant influence elites are mostly elite is largely
Influence over media, cinema urban, with a strong concentrated in Dhaka,
(Bollywood), and presence in the arts, with a rich history in
intellectual life. The media, and film arts, literature, and
elites in India, (Lollywood). cinema. Political and
especially the upper- Religious elites also business elites also have
caste Hindus, also influence cultural life a strong presence in the
dominate cultural through media and cultural sphere.
institutions like institutions.
education and the arts.
Religious The Indian elites are In Pakistan, Islam is a Bangladesh’s elites are
Influence often split between defining feature of the predominantly Muslim,
Hindu, Muslim, Sikh, elite class, with many but the country has a
and Christian elites promoting significant secular elite
communities, but Islamic values through that influences national
Hindu elites have their political politics. Religious elites,
historically held the platforms. Religious such as those from
most power. Religious parties like Jamaat-e- Jamaat-e-Islami, have
identity influences Islami also play a role had some influence but
 8

political and social in politics. have less power in

status, with some comparison to Pakistan.
groups leveraging
religion for political
gains (e.g., BJP and
Hindu nationalism).
ROLE OF The military in India The military in The military in
MILITARY is influential but does Pakistan is central to Bangladesh has
not play a dominant the political system, historically intervened in
role in politics, with a history of direct politics, though it
except in times of and indirect currently holds less
crisis. Military elites involvement in direct control compared
are mostly governance. Military to Pakistan. However,
professional and do elites dominate both military elites still wield
not directly interfere the political and significant influence
in civilian economic landscapes behind the scenes
governance.
Caste and Caste plays a Ethnicity plays a key Ethnicity is less of a
Ethnicity significant role in role in shaping the direct determinant in the
shaping the Indian political elites of elite structure, though
elite, with upper-caste Pakistan. Punjabis, Bengali identity and the
Hindus having greater Sindhis, and Mohajirs legacy of the Liberation
access to political, (immigrants from War are central to the
economic, and social India) have national elite’s identity.
power. However, there traditionally The elites are more
is a growing presence dominated the elite unified by class and
of Dalit and OBC class, with ethnic political affiliation.
elites in politics and tensions occasionally
business. influencing political
power.

Challenges to India’s elites face Pakistan’s elite class Bangladesh’s elites face
Elite Power challenges from faces challenges from challenges from rising
regional parties, caste- religious extremism, populist movements,
based movements, and ethnic tensions, and increasing political
rising economic growing civilian polarization, and
inequality. The discontent with criticism of dynastic
growing influence of military dominance. politics. The political
populist leaders and There is also influence of the military,
the expansion of the increasing pressure while somewhat
middle class are also from emerging reduced, still remains a
reshaping elite power. political forces like challenge to civilian
Imran Khan's PTI. governance.
 9

GOVT FORMATION IN INDIA,PAKISTAN AND BANGLADESH

ASPECT INDIA PAKISTAN BANGLADESH

Type of Federal Republic Federal Republic Parliamentary
Government Republic

Head of State President President President

(Ceremonial) (Ceremonial) (Ceremonial)
Head of Prime Minister Prime Minister Prime Minister
Government
Elected Body Lok Sabha (Lower National Jatiyo Sangsad
House), Rajya Assembly, Senate (National
Sabha (Upper Parliament)
House)
Major Political Bharatiya Janata Pakistan Peoples Awami League
Parties Party (BJP), Indian Party (PPP), (AL), Bangladesh
National Congress Pakistan Muslim National Party
(INC) League (PML) (BNP)
Majority Majority in Lok Majority in Majority in Jatiyo
Requirement Sabha National Assembly Sangsad
Coalition Politics Common, Frequent, due to a Common, though
especially at the fragmented party Awami League
national level system often leads alone
Formation After elections, the Largest Largest
Process President invites party/alliance is party/alliance is
the largest invited by the invited by the
party/alliance to President President
form government
Role of Military Limited role, Significant Limited role, though
civilian control influence, historically
especially in past influential
years
 10

MAJOR WARS AND CONFLICTS BETWEEN INDIA,PAKISTAN AND

BANGLADESH

WAR PARTICIPA DATE CAUSE OUTCOME KEY

NTS EVENTS
First India vs October Dispute Ceasefire - Pakistan
Kashmir Pakistan 1947 – over the brokered by invaded
War January princely UN, Kashmir Kashmir
1949 state of divided (Line in October
Jammu of Control - 1947.
and LOC), with - The UN
Kashmir India brokered a
after controlling ceasefire
partition of about two- in 1949,
India. thirds. establishin
Pakistan g the Line
supported of Control
tribal (LOC).
militias.
Second India vs August Kashmir Stalemate, -
Kashmir Pakistan 1965 – dispute; Tashkent Operation
War Septemb Pakistan Agreement Gibraltar:
er 1965 launched (January Pakistan's
an attack 1966), no attempt to
on Indian- significant infiltrate
administere territorial Jammu
d Kashmir changes. and
and other Kashmir.
areas. -
Tashkent
Agreemen
t: Signed
after
Soviet
mediation.
Indo- India and Decembe The Bangladesh - India's
Pakistani Bangladesh r 1971 Banglades became interventi
War of (then East h independent, on in
1971 Pakistan) vs Liberation Pakistan December
Pakistan War: India defeated, 1971 to
intervened leading to the assist East
in support creation of Pakistan in
of East Bangladesh. its
Pakistan’s independe
 11

independen nce
ce from struggle.
Pakistan. -
Pakistan’s
military
defeat and
surrender
on 16
December.
Kargil India vs May Pakistani India regained -
War Pakistan 1999 – forces control of Pakistan'
July infiltrated Kargil, s covert
1999 Kashmir Pakistan operation
(specificall withdrew, : Forces
y the international infiltrated
Kargil condemnation Kargil in
region). of Pakistan’s 1999.
actions. - Heavy
casualties
on both
sides,
especially
among
Pakistani
forces.
Siachen India vs Ongoin Territorial Ceasefire; no - India's
Conflict Pakistan g since dispute major military military
April over the action, but the operation
1984 Siachen conflict in 1984 to
Glacier in remains assert
the unresolved. control
Karakora over the
m Range. Siachen
Glacier.
-
Continuou
s standoff,
with both
countries
maintainin
g high-
altitude
positions.
Rann of India vs April A border Ceasefire Skirmishe
Kutch Pakistan 1965 conflict brokered by s broke out
Conflict over the British in the
 12

Rann of Commonwea Rann of

Kutch, a lth, with both Kutch
marshy sides agreeing region.
area near to settle the - British
the India- issue through mediation
Pakistan dialogue. led to a
border. ceasefire.
Kashmir India vs Ongoing Territorial No formal - Cross-
Conflict Pakistan since dispute war, but border
(Post- 1947 over periodic terrorism
1947) Jammu clashes, cross- and
and border military
Kashmir, skirmishes, clashes
with both and terrorist continue.
India and attacks in the - UN
Pakistan region. Resolutio
claiming n 47
full control. (1948)
called for
a
plebiscite,
but this
has never
been
conducted
.
Baluchista Pakistan vs 1973– Baloch Ongoing -
n Baloch rebels 1977, nationalist conflict, but Balochista
Insurgenci (with Indian 2000s- movement Pakistani n has
es support) present seeking forces witnessed
independen maintain several
ce from control. insurgenci
Pakistan, es seeking
with some autonomy.
support - India has
from India. occasional
ly been
accused of
providing
support to
Baloch
separatist
s
India- India vs Various Periodic No large-scale - Cross-
Pakistan Pakistan (Post- military wars, but border
Skirmishe 1999) clashes continuing skirmishe
 13

s (Post- along the tensions and s persist,

1999) Line of occasional with
Control escalation. terrorist
(LOC) and attacks
the blamed on
Internatio Pakistan-
nal Border based
(IB). militants.
-
Internatio
nal calls
for
peaceful
resolution
.

Key Points of the Wars:

 First Kashmir War (1947-48):

o The first war between India and Pakistan occurred immediately after partition.
Both countries fought over the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, which
had acceded to India. The UN ceasefire established the Line of Control
(LOC), leaving Kashmir divided between the two nations.
 Second Kashmir War (1965):
o Another war broke out in Kashmir when Pakistan launched an attack on
India’s Kashmir region. The war ended with a stalemate, and the Tashkent
Agreement was signed to restore the pre-war status quo.
 Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 (Bangladesh Liberation War):
o The Bangladesh Liberation War was not only a war between East Pakistan
(later Bangladesh) and West Pakistan (modern-day Pakistan) but also saw
India's intervention in support of East Pakistan's quest for independence.
The war resulted in the creation of Bangladesh and a major defeat for
Pakistan.
 Kargil War (1999):
o This was a limited conflict in Kargil (Indian-administered Kashmir) where
Pakistan infiltrated Indian territory. The war ended with India regaining
control of the region, but tensions have remained high between the two
nations.
 Siachen Glacier Conflict (1984-present):
o The conflict over the Siachen Glacier, located in the Karakoram Range, is
one of the world’s highest-altitude military standoffs, where both India and
Pakistan have stationed troops in harsh conditions. While no major military
action has taken place recently, the dispute remains unresolved.
 Rann of Kutch Conflict (1965):
o A brief but significant border conflict between India and Pakistan over the
Rann of Kutch, a salt marsh area. It ended in a ceasefire brokered by Britain.
 14

 Kashmir Conflict:
o The Kashmir dispute has been a long-standing issue since 1947, with India
and Pakistan fighting multiple wars over the region. Even though no full-
scale wars have occurred since 1999, cross-border skirmishes and terrorist
activities continue.
 Baluchistan Insurgencies:
o Baloch separatist movements in Pakistan’s Balochistan province have
received occasional support from India. However, Pakistan has maintained
control over the region, despite multiple insurgencies.

Conclusion:

The wars between India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh have been largely defined by the
Kashmir dispute, the Bangladesh Liberation War, and periodic skirmishes along borders.
Despite several ceasefires and peace efforts, the historical tensions between these countries,
particularly over Kashmir and the legacy of the 1971 Bangladesh War, continue to shape
their geopolitical relationships. The Kargil War and ongoing tensions over Siachen show
that, while large-scale wars have decreased, military conflicts and border disputes remain an
enduring issue in the region.

INDIA’S EMERGENCY
 15

India's Emergency refers to a period of 21 months from June 25, 1975, to March 21, 1977,
when Prime Minister Indira Gandhi declared a state of national emergency under Article 352
of the Indian Constitution. This allowed her government to rule by decree, limit civil
liberties, and suspend elections.

Here is an overview of the Emergency in India with the help of a table:

ASPECT DETAILS
Reason for Emergency Indira Gandhi's government faced political instability, rising
opposition, and court cases challenging her election victory (e.g.,
the Allahabad High Court's verdict in 1975).
Date of Declaration June 25, 1975
Duration June 25, 1975, to March 21, 1977 (21 months)
Article Invoked Article 352 of the Indian Constitution, which allows the President
to declare an emergency in case of "internal disturbance" or war.
Key Events During 1. Suspension of Fundamental Rights: The government
Emergency curtailed freedoms such as the right to life, freedom of speech,
and protection from arbitrary arrest (Article 21).
2. Mass Arrests: Opposition leaders, activists, and critics of the
government were arrested without trial, including leaders like
Jayaprakash Narayan.
3. Censorship: The media was heavily censored, with reports
critical of the government being banned or altered.
4. Forced Sterilization Program: To control population growth,
a controversial forced sterilization campaign was launched.
5. Emergency Rule: Indira Gandhi ruled by presidential decree,
bypassing the Parliament and Constitutionally required checks
and balances.
Political Consequences 1. Political Repression: The opposition was silenced, civil
liberties were curtailed, and dissent was suppressed.
2. Public Backlash: Over time, growing public dissatisfaction and
international criticism of authoritarian rule led to protests.
End of Emergency The Emergency ended on March 21, 1977, after a surprise
announcement by Indira Gandhi following the electoral defeat of
the Congress party in the 1977 general elections.
Aftermath 1. 1977 General Elections: The opposition, united under the
Janata Party, won a landslide victory, and Indira Gandhi's
Congress party suffered a major defeat.
2. Long-Term Impact: The Emergency marked a significant shift
in Indian politics. It led to a distrust of unchecked power, and the
safeguards in the Constitution were emphasized.
Key Figures 1. Indira Gandhi: Prime Minister who declared the Emergency.
2. Jayaprakash Narayan: Leader of the opposition movement
against the Emergency.
3. Morarji Desai: Became the Prime Minister after the Janata
 16

Party's victory in 1977

 Causes Leading to Emergency:

 Political instability: Indira Gandhi faced growing opposition from both within and
outside her party (Indian National Congress).
 Election Controversy: In 1975, the Allahabad High Court declared Indira Gandhi’s
1971 election victory invalid, citing electoral malpractice. The court ordered her to be
disqualified.
 Growing Dissent: Protests led by Jayaprakash Narayan and other leaders, as well as
widespread unrest, led Indira Gandhi to declare the emergency.

 Impact on Democracy:

 The Emergency is seen as a period of authoritarian rule, where democratic norms

were suspended, and the political opposition was silenced.
 After the Emergency, there was a major shift in India's political landscape. The Janata
Party, a coalition of opposition parties, came to power in 1977, marking the first
defeat of the Congress party at the national level.

 Legal and Constitutional Changes:

 The 44th Amendment of the Indian Constitution (1978) was passed to prevent the
recurrence of such a situation. It restored safeguards for personal freedoms and made
it harder to declare an Emergency in the future.

MIGRATION OF MUSLIM POPULATION

 17

The migration of Muslim populations during the Partition of India in 1947, which led to the
creation of India, Pakistan, and later Bangladesh, was a significant historical event with
lasting socio-political consequences. Below is a comparative table explaining the migration
of Muslim populations to India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh during and after Partition:

Muslim Population Migration in India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh (1947 and After)

ASPECT INDIA PAKISTAN BANGLADESH

Context of Migration due to the Migration occurred After the Partition of
Migration Partition of India as a result of the India (1947),
(1947). Muslims Partition of India Muslims from the
who had been in (1947). Muslims newly formed East
areas that became from the newly Bengal (later East
India (Hindu- created India moved Pakistan, now
majority) moved to to Pakistan (both Bangladesh) migrated
Pakistan. West and East). to India.
Direction of Muslims from Muslims from India Muslims from East
Migration Pakistan (both West moved to both West Bengal (now
and East Pakistan) Pakistan (modern- Bangladesh) moved
migrated to India, day Pakistan) and to India following
particularly to the East Pakistan Partition and later
northern and (modern-day during the
western regions. Bangladesh). Bangladesh
Liberation War
(1971).
Approximate Around 7 million Around 7.5 million Around 1.5 million
Numbers Muslims migrated Muslims migrated Muslims migrated
to India. to Pakistan from East Bengal to
(including East and India before and after
West Pakistan). Partition.
IMPACT 1. Population 1. National 1. Communal
Shifts: Significant Identity: The influx Tensions: After
migration of of Muslims from Partition, India
Muslims from areas India contributed to witnessed a rise in
like Punjab and the consolidation of communal tensions
Bengal to Indian Pakistan's Muslim between Hindus and
states. identity, both in Muslims, and later,
2. Demographic West and East the migration of
Changes: Major Pakistan. Hindus from
changes in the 2. Strain on Bangladesh to India
demographics of Resources: Large continued during the
Indian states like numbers of refugees Bangladesh
Punjab, Bengal, and created pressure on Liberation War of
Uttar Pradesh. Pakistan's economy, 1971.
 18

3. Social Strain: infrastructure, and

The migration led to resources.
social and economic
tensions, with issues
of resettlement,
communal violence,
and rehabilitation.

Explanation of Migration Events

1. Partition of India (1947):

o Muslims in India (to Pakistan): Following the Partition, Muslims who were
living in regions that became India (such as Punjab, Bengal, and other parts of
northern India) migrated to the newly created Pakistan, seeking refuge in what
was perceived as a Muslim-majority state. This migration was often driven by
religious identity, fear of communal violence, and state-sponsored programs
for migration.
o Muslims in Pakistan (to India): Similarly, Muslims who lived in what
became Pakistan (now modern-day Pakistan and Bangladesh) were either
forced or chose to migrate to India. The movement was marked by large-scale
violence and displacement, with many people losing their homes, possessions,
and lives in the process.
2. Impact on India:
o India became home to a significant number of refugees from both East and
West Pakistan. The Punjab, Bengal, and Uttar Pradesh regions saw major
demographic shifts. The migration also led to significant social, economic,
and political changes. There was a heightened atmosphere of religious and
communal tensions between Hindus and Muslims, which led to several
instances of violence and riots.
3. Impact on Pakistan:
o In Pakistan, the sudden influx of Muslims from India strained resources, led to
population density in cities like Karachi and Lahore, and created a need for
new settlements. The resettlement process for refugees was challenging, and
the refugee crisis had long-term economic and social consequences.
o The creation of Pakistan as a homeland for Muslims also led to the
consolidation of its identity as an Islamic state, and the migration reinforced
this sense of religious solidarity.
4. Impact on Bangladesh:
o The Bangladesh Liberation War (1971) further influenced migration
patterns. Bengali Muslims from India, particularly from West Bengal,
migrated to East Pakistan in the years leading up to Bangladesh's
independence.
o After 1971, there was also significant return migration as Bengali Muslims
who had sought refuge in India during the war returned to their homes in
Bangladesh.
 19

5. Muslim Identity in Bangladesh:

o The creation of Bangladesh as a secular state (although later becoming more
Islamic in the 1970s and beyond) changed the dynamics of migration and
citizenship. After independence, there was a focus on creating a national
identity based on Bengali culture and Islam, although communal tensions
continued in various forms, especially in the Chittagong Hill Tracts and other
minority regions.

Conclusion:

The migration of Muslims across India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh was a deeply complex and
traumatic event that shaped the political and demographic landscape of South Asia. It
resulted in long-lasting effects, including communal tensions, the reconfiguration of national
identities, and the reshaping of socio-political structures in these countries. While Pakistan
emerged as a Muslim-majority state, India retained a large Muslim minority, and
Bangladesh, after its independence, became home to a majority Muslim population but with a
strong sense of Bengali identity.

ASSAM ACCORD
 20

The Assam Accord refers to an agreement signed in 1985 between the Government
of India and the leaders of Assam, particularly to resolve issues related to illegal
immigration from Bangladesh into Assam and to address ethnic and regional
concerns in the state.

KEY ISSUE DETAILS

Date of Agreement 15th August 1985
Parties Involved - Government of India (GOI)
- Government of Assam
- All Assam Students' Union (AASU)
- Assam Gana Parishad (AGP)
Main Objective To resolve the issue of illegal immigration and ethnic unrest
in Assam, particularly regarding migrants from Bangladesh.
Cut-off Date for 24th March 1971: People who entered Assam after this
Citizenship date will be considered illegal immigrants.
Deportation of Illegal Individuals who entered Assam after 24th March 1971 were
Immigrants to be deported, and their names would be removed from the
electoral rolls.

Rehabilitation of The Accord stipulated that people displaced by the Assam

Displaced People Agitation (due to migration issues) would receive
compensation.

Economic Commitment by the Government of India for economic

Development development and welfare programs in Assam to address
grievances.
Implementation of - Creation of the Assam Legislative Assembly's provisions
the Accord for a "Legislative Assembly Review Committee."
Impact on Electoral - Illegal immigrants who entered Assam after 1971 were to
Rolls be excluded from electoral rolls.

Land Settlement Special measures to check illegal settlement of land by

Policy immigrants.
Impact on the The Accord paved the way for the formation of the Assam
Political Landscape Gana Parishad (AGP) and helped address ethnic divisions.

CONCLUSION
 21

In conclusion, the historical development, government formation, social structures, and

military conflicts of India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh are deeply intertwined with their
shared colonial past and distinct post-independence trajectories. Their political evolution,
social dynamics, and relations have been influenced by complex factors including partition,
ethnic identities, religion, and the legacy of colonial rule. While they have had common
roots, each country’s journey has been marked by unique challenges and achievements.

1. Historical Context and Government Formation:

 India:
o History: India was the largest colony of the British Empire and gained
independence in 1947 after a long struggle led by the Indian National
Congress and Mahatma Gandhi. The partition of India into India and
Pakistan was one of the most traumatic events in its history, leading to large-
scale violence, migration, and long-lasting tensions.
o Government Formation: India adopted a democratic parliamentary system
with a secular constitution in 1950. It embraced federalism, recognizing its
diverse linguistic, cultural, and religious composition. India has largely stayed
committed to democratic governance despite challenges.
 Pakistan:
o History: Pakistan was created as a separate state for Muslims after the
partition of British India in 1947, driven by the ideology of Two-Nation
Theory led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah. Pakistan's creation was rooted in
religious identity, but this has led to significant identity crises over the years,
with tensions between its Islamic identity and the aspirations for democratic
governance.
o Government Formation: Pakistan adopted a parliamentary system but has
alternated between democracy and military rule. The military has played a
major role in the country's political landscape, with multiple military coups
and periods of military dictatorship (e.g., General Ayub Khan, Zia-ul-Haq,
and Pervez Musharraf).
 Bangladesh:
o History: Bangladesh was originally part of Pakistan as East Pakistan, but
after years of political and economic marginalization, it gained
independence in 1971 following a brutal war of independence, which resulted
in the Bangladesh Liberation War. The war was heavily influenced by
ethnic, linguistic, and political tensions between East and West Pakistan.
o Government Formation: After independence, Bangladesh initially adopted a
parliamentary system and secular constitution. However, it has been
politically unstable, marked by periods of military rule and civilian
governance led by major political dynasties (primarily the Awami League
and BNP).

2. Social Structure:
 22

 India:
o Diversity: India’s social structure is incredibly diverse, with multiple ethnic
groups, languages, and religions. The caste system (Hinduism's social
hierarchy) has historically played a dominant role, though it has been
officially abolished and addressed through affirmative action policies (e.g.,
reservation for lower castes).
o Religious and Cultural Diversity: India is home to a large number of
religions, including Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, and others,
which has created both vibrant pluralism and religious tensions, especially
between Hindus and Muslims.
 Pakistan:
o Ethnic and Religious Divide: Pakistan’s social structure has been influenced
by its foundation as an Islamic state, although there are significant ethnic
groups, including Punjabis, Pashtuns, Sindhis, and Baloch, each with its own
identity. The religious minorities, particularly Hindus and Christians, face
discrimination in various forms.
o Islamic Identity: Pakistan’s political structure is shaped by its Islamic
identity, and Islamic fundamentalism has influenced various political
movements. Tensions exist between secular and religious political forces,
with frequent struggles over the role of Islam in governance.
 Bangladesh:
o Ethnic and Religious Diversity: Bangladesh is primarily Bengali and
Muslim, but it also has minority populations of Hindus and other ethnic
groups. Bangladesh has had tensions over Islamic vs. secular political
ideologies, with the rise of Islamist parties challenging its secular
foundations.
o Social Structure: Bangladesh, like India, faces challenges with poverty and
class disparities, but has made remarkable strides in gender equality (e.g.,
women in government, microfinance programs, etc.).

3. Wars and Conflicts Between Them:

 India and Pakistan:

o Partition of 1947: The partition of British India led to the creation of India
and Pakistan but also triggered widespread violence, mass migrations, and
long-standing animosities.
o 1947-1948: First Kashmir War – Both countries fought over the princely
state of Kashmir, which remains a disputed territory.
o 1965: Second Kashmir War – A full-scale war broke out again over the
Kashmir issue, with no clear victor, leading to the Tashkent Agreement.
o 1971: Bangladesh Liberation War – India intervened in support of East
Pakistan's independence, defeating Pakistan and leading to the creation of
Bangladesh.
o 1999: Kargil War – A conflict in Kashmir where Pakistan attempted to
infiltrate Indian territory, resulting in a limited but intense war.
 23

o Despite multiple wars and skirmishes, India and Pakistan have not gone to
war since 1999, but the Kashmir conflict and cross-border terrorism
remain unresolved sources of tension.
 India and Bangladesh:
o The primary conflict between India and Bangladesh was the 1971 Liberation
War, where India intervened to support the Bengali independence movement
against Pakistan. This war resulted in the creation of Bangladesh as a separate
nation.
o Since 1971, India and Bangladesh have generally maintained peaceful
relations, although issues like water-sharing, border disputes, and the
treatment of Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh have occasionally caused
tensions.
 Pakistan and Bangladesh:
o Bangladesh Liberation War (1971): This remains the most significant
conflict between Pakistan and Bangladesh. The war was a brutal civil war,
with millions of lives lost and atrocities committed, leading to the breakup of
Pakistan and the creation of Bangladesh. The war’s scars have created
lingering bitterness between the two countries, though diplomatic relations
have improved in recent years.

4. Conclusion:

The political, social, and military histories of India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh reflect both
shared legacies and distinct national identities.

 India has emerged as a democratic secular state with a focus on economic growth
and pluralism, despite ongoing challenges related to religious tension and regional
inequalities.
 Pakistan, rooted in its Islamic identity, has experienced military coups, and civilian
unrest, with its military playing a crucial role in governance and foreign policy.
Pakistan’s relations with India, particularly over Kashmir, remain a central issue in
its political landscape.
 Bangladesh, formed from the ashes of Pakistan, has evolved into a parliamentary
democracy, although political polarization and the legacy of its liberation war
continue to shape its internal politics and regional relations.

Bibliography:
 24

1. India and Pakistan – A History of Conflict

Source: BBC History
URL: https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwtwo/india_pakistan_01.shtml
Summary: Provides an overview of the history of India and Pakistan, focusing on key events
such as the partition, wars, and ongoing conflicts between the two countries.
2. The Partition of India (1947)
Source: The British Library
URL: https://www.bl.uk/history-of-the-indian-subcontinent/india-1947-partition
Summary: An article on the partition of British India in 1947, explaining the reasons behind
the division, the migration of people, and the long-term consequences on India, Pakistan, and
Bangladesh.
3. Bangladesh Liberation War
Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica
URL: https://www.britannica.com/event/Bangladesh-Liberation-War
Summary: A detailed entry on the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War, exploring the causes,
key events, and outcomes of the conflict that led to the formation of Bangladesh.
4. The Assam Accord (1985)
Source: Government of India – Ministry of Home Affairs
URL: https://mha.gov.in/sites/default/files/AssamAccord_0.pdf
Summary: Official document detailing the Assam Accord, which addresses the issue of
illegal immigration from Bangladesh into Assam, including provisions for the protection of
the Assamese population.
5. India's Emergency (1975-77)
Source: History Today
URL: https://www.historytoday.com/archive/india%E2%80%99s-emergency-1975-77
Summary: An article that explains the declaration of emergency in India by Prime Minister
Indira Gandhi in 1975, covering its causes, impact on Indian politics, and the subsequent
return to democracy.
6. South Asian Migration and Refugees
Source: Migration Policy Institute
URL: https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/migration-south-asia
Summary: Discusses the patterns of migration in South Asia, including the mass migrations
after the partition of India and Bangladesh’s independence, and the impact of migration
policies in the region.
7. Social Structure in South Asia
Source: The Sociology of South Asia
URL: https://www.sociologyguide.com/indian-society/social-structure-in-indian-society.php
Summary: Explains the social structure in South Asian countries, including India, with a
focus on caste, religion, and ethnic diversity.
8. Pakistan’s Political System and History
Source: The Diplomat
URL: https://thediplomat.com/category/pakistan/
Summary: Provides in-depth articles on Pakistan’s political landscape, including its
government formation, military influence, and democratic transitions.