B.E.

V SEMESTER ECE

ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION (22ECC15)

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA

Assistant Professor, Dept. of ECE
Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE
 SYLLABUS
ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION
Unit - I Amplitude modulation: Need for modulation, Amplitude Modulation - Time and frequency domain description, single tone
modulation, power relations in AM, Generation of AM waves - Switching modulator, Detection of AM Waves - Envelope
detector, DSB-SC modulation - time and frequency domain description, Generation of DSB-SC Waves - Balanced
Modulators, Coherent detection of DSB-SC, COSTAS Loop, SSB modulation - time and frequency domain description.
Principle of Vestigial side band modulation. AM Transmitter. AM Receiver- Super heterodyne receiver, image frequency
rejection and its ratio, receiver characteristics. Figure of merit calculation of AM
Unit - II Angle modulation: Basic concepts of Phase Modulation, Frequency Modulation: Single tone frequency modulation,
Spectrum Analysis of Sinusoidal FM Wave using Bessel functions, NBFM, WBFM, Power and Transmission bandwidth of
FM, Indirect Generation of FM - Armstrong Method, Detection of FM Signal: Phase locked loop, Concept of Pre-emphasis
and de-emphasis.
Unit - III Pulse Modulation: Types of Pulse analog modulation- PAM, PWM and PPM (Qualitative treatment only).
Pulse Digital Modulation: PCM Generation and Reconstruction, Estimation of Quantization Noise, Non-Uniform
Quantization and Companding, DPCM, DM and Adaptive DM, Noise in PCM and DM.
Unit - IV Information Theory: Uncertainty, Information and Entropy, Source coding: Source coding theorem, Shannon – Fano
algorithm and Huffman coding. Discrete memory-less channels: Types of channels, cascaded channels, mutual
information, Channel capacity, Information rate and Information capacity. Introduction to error control coding.
Unit - V Digital Modulation Techniques: Digital Carrier Modulation Schemes: Optimum receiver for Binary Digital Modulation
Schemes, Binary ASK, PSK, DPSK, FSK signaling schemes and their BERs. Comparison of Digital Modulation Schemes.
Introduction to M-ary Signaling Schemes: QPSK. Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE
ANALOG COMMUNICATION

K.S.R.S. JYOTHSNA
Assistant Smt.
Professor, Dept. of ECE, CBIT
KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE
 COMMUNICATION
The word communication arises from the Latin word commūnicāre, which means “to share”. Communication is
the basic step for exchange of information.

Communication deals with the principle of transferring information from one place to another.

Basic Communication system:

Source Transmitter Channel Receiver Destination

Noise

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

 SIGNALS
TYPES OF SIGNALS

ANALOG DIGITAL

PERIODIC APERIODIC PERIODIC APERIODIC

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

FREQUENCY SPECTRUM

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

 BASIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
The basic communication system consists of three basic components:
 Transmitter,
 Channel and
 Receiver

Message Message
Transmitter Channel Receiver
Signal Signal

Transmitter: Its function is to process the message signal into a form suitable for transmission over the communication
channel. This is called modulation.

Channel: This is a medium which electrically connects the transmitter to the receiver. Its function is to provide a pathway
between the transmitter's outputand the receiver's input.

Receiver: The main purpose of the receiver is to create the original message signal from the degraded version of the
transmitted signal after propagation through channel i.e. It will apply the reverse process of the modulation used in the
transmitter. Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE
NEED FOR MODULATION
1.
• Frequency Multiplexing

2.
• Practicability of Antenna

3.
• Narrow banding or Common Processing

4.
• Reduction of Noise
Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE
 TYPES OF MODULATION
Types of Modulation

Discrete / Pulse
CW Modulation
Modulation

Amplitude Angle Pulse Amplitude Pulse Width Pulse Position

Modulation Modulation Modulation Modulation Modulation

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

TYPES OF CW MODULATION
CW MODULATION

Non-Linear
Linear Modulation
Modulation

Amplitude Angle
Modulation Modulation

FULL AM DSB-SC SSB VSB FM PM

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE
 MODULATION
Signal is having the following parameters:

 Amplitude

 Frequency

 Phase

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

 AMPLITUDE MODULATION
Definition: Amplitude Modulation is defined as the process in which amplitude of the carrier wave is varied in accordance
with the amplitude of the message or baseband signal.

Consider a sinusoidal carrier wave c(t) defined by:

where Ac is the carrier amplitude and fc is the carrier frequency.

Let m(t) denote the message signal. Then the modulated signal s(t) is given by:

Where Ka is the amplitude sensitivity factor of the modulator. Units:

Volt / Volt i.e. No units
Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE
AM WAVE WITH DIFFERENT MODULATION INDICES

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

FREQUENCY DOMAIN REPRESENTATION
The time domain expression of AM is as follows:

Let the frequency domain representation of m(t) i.e. the Fourier transform of m(t) is M(f):

Using the following known expressions:

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

FREQUENCY DOMAIN REPRESENTATION

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

 SINGLE TONE MODULATION
The time domain expression of AM is as follows:

Single tone modulation: Message signal will have only one frequency.

where

Modulation index or
Modulation factor

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

 POWER CALCULATIONS

Modulation index is represented with ‘m’ or ‘µ’.

Total average power is given by:

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

 TRANSMISSION EFFICIENCY
Transmission efficiency of an AM wave is the ratio of the transmitted power which contains the information (i.e.
the total sideband power) to the total transmitted power.

The percentage transmission efficiency is given as:

The maximum transmission efficiency of an AM signal is 33.33%, i.e., only one third of the
total transmitted power is carried by the side bands in an AM wave. The remaining two third of the total
transmittedpower gets wasted.

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

POWER OF MULTI-TONE AM SIGNAL

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

BANDWIDTH OF AM SIGNAL

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

 FORMULAE

Total Power in AM: Transmission Efficiency:

Choice of time constant in Envelope detector:

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

TYPES OF AM

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

 LIMITATIONS OF AM

1. Wastage of Power.
2. Wastage of Bandwidth.

In the efficient power distribution case , i.e. μ=1, still 66.66% of Pt is wasted in the form of
transmission of additional carrier. This is the biggest drawback of AM.
Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE
 DSB-SC
Double-sideband suppressed carrier (DSBSC) modulation technique is a modified form of
amplitude modulation technique in which the carrier signal is completely suppressed from
amplitude-modulated signal.

This form of linear modulation can be generated by using a simple product modulator which
multiplies message signal m(t) and carrier signal c(t).

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

 TIME DOMAIN REPRESENTATION

DSB-SC modulation is reduced to zero whenever the The modulated signal s(t) undergoes a phase reversal
message signal m(t) is switched off. whenever message signal m(t) crosses zero.
Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE
 FREQUENCY DOMAIN
REPRESENTATION

The Fourier transform of s(t) is given as:

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

 SINGLE TONE MODULATION
Let the message signal be m(t) and Carrier signal be c(t) and are given as follows:

Mathematically, we can represent the equation of DSBSC wave as the

product of modulating and carrier signals.

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

 SINGLE TONE MODULATION
The DSBSC frequency spectrum extends from lower sideband frequency (fc -
fm ) to upper sideband frequency (fc + fm ), where f c is the carrier signal
frequency, and fm is the maximum modulating signal frequency.

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

 LIMITATIONS OF DSB-SC

Wastage of Bandwidth.

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

SINGLE SIDEBAND MODULATION

Spectrum of Spectrum of
Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE
USB LSB
SPECTRUM OF SSB

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

TIME DOMAIN REPRESENTATION

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

 DRAWBACK OF SSB
SSB modulation requires ideal BPF with sharp cutoff frequencies

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

 NEED FOR VSB MODULATION
SSB modulation is suited for transmission of voice signals due to the
energy gap that exists in the frequency range from zero to few
hundred hertz. But when signals like video signals which contain
significant frequency components even at very low frequencies, the
USB and LSB tend to meet at the carrier frequency. In such a case one
of the sidebands is very difficult to be isolated with the help of
practical filters. This problem is overcome by the Vestigial Sideband
Modulation

In this modulation technique along with one of the sidebands, a

gradual cut of the other sideband is also allowed which comes due to
the use of practical filter. This cut of the other sideband is called as the
vestige.

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

VESTIGIAL SIDEBAND MODULATION
The transmission bandwidth of VSB is:
BT = W + fv

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

TIME DOMAIN REPRESENTATION

Filter
m(t) ms(t)
Hs(f)

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

 ANGLE MODULATION
Angle modulation is further divided into frequency modulation and phase modulation.

 Frequency Modulation is the process of

varying the frequency of the carrier signal in ANGLE
accordance with the amplitude of the MODULATION
message signal.

 Phase Modulation is the process of varying FREQUENCY PHASE

the phase of the carrier signal in MODULATION MODULATION
accordance with the amplitude of the
message signal. Ɵ (t) = 2πf t + ϕ Ɵi(t) = 2πfct + ϕi
i i c

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

 FREQUENCY MODULATION
Let
Ɵi(t) = 2πfit + ϕc
The equation for instantaneous frequency fi in FM modulation is:

Where

We know the relationship between angular frequency ωi and angle θi(t) as:

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

 FREQUENCY MODULATION

Substituting, the above obtained θi(t) in the standard equation of angle modulated wave.

FM WAVE EQUATION:

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

 PHASE MODULATION
Let Ɵi(t) = 2πfct + ϕi
The equation for instantaneous phase ϕi in phase modulation is:

Where

The standard equation of angle modulated wave is:

Substituting ϕi in the above equation we get:

PM WAVE EQUATION:

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FM & PM
FM: PM:

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

 FM & PM
FM PM

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

 TYPES OF FM
The single tone modulated FM wave equation is given as:

Depending on the value of β, the following are the types of FM:

 NARROW BAND FM (β << 1)

 WIDE BAND FM (β >> 1)

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AM & NBFM
S(t)NBFM

In case of sinusoidal modulation, the basic difference between an AM signal and NBFM signal is that
the algebraic sign of the lower sideband frequency in the NBFM is reversed. Thus a NBFM signal is
essentially requires the same transmission bandwidth (i.e. 2W ) as the AM signal.

S(t)NBFM

S(t)AM

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

 BANDWIDTH OF FM SIGNAL

Carson’s Rule for calculating bandwidth of FM signal:

Frequency Modulation creates modulation sidebands
that theoretically extend to infinite bandwidth. These
sidebands consist of Bessel Functions of any order. From
a practical standpoint the band occupancy of an FM
modulated carrier only needs to count the Bessel
Function sidebands of significant amplitude. The formula
that calculates this bandwidth is called CARSON’S RULE.

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

 CARSON’S RULE
This rule is based on experimental results that proved that there are (β+1) number of side bands around
the carrier frequency, which contain approximately 98 percent of the total power of an FM signal. All the
remaining side hands in the frequency spectrum contain only 2 percent of the total power.

BW = 2 x (No. of significant sidebands) x fm

= 2 x (β+1 ) x fm
= 2 (∆f + fm) Since:

As each pair of sidebands gives a bandwidth of 2fm, (β + 1) sidebands will give a bandwidth of 2 x (β+1 ) x fm

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

 CARSON’S RULE
Spectrum of FM Signal:

Frequency

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

 PRACTICAL LIMITATION ON ∆f
The maximum frequency deviation ∆f should not exceed 75KHz.

Specifications given by FCC:

1. FM Broadcast range – 88MHz to 108MHz

2. Station Bandwidth: 200 KHz
3. Guard band: 25KHz on either side

fc

200 KHz

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

 TRANSMITTER
It is an electronic unit which accepts the information signal to be transmitted and
converts it into an RF signal capable of being transmitted over long distances.

The basic functions of a transmitter are:

• To generate a desired carrier signal.
• To provide some form of modulation to modulate the carrier.
• It must provide sufficient power amplification in order to carry the
modulated signal to a long distance.

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

 TYPES OF AM TRANSMITTERS

Low Level modulated AM transmitters.

MODULATOR
EXCITER SECTION POWER SECTION
SECTION

High Level modulated AM transmitters.

MODULATOR
EXCITER SECTION POWER SECTION
SECTION
Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE
 RECEIVER
Radio receiver is an electronic device which receives the desired modulated signal,
amplifies it followed by demodulation to get back the original modulating signal.

Radio frequency range: 20 kHz to around 300 GHz.

Based on the principle of operation, the TWO popular radio receivers are:
i. Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver
ii. Super heterodyne Receiver

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

 TUNED RADIO FREQUENCY RECEIVER
A tuned radio frequency receiver (or TRF receiver) is a type of radio receiver that is usually composed
of one or more tuned radio frequency (RF) amplifier stages followed by a detector (demodulator)
circuit to extract the audio signal and an audio frequency amplifier.

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

 SUPER HETERODYNE RECEIVER
In the Super Heterodyne
receiver, the incoming signal
voltage is combined with a
signal generated in the receiver.
This local oscillator voltage is
normally converted into a signal
of a lower fixed frequency. The
signal at this intermediate
frequency contains the same
modulation as the original
carrier, and it is now amplified
and detected to reproduce the
original information.
Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE
 IMAGE FREQUENCY AND ITS REJECTION
One major disadvantage to the super heterodyne receiver is the
problem of image frequency. In heterodyne receivers, an image
frequency is an undesired input frequency equal to the station
frequency plus twice the intermediate frequency.

fsi = fs + 2 fi

IMAGE FREQUENCY REJECTION RATIO (IFRR):The image-

frequency rejection ratio of an image frequency signal by a single
tuned circuit may be defined as the ratio of the gain at the signal
frequency to the gain at the image frequency.Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE
RECEIVER CHARACTERISTICS

The parameters of the AM Receivers are:

 Sensitivity,
 Selectivity,
 Fidelity,
 Image frequency rejection.

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

AM & FM – Frequency ranges and Intermediate frequencies

 AM and FM have different radio frequency (RF) spectrum ranges:

 AM: 540 kHz – 1600 kHz
 FM: 88 MHz – 108 MHz

 Therefore, two IF frequencies

 AM: 455 kHz
 FM: 10.7 MHz

 Bandwidth of station
 AM: 10KHz
 FM: 200KHz
Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE
 WHITE NOISE
Definition: A random process is said to be a white noise process if the PSD is constant over
all frequencies. It is uniform and constant over all frequencies. Hence, it exists at all
frequencies.

White noise derives its name by analogy with “white light”, which contains all visible light
frequencies in its spectrum.

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

 WHITE NOISE
White noise is unrealizable, as can be seen by the fact that it possesses infinite average
power:

However, one type of real world noise closely approximates white noise. “Thermal Noise”
generated by thermal agitation of electrons in any electrical conductor has a power
spectrum that is constant up to very high frequencies and then decreases.

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

NOISE FIGURE

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

 NOISE TEMPERATURE
The noise temperature is the temperature of a resistor that has noise power equal to that of the
device or circuit. Specifically, the noise temperature is defined by T = Pn / kB

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

NOISE IN CASCADED STAGES

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

FOM OF AM, DSB-SC & SSB
AM SYSTEM :

DSB-SC :

SSB :
Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE
SAMPLE NUMERICALS

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

SAMPLE NUMERICALS

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE
Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE
Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE
Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE
a. High pass signal b. Low pass signal c. Band pass signal d. White Noise signal

The frequency deviation produced in a VHF carrier by a signal of 100 Hz is 50 kHz. The
frequency modulation index is:

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE
Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE
 K.S.R.S. JYOTHSNA
Assistant Professor,
Dept. of ECE

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

 MODULATION
Types of
Modulation

Pulse /
Analog Digital
Discrete
Modulation Modulation
Modulation
Data: Analog Data: Digital
Carrier: Analog Data: Analog Data: Analog Carrier: Analog / Digital
Carrier: Discrete Carrier: Discrete
Output: Discrete Output: Digital

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

 DIGITAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
The conventional methods of communication
used analog signals for long distance
communications, which suffer from many
losses such as distortion, interference, and
other losses.
In order to overcome these problems, the
signals are digitized using different techniques.
The digitized signals allow the communication
to be more clear and accurate without losses.

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

ELEMENTS OF DIGITAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

ELEMENTS OF DIGITAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
INFORMATION SOURCE DISCRETE
Sequence of symbols
SOURCE
Information sources can be classified into:
1. Analog information source. E.g.: Microphone actuated by speech, TV camera scanning a scene.
2. Discrete information source. E.g.: Teletype, Numerical output of a computer which consists of
symbols and letters.

Discrete source can be characterized by the following: From these parameters, we can
1. Source alphabet construct a probabilistic model of the
2. Symbol rate (rs) information source and define the
3. Source alphabet probabilities Source entropy (H) and Source
4. Probabilistic dependence of symbols in a sequence. Information Rate (R).
Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT
ELEMENTS OF DIGITAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
Source entropy (H) and Source Information Rate (R):

Entropy (H): Average information content per symbol.

Source Information Rate (R): The rate at which source is emitting bits.

R = H. rs

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

ELEMENTS OF DIGITAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
SOURCE ENCODER

It is the process of assigning binary codewords to the symbols.

Sequence of Source Binary Bit

symbols Encoder Stream

Types of Source coding:

Source encoder can be characterized by the following:
 Fixed Length Coding
1. Block Size
 Variable length Coding
2. Codeword length
3. Average data rate
4. Efficiency of the coder

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

ELEMENTS OF DIGITAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
CHANNEL ENCODER

It performs error control coding (error detection and correction) by adding few parity bits. These extra bits
do not convey any information but helps the receiver to detect and / or correct the errors in the information
bearing bits.

Binary Bit Channel Binary Bit

Stream Encoder Stream

Channel encoder can be characterized by the following:

1. Method of Coding
Types of Channel coding:
2. Rate or Efficiency of the coder
 Block Codes
3. Error control capabilities
 Convolutional Codes
4. Complexity of the coder
Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT
ELEMENTS OF DIGITAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
CHANNEL ENCODER

Types of Channel coding:

 Block Codes
 Convolutional Codes

There are two methods of channel coding:

 Block Coding: The encoder takes a block of “k” information bits from the source encoder and adds
“r” error control bits, where “r” is dependent on “k” and error control capabilities desired.
 Convolutional Coding: The information bearing message stream is encoded in a continuous fashion
by continuously interleaving information bits and error control bits.
Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT
ELEMENTS OF DIGITAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
MODULATOR

It performs modulation on the digital sequence from the channel encoder.

Binary Bit Modulated

Modulator
Stream Output

DATA
FORMATS

NON RETURN BI PHASE RETURN TO

TO ZERO CODING ZERO

NRZ - L NRZ - S BI ϕ - L BI ϕ - S URZ RZ - AMI

NRZ - M BI ϕ - M

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

ELEMENTS OF DIGITAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
LINE CODING Representing binary digits in electrical (signaling) format.

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

ELEMENTS OF DIGITAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
ASK
DIGITAL
MODULATION

ASK FSK PSK

FSK PSK

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

ELEMENTS OF DIGITAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
MODULATOR

Parameters of a modulator:
1. Type of waveform used.
2. Duration of the waveform
3. Power level
4. Bandwidth

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

ELEMENTS OF DIGITAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
COMMUNICATION CHANNEL

It provides the electrical connection between Source and Destination.

Modulated Modulated Signal

Signal CHANNEL +
Noise

Parameters of a Channel:
1. Usable bandwidth
2. Amplitude and Phase response
3. Statistical properties of the noise
Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT
ELEMENTS OF DIGITAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

RECEIVER

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

 SUMMARY
TRANSMITTER

message source channel

Source Channel
signal codeword encoder codeword Modulator
encoder

Compression Error control waveform

Source coding
Channel

received signal
estimated estimated estimated
message Source source Channel channel
signal codeword decoder codeword Demodulator
decoder

User RECEIVER
Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT
 ANALOG Vs DIGITAL
Digital communications: Transmitted signals belong to a finite set of waveforms → The
distorted signal can be recovered to its ideal shape, hence removing all the noise.

Analog communications: Transmitted signals are analog waveforms, which can take
infinite variety of shapes → Once the analog signal is distorted, the distortion cannot be
removed.

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

 ADVANTAGES OF DIGITAL COMMUNICATION
 The effect of distortion, noise, and interference is much less in digital signals as they are less affected.
 Digital circuits are more reliable.
 Digital circuits are easy to design and cheaper than analog circuits.
 The hardware implementation in digital circuits, is more flexible than analog.
 The occurrence of cross-talk is very rare in digital communication.
 The signal is un-altered as the pulse needs a high disturbance to alter its properties, which is very
difficult.
 Signal processing functions such as encryption and compression are employed in digital circuits to
maintain the secrecy of the information.
 The probability of error occurrence is reduced by employing error detecting and error correcting codes.

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

DISADVANTAGES OF DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

 Large System Bandwidth:- Digital transmission requires a large system bandwidth

to communicate the same information in a digital format as compared to analog
format.
 System Synchronization:- Digital detection requires system synchronization
whereas the analog signals generally have no such requirement

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

 QUANTIZATION
Representing the analog sample values by a finite set of voltage levels is called Quantizing.

While sampling converts a continuous time signal to a discrete time signal, quantizing converts a
continuous amplitude sample to a discrete amplitude sample. Thus Sampling and Quantizing
operations convert the output of an analog information source into sequence of levels (or Symbols) that
is, the analog source is transformed into discrete source.

Continuous amplitude Discrete amplitude sample

sample QUANTIZER Or
Voltage Level

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

 QUANTIZATION

Mapping /
Quantizing

Encoding
Sampling
Discrete Time Discrete Time
Analog Continuous Discrete Binary
Signal Amplitude Amplitude Sequence
Signal Signal

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

 QUANTIZATION
The input to the Sampler is a random process X(t) that represents the output of an
analog information source. The random waveform X(t) is sampled at an appropriate
rate and the sampled values X(KTs) are converted into one of ‘Q’ allowable levels m1,
m2, m3 ………..mQ, according to some predetermined rule.

X(KTs) QUANTIZER Xq(KTs)

If xi-1 ≤ X(KTs) < xi then Xq(KTs) = mi

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT
 QUANTIZATION
If xi-1 ≤ X(KTs) < xi then Xq(KTs) = mi

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

 QUANTIZATION ERROR & SNR
The difference between actual sample value X(KTs) and the quantized value Xq(KTs) is
called Quantization error.

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

 TYPES OF QUANTIZATION

 Uniform Quantization

 Non Uniform Quantization

 Differential Quantization

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

 UNIFORM QUANTIZATION
In this method of quantizing, the range of the continuous random variable X is divided into Q
intervals of equal length, say ‘∆’.

If the value of X falls in the ith quantizing interval or bin, then the quantized value is taken to be the
midpoint of the interval or bin.

If ‘a’ and ‘b’ are the minimum and maximum values of X respectively, then the step-size or interval
length or bin size ∆ is given by:

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

Example: UNIFORM QUANTIZATION

Example of Uniform Quantizing with step-size = ∆ ; Q = 4

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

QUANTIZING NOISE POWER (Nq)

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

 SIGNAL POWER (Sq)

The ratio ( Sq / Nq ) gives a measure of fidelity of the Uniform Quantizer. This ratio can be
computed if the pdf of X is known.

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

 QUANTIZING NOISE POWER (Nq)
Average Quantization Noise Power in Uniform Quantizer with step size ∆:

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

TYPES OF UNIFORM QUANTIZATION

The Mid-Rise type is so called because the origin lies in the middle of a raising part of the stair-case like graph. The quantization
levels in this type are even in number.
The Mid-tread type is so called because the origin lies in the middle of a tread of the stair-case like graph. The quantization levels in
this type are odd in number.
Both the mid-rise and mid-tread type of uniform quantizers are symmetric about the origin.
Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT
 NON-UNIFORM QUANTIZATION
 If the quantizer characteristic is nonlinear, then
the quantization is known as non-uniform
quantization.
 In non-uniform quantization, the step size is
not constant.
 The step size is variable, depending on the
amplitude of input signal.
 Used to reduce quantization error and increase
the dynamic range when input signal is not
uniformly distributed over its allowed range of
values.
Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT
NEED FOR NON-UNIFORM QUANTIZATION
Eg: Speech Signal

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

 NON-UNIFORM QUANTIZATION
It is achieved by uniformly quantizing the “compressed” signal. At the receiver, an inverse
compression characteristic, called “expansion” is employed to avoid signal distortion.

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

 COMPANDING
 Compression transforms the input variable X to another variable Y using a nonlinear
transformation Y = g(X).
 Then, Y is uniformly quantized and transmitted.
 At the receiver, a complementary expander with transfer characteristic g-1 restores the quantized
values of X.
 The compressor and expander taken together constitute a compander.

The most commonly used compander uses a logarithmic compression, Y = log X, where the levels are
crowded near the origin and spaced farther apart near the peak values of X.

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

 COMPANDING
Compressor Uniform Quantizer Expander

m(t ) mˆ (t )

In non-uniform quantization, the analog signal is first passed through

a compressor. The compressor applies a logarithmic function on the input The 3 stages combine to give the characteristics of a
signal. The input signal has a high difference between its low and high Non-uniform quantizer.
amplitude. In the output signal, the low amplitudes get amplified and the high
amplitude levels get attenuated, Thus making a compressed signal.

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

 COMPANDING LAWS
There are two standard logarithm based companding techniques:
 US standard called µ-law companding
 European standard called A-law companding

µ-law companding:

log e 1   (| x | / xmax 
y  ymax sgn( x )
log e (1   )
where
x and y represent the input and output voltages
 is a constant number determined by experiment
In the U.S., telephone lines uses companding with  = 255
Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT
 COMPANDING LAWS
A-law companding:

 | x|
 A
xmax | x| 1
 ymax sgn( x), 0 
 (1  A) xmax A
y ( x)  
   | x| 
 1  log e  A 
  xmax  1 | x|
 ymax sgn( x),  1
 (1  log e A) A xmax

where
x and y represent the input and output voltages
A = 87.6
A is a constant number determined by experiment
Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT
 DIFFERENTIAL QUANTIZATION
Differential quantizing schemes take into account the sample to sample correlation in the quantizing
process.
For a given number of levels per sample, differential quantizing schemes yield a lower value of
quantizing noise power than direct quantizing schemes.

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

 PULSE CODE MODULATION (PCM)
The system of transmission in which sampled and quantized values of an analog signal are transmitted via
a sequence of code words is called Pulse Code Modulation (PCM).

Pulse code modulation (PCM) is essentially analog-to-digital conversion of a special type where the
information contained in the instantaneous samples of an analog signal is represented by digital words in a
serial bit stream.

The PCM signal is generated by carrying out three basic operations:

1. Sampling
2. Quantizing
3. Encoding
Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT
CODED TRANSMISSION OF ANALOG SIGNAL

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

CODED TRANSMISSION OF ANALOG SIGNAL
For example: Q=16 quantization steps ∆ =Step size=0.5 V

Sampled 1.3 2.3 2.7 3.2 1.1 -1.2 -1.6 0.1 -1.2
values of an
analog signal
Nearest 1.25 2.25 2.75 3.25 1.25 -1.25 -1.75 0.25 -1.25
quantizer
level
Level 10 12 13 14 10 5 4 8 5
Number
Binary code 1010 1100 1101 1110 1010 0101 0100 1000 0101

Quaternary 22 30 31 32 22 11 10 20 11
code

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

BASIC ELEMENTS IN PCM SYSTEM
 The transmitter section of a Pulse Code Modulator circuit performs three functions: Sampling,
Quantizing and Encoding.
 The basic operations in the receiver section are regeneration of impaired signals, decoding, and
reconstruction of the quantized pulse train.

Voltage
levels
Analog Binary PCM
Sampler Quantizer Encoder
Input Output

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF PCM

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

 OPERATION OF PCM TRANSMITTER
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF PCM TRANSMITTER

X(t) LPF WITH PARALLEL

Analog SAMPLE & PCM
CUTOFF Q-LEVEL BINARY . TO SERIAL
Message HOLD Output
FREQUENCY QUANTIZER ENCODER . CONVERTER
signal CIRCUIT
fc = f m

fs ≥ 2 f m TIMER

Low Pass Filter: This filter eliminates the high frequency components present in the input analog signal
which is greater than the highest frequency of the message signal, to avoid aliasing of the message signal.
Sampler: It is a process of conversion of a continuous-time signal to a discrete-time signal. The sampling
rate must be greater than twice the highest frequency component W of the message signal, in accordance
with the sampling theorem. Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT
 OPERATION OF PCM TRANSMITTER
Quantizer:
It assigns voltage level to each sample. Quantizing is a process of reducing the excessive bits and
confining the data. The sampled output when given to Quantizer, reduces the redundant bits and
compresses the value.

Encoder:
The digitization of analog signal is done by the encoder. It designates each quantized level by a
binary code.

The sampling done here is the sample-and-hold process. These three sections (LPF, Sampler, and
Quantizer) will act as an analog to digital converter. Encoding minimizes the bandwidth used.

Parallel to Serial Converter:

It converts the each codeword into serial bit stream.
Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT
 PCM TRANSMISSION PATH
The path between PCM transmitter and PCM receiver over which PCM signal travels is known as PCM
Transmission Path. The most important feature of PCM system lies in its ability to control the effects of noise
and distortion when PCM wave travels on the channel. PCM accomplishes this capacity by means of using a
chain of regenerative repeaters.

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF REGENERATIVE REPEATER

DECISION
Distorted PCM wave EQUALIZER MAKING Regenerated PCM wave
DEVICE

TIMIMG
CIRCUIT

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

OPERATION OF REGENERATIVE REPEATER

Regenerative Repeater: This section increases the signal strength. The output of the channel also
has one regenerative repeater circuit, to compensate the signal loss and reconstruct the signal, and
also to increase its strength.

 The amplitude equalizer shapes the distorted PCM wave so as to compensate for the effects of
amplitude and phase distortions.

 The timing circuit produces a periodic pulse train for sampling the equalized PCM pulses. This
pulse train is then applied to the decision making device.

 The decision making device makes a decision about whether the equalized PCM wave at its input
has a ‘0’ value or ‘1’ value. Such a decision is made by comparing equalized PCM with a reference
level called decision threshold.

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

 OPERATION OF PCM RECEIVER
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF PCM RECEIVER

Incoming LPF WITH Recons-

PCM wave SERIAL TO DIGITAL TO SAMPLE &
REGENERATIVE CUTOFF tructed
+ PARALLEL . ANALOG HOLD
REPEATER FREQUENCY Analog
Noise CONVERTER . CONVERTER CIRCUIT Signal
fc = f m

Sync TIMER

Regenerative Repeater: This section increases the signal strength. It reshapes the pulse and removes the noise.
The output of the channel also has one regenerative repeater circuit, to compensate the signal loss and reconstruct
the signal, and also to increase its strength.
Decoder: The signal at the output of the S/H circuit is allowed to pass through LPF to get the original message. The
decoder circuit decodes the pulse coded waveform to reproduce the original signal. This circuit acts as the
demodulator. Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT
 OPERATION OF PCM RECEIVER
Reconstruction Filter:
After the digital-to-analog conversion is done by the regenerative circuit and the decoder, a low-pass
filter is employed, called as the reconstruction filter to get back the original signal.

Hence, the Pulse Code Modulator circuit digitizes the given

analog signal, codes it and samples it, and then transmits it in
an analog form.
This whole process is repeated in a reverse pattern to obtain
the original signal.

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

INPUT SIGNAL Vs RECONSTUCTED SIGNAL

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIO IN PCM SYSTEM

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT
Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT
Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT
Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT
Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT
Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT
TRANSMISSION BANDWIDTH OF PCM

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

TRANSMISSION BANDWIDTH OF PCM

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

 FORMULAE

 Maximum Quantization Error = ± (∆/2)

 (SNR)Q :
 For input having uniform PDF = 6N dB
 For Sinusoidal Input = 1.8 + 6N dB
 For Normalized Input = 4.8 + 6N dB
 Bitrate = N.fs
 Bandwidth of PCM = N.fm

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

 TDM-PCM SYSTEM
The Bell system (AT & T) TDM/PCM telephony system

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

 TDM-PCM SYSTEM
 The block diagram of a modular TDM-PCM telephone system designed by the American
Telephone and Telegraph company is shown in Figure in the previous slide.
 A 24-channel TDM multiplexer is used as the basic system, known as the Tl carrier system.
 Twenty-four voice signals are sampled at a rate of 8 kHz and the resulting samples are
quantized and converted to 7-bit PCM codewords.
 At the end of each 7-bit codeword, an additional binary bit is added for synchronizing
purposes. At the end of every group of twenty-four 8-bit codewords, another additional bit is
inserted to give frame synchronization.
 The overall frame size in the Tl-carrier is 193 bits, and the overall bit rate is 1.544 Mbits/sec.

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

TDM-PCM SYSTEM

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

DIFFERENTIAL PCM (DPCM) SYSTEM

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

 DIFFERENTIAL QUANTIZATION
Differential quantizing schemes take into account the sample to sample correlation in the quantizing process.

For a given number of levels per sample, differential quantizing schemes yield a lower value of quantizing noise
power than direct quantizing schemes.

The adjacent figure shows a continuing time signal x(t)

denoted by a dotted line. This signal is sampled by flat-top
sampling at intervals Ts, 2Ts, 3Ts…nTs. The sampling
frequency is selected to be higher than the Nyquist rate.
These samples are encoded by using 3-bit (7 levels) PCM.
The samples are quantized to the nearest digital level as
shown by small circles in the figure. The encoded binary
value of each sample is written on the top of the samples.
Just observe the figure at samples taken at 4Ts, 5Ts, and 6Ts
are encoded to the same value of (110). This information can
be carried only by one sample value. But three samples are
carrying the same information means redundant.
Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT
 DIFFERENTIAL PCM SYSTEM
 In PCM, each sample of the waveform is encoded independently of all the other
samples.
 The average change in amplitude between successive samples is relatively small.
Hence an encoding scheme that exploits the redundancy in the samples will result in
a lower bit rate for the source output.
 For the signals which does not change rapidly from one sample to next sample, the
PCM scheme is not preferred. When such highly correlated samples are encoded the
resulting encoded signal contains redundant information.
Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT
PREDICTION FILTER IN DPCM

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

 DPCM TRANSMITTER
The sampled signal is denoted by x(nTs) and the predicted signal is indicated by x^(nTs). The comparator finds out the
difference between the actual sample value x(nTs) and the predicted value x^(nTs). This is called signal error and it is
denoted as e(nTs).

e(nTs)= x(nTs)- x^( nTs) …….(1)

Here the predicted value x^(nTs) is produced by using a

prediction filter(signal processing filter). The quantizer output
signal eq(nTs) and the previous prediction is added and given as
input to the prediction filter, this signal is denoted by xq(nTs).
This makes the prediction closer to the actually sampled signal.
The quantized error signal eq(nTs) is very small and can be
encoded by using a small number of bits. Thus the number of
bits per sample is reduced in DPCM.

The quantizer output would be written as, eq(nTs)= e(nTs)+ q(nTs) ……(2)
Here q(nTs) is quantization error. Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT
 DPCM TRANSMITTER
From the block diagram, the prediction filter input xq(nTs) is obtained by sum of x^(nTs) and the quantizer output
eq(nTs).

xq(nTs) = x^(nTs)+ eq(nTs).………. (3)

by substituting the value of eq(nTs) from the equation (2) in equation (3) we get,

xq(nTs) = x^(nTs)+ e(nTs)+ q(nTs)……. (4)

Equation (1) can written as,

e(nTs)+ x^( nTs) = x(nTs)……. (5)

from the above equations (4) and (5) we get,

xq(nTs) = x(nTs)+ q(nTs)…….(6)

Therefore, the quantized version of signal xq(nTs) is the sum of original sample value and quantized error q(nTs).
The quantized error can be positive or negative. So the output of the prediction filter does not depend on its
Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT
characteristics.
 DPCM RECEIVER
The receiver consists of a decoder to reconstructthe quantized error signal.
The quantized version of the original input is reconstructed from the decoder output using the same predictor as
used in the transmitter. In the absence of noise the encoded signal at the receiver input is identical to the encoded
signal at the transmitter output. Correspondingly the receive output is equal to xq(nTs), which differs from the
input x(nTs) only by the quantizing error q(nTs).

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

 DELTA MODULATION
 Delta Modulation is the simplest form of DPCM.
 In DPCM scheme if the base band signal is sampled at a rate much higher than the Nyquist
rate purposely to increase the correlation between adjacent samples of the signal, so as to
permit the use of a simple quantizing strategy for constructing the encoded signal, Delta
modulation (DM) is precisely such as scheme.
 Delta Modulation is the one-bit (or two-level) versions of DPCM.
 Delta modulator transmits only one bit per sample.

One bit Encoder:

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT
 DELTA MODULATION
Delta modulation is the differential pulse code modulation (DPCM) scheme in which the difference signal
is encoded into a single bit .

2 Voltage
levels
Analog Differential 1 - bit Binary DM
Sampler
Input Quantizer Encoder Output

In DM, the sign of the sample to sample difference is quantized.

Sample to sample difference Quantizer level Encoder Output

X(KTs) – X((K-1)Ts) = +ve +∆ 1
X(KTs) – X((K-1)Ts) = -ve -∆ 0
Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT
 DELTA MODULATION
Here, the present sample value is compared with previous sample value and this result whether the amplitude is
increased or decreased is transmitted.
Input signal x(t) is approximatedto step signal by the DM.
This step size is kept fixed to ∆. The difference between the i/p signal x(t) and staircase approximated signal is
confined to two levels, i.e, + Δ and – Δ. Now if the difference is positive, then approximated signal is increased by one
step i.e Δ. If difference is negative then approximatedsignal is reduced by Δ.

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

DM TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

 ERRORS IN DM
There are two types of errors in DM system:
 Slope Overload Error
 Hunting Error / Granular Noise

Delta modulation is subject to rate of rise over load problems whenever the input changes too rapidly for
the stepped wave form to follow it. If the input signal level remains constant, the reconstructed Delta
modulation waveform exhibits a hunting behavior known as idling noise. This idling noise is a square wave
at one half the clock rate. If the clock rate is much greater than twice the highest frequency in the input
Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT
signal, most of the idling noise can be filtered out at the receiver.
 SLOPE-OVERLOAD DISTORTION
Slope Overload Distortion: Slope over load distortion occurs when the analog input
signal changes at a faster rate than the DAC can maintain it, the slope of the analog
signal is greater than the delta modulator can maintain. In general, when the slope of stair
case is less than (or) equal to modulating signal, the slope overloading occurs. Increasing
the clock frequency reducesthe probability of slope overload occurring.

Condition to avoid slope-overload error:

If the step size used in the Delta modulation system is ‘∆’, then the maximum (rate of
rise) slope over load is ∆ / Ts.

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

 GRANULAR NOISE
Granular Noise Occurs:
1. When the original analog input signal has a relatively constant amplitude, the reconstructed signal has variations
that were not present in the original signal. This is called granular noise.
2. When the step size ∆ is too large relative to the local slope characteristics of the input waveform x(t), there by
causing the stair case approximation u(t) to hunt around a relatively flat segment of the input waveform Granular
noise can be reduced by decreasing the step size so that the stair case approximation may become more closer to the
modulating signal. There is a need to have a large step size to accommodate a wide dynamic range, where as small
step size is requiredfor the accurate representation of relativelylow level signals.

Condition to avoid Granular Noise:

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

SIGNAL TO QUANTIZATION NOISE RATIO

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT
Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT
Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT
 FORMULAE

1. Maximum amplitude at which slope overload error occurs:

2. Signal to Quantization Noise Ratio after Post detection:

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

COMPARISON OF PCM, DPCM, DM & ADM

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

 B.E. V SEM ECE
DIGITAL COMMUNICATION
INFORMATION THEORY

KSRS. JYOTHSNA
Assistant Professor, DEPT. of ECE, CBIT
Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT
 UNCERTAINITY, INFORMATION & ENTROPY

Information theory is a mathematical approach to the study of coding of information along with the
quantification, storage, and communication of information.

Consider the event S = Sk, describing the emission of symbol s, by the source with probability Pk. Clearly, if
the probability Pk = 1 and Pi = 0 for all i≠k, then there is no "surprise," and therefore no "information,"
when symbol Sk is emitted, because we know what the message from the source must be. If, on the other
hand, the source symbols occur with different probabilities, and the probability Pk is low, then there is
more surprise, and therefore information, when symbol s, is emitted by the source than when symbol Si,
i≠k, with higher probability is emitted. Thus, the words uncertainty, surprise, and information are all
related.
Before the event S = Sk occurs, there is an amount of uncertainty. When the event S = Sk occurs there is an
amount of surprise. After the occurrence of the event S = Sk there is gain in the amount of information.
Moreover, the amount of information is related to the inverse of the probability of occurrence.

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

 DISCRETE MEMORYLESS SOURCE

Discrete source:

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

 INFORMATION
We define the amount of information gained after observing the event S = Sk occurs with probability Pk,
as the logarithmic function:

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

PROPERTIES OF INFORMATION

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

 ENTROPY

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

PROPERTIES OF ENTROPY

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

ENTROPY OF BINARY SOURCE

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

 ENTROPY OF EXTENDED SOURCE

EXAMPLE:

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

ENTROPY OF EXTENDED SOURCE

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

 SOURCE CODING
Source coding is a mapping from (a sequence of ) symbols from an information source to a sequence of
alphabet symbols (usually bits).

Where Sk is the output of the discrete memoryless source and bk is the output of the source encoder which is
represented by 0s and 1s.

Fixed Length
Coding
Source Coding
Variable
Length Coding
Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT
 SOURCE CODING THEOREM
Let us assume that the source has an alphabet with k different symbols and that the kth symbol Sk occurs with the
probability Pk, where k = 0, 1…k-1.
Let the binary code word assigned to symbol Sk, by the encoder having length lk, measured in bits.
Hence, we define the average code word length L of the source encoder as:

L represents the average number of bits per source symbol

According to Source Coding Theorem, Entropy represents a fundamental limit on the average number of bits per
source symbol necessary to represent a discrete memoryless source.

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

 SHANNON FANO CODING

1. The messages are first written in the order of decreasing probability.

2. The message set then partitioned into 2 most equi-probable portions or subsets,
such that sum of probabilities of each group are the same (Approximately same).
3. We assign the bit ‘0’ to all the messages in one partition and bit ‘1’ to all the
messages in the other partition.
4. This process of dividing groups in the same partition into 2 partitions each with
equal sum of probabilities is continued, until each message finds itself alone in a
partition.

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

 SHANNON FANO CODING - EXAMPLE
A DML Source X has 3 symbols X1, X2, X3 with probabilities P1 = 1/2, P2 = 1/4, P3 = 1/4, Construct
Shannon-Fano code and obtain the codewords. Compute its efficiency.

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

 SHANNON FANO CODING - EXAMPLE
A DML Source X has 5 symbols X1, X2, X3, X4 and X5 with probabilities P1 = 0.2, P2 = 0.15, P3 = 0.05, P4 =
0.1, P5 = 0.5 respectively. Construct Shannon-Fano code and obtain the codewords.

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

 SHANNON FANO CODING - EXAMPLE
A DML Source X has 7 symbols X1, X2, X3, X4, X5, X6 and X7 with probabilities P1 = 0.05, P2 = 0.15, P3 = 0.2,
P4 = 0.05, P5 = 0.15, P6 = 0.3, P7 = 0.1 respectively. Construct Shannon-Fano code and Compute its
efficiency.

Construct Shannon-Fano code to a Source having 8 equi-probable symbols and obtain the codewords.

A DML Source X has 5 symbols X1, X2, X3, X4 and X5 with probabilities P1 = 0.4, P2 = 0.19, P3 = 0.16, P4 =
0.15, P5 = 0.1 respectively. Construct Shannon-Fano code and obtain the codewords.

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

 HUFFMAN CODING
STEPS:

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

HUFFMAN CODING - EXAMPLE

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

HUFFMAN CODING - EXAMPLE

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

VARIANCE

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

 HUFFMAN CODING - EXAMPLE
A DML Source X has 5 symbols X1, X2, X3, X4 and X5 with probabilities P1 = 0.2, P2 = 0.15, P3 = 0.05, P4 =
0.1, P5 = 0.5 respectively. Construct Huffman code and obtain the codewords.

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

 HUFFMAN CODING - EXAMPLES
A DML Source X has 5 symbols X1, X2, X3, X4 and X5 with probabilities P1 = 0.4, P2 = 0.19, P3 = 0.16, P4 =
0.15, P5 = 0.1 respectively. Construct Huffman code and obtain the codewords.

A DML Source X has 7 symbols X1, X2, X3, X4, X5, X6 and X7 with probabilities P1 = 0.05, P2 = 0.15, P3 = 0.2,
P4 = 0.05, P5 = 0.15, P6 = 0.3, P7 = 0.1 respectively. Construct Huffman code and Compute its efficiency.

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

 DISCRETE MEMORYLESS CHANNEL
A discrete memoryless channel is a statistical model with an input of X and output of Y, which is a noisy version of X
(here both are random variables). In each time slot the channel accepts an input symbol X selected from a given
alphabet. We can create channel matrix that corresponds fixed channel inputs and outputs and we can assume the
probabilities of the symbols.

DISCRETE
X MEMORYLESS Y
CHANNEL

The channel is said to be “discrete” when both alphabets x and y have finite sizes. It is said to be “memoryless” when
the current outputsymbol depends only on the current input symbol and not any of the previous ones.
Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT
 DISCRETE MEMORYLESS CHANNEL
Input alphabet:

Output alphabet:

Set of transition probabilities:

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

CHANNEL MATRIX

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

 PROBABILITY RELATIONS
INPUT OR PRIORI PROBABILITIES:

JOINT PROBABILITIES:

OUTPUT OR MARGINAL PROBABILITIES:

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

 PROBABILITY RELATIONS
JOINT PROBABILITIES:

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

 TYPES OF DML CHANNELS

 LOSELESS CHANNEL

 DETERMINISTIC CHANNEL

 NOISELESS CHANNEL

 BINARY SYMMETRIC CHANNEL

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

 LOSELESS CHANNEL
A Channel with only one non-zero element in each column is said to be loseless.

Example:

Channel diagram:

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

 DETERMINISTIC CHANNEL
A Channel with only one non-zero element in each row is said to be loseless.

Example:

Channel diagram:

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

 NOISELESS CHANNEL
A Channel with only one non-zero element in each row and column is said to be
loseless.
Example:

Channel diagram:

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

BINARY SYMMETRIC CHANNEL

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

 NUMERICAL EXAMPLE
Given a binary channel shown in figure:
i. Find channel matrix of the channel.
ii. Find P(y1) and P(y2) when P(x1) = P(x2) = 0.5
iii. Find the joint probabilities P(x1,y2) and P(x2,y1) when P(x1) = P(x2) = 0.5

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

 CASCADED CHANNEL
1-P 1-q

P q
P q

1-P 1-q
Cascaded Equivalent Channel

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

 NUMERICAL PROBLEM
Two binary channels are connected in cascade:

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

 MUTUAL INFORMATION
Mutual information measures the amount of information that can be obtained
about one random variable by observing another. It is important in communication
where it can be used to maximize the amount of information shared between sent
and received signals.
Since H(X) represents the uncertainty about the channel input before the channel
output is observed and H(X/Y) represents the uncertainty about the channel input
after the channel output is observed, the mutual information I(X;Y) represents the
uncertainty about the channel input that is resolved by observing the channel output.

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

CONDITIONAL ENTROPY

Since:
Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT
 MUTUAL INFORMATION

Substituting H(X) and H(X/Y):

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

PROPERTIES OF MUTUAL INFORMATION
Using Baye’s Rule:

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

CHANNEL CAPACITY

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

CHANNEL CAPACITY OF BSC

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

CHANNEL CAPACITY OF BSC

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT
 INFORMATION CAPACITY
Information capacity: The maximum amount of information that can pass through a channel without
error.

Information capacity or Channel Capacity of a continuous channel:

If the channel bandwidth B Hz is fixed, then the output is also bandlimited signal completely
characterized by its periodic samples taken at the Nyquist Rate.

Shannon – Hartley Law:

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT
 INFORMATION RATE
Average rate at which information is transferred is called information rate.

Smt. KSRS JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT