Sediment Dynamics for a Changing Future (Proceedings of the ICCE symposium held at 1
The Warsaw University of Life Sciences - SGGW, Poland, 14–18 June 2010). IAHS Publ. 337, 2010.
Sediment-nutrient dynamics in selected Indian mangrove
ecosystems – land use and climate change implications
AL. RAMANATHAN1, RAJESH KUMAR RANJAN1,
M. BALA KRISHNA PRASAD2, RITA CHAUHAN1 & GURMEET SINGH1
1 School of Environmental Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, India
alrjnu@gmail.com
2 Earth System Science Interdisciplinary Centre, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20740, USA
Abstract The eastern coast of India harbours a number of mangrove forests, which are now under stress due
to climate change-induced sea level rise; sea level is steadily increasing at a rate of 9–12 cm year -1. Current
projections for sea level rise are about 0.4–0.9 m; this will have a devastating effect on Indian mangroves.
There is significant variability in local C, N and P chemistry, and the accumulation and export of these
nutrients are due to changes in land use patterns and rising sea level. Seasonal variations control sediment-
associated trace metals, organic C, total N, and total P, and reflect spatial and temporal differences in
sedimentary organic production. Population dynamics of polysaline species have changed drastically due to
varying inputs of autochthonous sediments from land and salt water inundation/intrusion, mainly at the
seaward ends of the mangrove forests. The nutrient-rich sediments create a breeding and fishing ground for
various ecologically and economically important species. In these mangroves, sediment-associated trace
element concentrations are also increasing as a result of anthropogenic inputs, and influence the
biogeochemistry of the ecosystems. An effort has also been made to assess the trace metal concentrations in
the three east coast mangroves of India (Sundarbans, Bhitarkanika and Pichavaram) to define the drivers for
variations in metal distribution.
Key words: Mangrove; metals; nutrients; climate change
INTRODUCTION
Mangroves represent highly dynamic and fragile ecosystems. The potential role of mangrove
ecosystems as sinks for anthropogenic contaminants in tropical and subtropical areas has been
widely recognized (Lin & Dushoff, 2004). Sediments are important carriers of nutrients and trace
metals in the hydrological cycle, thus controlling the productivity of the ecosystem (Szefer et al.,
1995). According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), India is amongst the
27 countries that are most vulnerable to sea level rise caused by global warming (IPCC, 2007).
The east coast of India harbours ~90% of the total mangrove forest cover for the whole country;
therefore, an attempt has been made to define the driving force(s) behind sediment-nutrient
dynamics in these ecosystems (Sundarbans, Bhitarkanika and Pichavaram). Contemporaneously,
the impacts of climate variability and land-use change on nutrient behaviour and dynamics were
also evaluated.
STUDY AREA
Sundarban Mangrove Forest is located (2132′–2240′N; 8805′–8900′E) in the Ganges-
Brahmaputra River system (Fig. 1). It has been declared a World Heritage site for its rich and
diverse flora and fauna (Ramanathan et al., 2008). The estuary also receives raw sewage sludge
from Kolkata (present name for Calcutta), through the Bidhyadhari River. Sundarban is
experiencing an average sea level rise of 3.14 mm year -1, in conjunction with the submergence of
its islands and mangrove forests (Gopal & Chauhan, 2006).
Bhitarkanika Mangrove Forest (20°4′–20°8′N; 86°45′–87°50′E) is located in the Mahanadi
River delta (Fig. 1). The Bhitarkanika ecosystem flourishes in the deltaic region formed by the rich
alluvial deposits of the Brahmani and Baitarani rivers. Bhitarkanika mangrove water and sediment
quality are impacted by reduction in freshwater input and industrial discharges (Chauhan et al.,
2008).
Copyright 2010 IAHS Press
2 A. L. Ramanathan et al.
Fig. 1 Map showing Sundarban, Bhitarkanika and Pichavaram mangrove ecosystems.
The Pichavaram Mangrove Forest (11°23′–11°30′N; 79°45′–79°50′E) is located between the
Vellar and the Coleroon estuaries of the Cauvery delta along the southeast coast of India (Fig. 1).
With an area of 11 km2, Pichavaram consists of 51 islets; 50% of the total land area is covered by
forest, 40% by urban waterways (for fishing), and the rest is filled by mud and sand flats
(Krishnamurthy & Jayaseelan, 1983). This formerly pristine ecosystem has been degraded as a
result of rapid industrial growth (Subramanian, 2004).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Eighteen surface water samples, representing the entire ecosystem, were collected from
Sundarban, 12 samples were collected from Pichavaram, and 15 samples were collected from
Sediment-nutrient dynamics in selected Indian mangrove ecosystems 3
Bhitarkanika. Sampling locations were based on land use, vegetative cover, anthropogenic inputs,
and geomorphologic features.
In Sundarban, samples S3, S4, S5, S6, S7, S13, and S14 were collected from pristine areas
whereas samples S1, S2, S8, S9, S10, S11, S12, S15, and S16 were collected from
anthropogenically impacted areas. In Bhitarkanika, samples S1–S5 represent river-estuarine
environments, samples S6–S10 are from dense mangrove regions, and the rest are from purely
estuarine regions. In Pichavaram, samples S1, S2, S3 and S4 were collected from the Vellar
region; S5, S6, S7, S8 and S9 are from the dense mangrove forest region, and samples S9, S10,
and S12 are from the Coleroon estuary. Samples were stored at 4°C on ice, until nutrient and metal
analyses were performed using standard analytical procedures. In the laboratory, sediment samples
were air dried and washed with MilliQ water to remove halides. The halide-free samples were
analysed for total carbon (TC) using an ELTRA (CS 1000) CS analyzer. Organic matter was
removed, prior to analyses for inorganic carbon (IC) using a 30% v/v H 2O2 treatment (Jackson,
1973). Organic carbon (OC) was estimated by the difference between TC and IC (OC = TC – IC).
Total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorus (TP) were determined by Kjeldahl analyses (Anderson &
Ingram, 1993). Sediment-associated trace metals were solubilized with aqua regia (Sterckman &
Gomez, 1996), and determined by Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (AAS).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Sundarban mangrove
The Sundarban mangrove provides an average of 6000 t ha -1 of mangrove litter that produces a
huge amount of organic carbon (OC) for the whole ecosystem. High levels of OC (dissolved and
solid phase) are observed in the pristine areas (dense mangroves; Fig. 2(a)). The sediments
associated with dense mangroves display high OC concentrations due to biological productivity.
Landuse patterns associated with maximum disturbance show low levels of OC (Choudhary et al.,
2005). Despite considerable anthropogenic activities in the buffer zones, OC mimics the
core/pristine areas. The distribution of total nitrogen (TN) is controlled by sediment grain size,
with the highest concentrations associated with the finer fractions. As a result, sediment-associated
nitrogen levels appear to be weather-related, with concentrations declining through the pre-
monsoon to post-monsoon to monsoon (Fig. 2(b)). Generally, in the tropical coastal ecosystems P
is the limiting nutrient, and significant spatial variability is observed in total sediment-associated
phosphorus (TP) (Fig. 3). TP in buffer zone sediments are significantly higher and show increasing
seaward trends. Overall, pristine zone-sediments contain high nutrient levels suggesting
autochthonous sources. Changes in land use and climatic influences alter nutrient concentrations
that, in turn, affect biological productivity. Metal concentrations occur in the following declining
order of concentration, with little variation: Iron (Fe) > Manganese (Mn) > Lead (Pb) > Zinc (Zn)
> Chromium (Cr) =Nickel (Ni) > Cadmium (Cd) (Table 1). Major sources of metals in Sundarban
include weathering, degradation of organic matter (Lacerda, 1997), as well as anthropogenic
inputs such as from industrial effluents (Sarkar et al., 2007), runoff from agricultural lands
(Lambert et al., 1981), waste discharges, and from the use of low quality leaded fuel.
Tidal rivers in the Sundarban Mangrove Forest are complex, and characterized by high
salinity as a result of the reduction of freshwater inputs due to climate change and other factors
(Ramanathan et al., 2008). Freshwater dominance is isolated towards the eastern part of wetland,
therefore in many places freshwater species (Heritiera fomes) have been superseded by saline-
dominant species (Rhizophora sp., Avecinnia sp.) (Kathiresen, 2004; Gopal & Chauhan, 2006).
Continuously shifting river courses cause degradation of mature mangrove forests and have a
tremendous impact on biodiversity. Further, the choking of waterways due to siltation has lead to
the formation of back swamps. As a result, the hydrology in this area is dominated by rainwater
rather than riverine inputs, causing the replacement of mangrove species by swamp species (Gopal
& Chauhan, 2006).
4 A. L. Ramanathan et al.
*Zone 1 represent the samples collected from pristine region whereas zone 3 respresnt the land use with
maximum disturbance
Fig. 2 Zonal variation in sedimentary nutrients, (a) organic carbon (OC), (b) total nitrogen (TN) and (c)
total phosphorus (TP) in the Sundarban mangroves*.
Fig. 3 Decadal changes in the major nutrients in the Pichavaram mangrove environment (source:
Ranjan et al., 2008).
Sediment-nutrient dynamics in selected Indian mangrove ecosystems 5
Table 1 Sedimentary heavy metal distribution (Min-Max (avg. ±SD) mg g-1) in the mangroves along the east
coast of India.
Sundarban (n = 18) Bhitarkanika(n=15) Pichavaram(n=12)
Fe 23–91 (50.5 ± 18.9) 20–56 (29.5 ± 11.1) 33–91 (49 ± 22)
Mn 0.2–9.5 (2.8 ± 2.4) 0.03–0.25 (0.16 ± 0.03) 0.03–0.45 (0.12 ± 0.14)
Zn 0.1–2.0 (0.5 ± 0.4) 0.02–0.17 (0.09 ± 0.05) 0.03–0.15 (0.049 ± 0.034)
Cr 0.0–0.9 (0.3 ± 0.12) 0.35–0.38 (0.36 ± 0.3) 0.3–1.34 (0.53 ± 0.27)
Cd 0.0–0.7 (0.2 ± 0.08) 0.1–0.49 (0.29 ± 0.07) 0.19–0.80 (0.29 ± 0.25)
Ni 0.1–0.6 (0.3 ± 0.11) 0.03–0.04 (0.035 ± 0.03) 0.01–0.03 (0.01 ± 0.008)
Pb 0.1–2.2 (1.0 ± 0.6) 0.37–0.41 (0.39 ± 0.12) 0.07–0.19 (0.14 ± 0.036)
Bhitarkanika mangrove
Weather plays a significant role in controlling environmental conditions in the Bhitarkanika
mangrove forest. Soil redox potential is much more reduced during the monsoon relative to the
post monsoon. Soil salinity varies from 2.4 dSm-1 during the monsoon to 42.6 dSm-1 during the
pre-monsoon; the monsoon-related decline in soil salinity results from increasing freshwater
supplies. The higher average salinity during the pre-monsoon indicates saltwater intrusion due to
low riverine flow in conjunction with increasing evapotranspiration. Salinity exerts a direct and
indirect control over nutrient availability (Dittmar & Lara, 2001; Ragueneau et al., 2002).
Agricultural runoff and aquacultural effluents are the main sources for higher concentrations of
nitrate and phosphate during the monsoon.
During the pre-monsoon, sediment-associated OC ranges from 0.7% (site S10) to 1.5% (S9),
with an average value of 1.0%. Despite restoration efforts, Site S10 is the most degraded in the
system and has the lowest number of new Rhizophora. During the monsoon, OC varies widely
from 0.5 (S10) to 1.7% (S6), with an average value of 0.9%. During the post-monsoon, OC varies
from 0.5% (S7) to 1.4% (S6), with an average value of 0.9%. High OC levels are observed at S6
due to a substantial allochthonous carbon supply through river runoff. During the pre-monsoon,
total nitrogen ranges from 0.07% (S7) to 0.10% (S3) with an average of 0.09%. Sediment-
associated nitrogen varies from 0.05% at site S2, to 0.09% at site S4, with an average of 0.07%,
whereas during the monsoon, it ranges from 0.06 to 0.15%.
Generally, low average C:N ratios were observed in the post-monsoon. The C:N ratio ranges
from 9 to 17 during the pre-monsoon, 6 to 21 in the monsoon, and 6 to 14 in the post-monsoon.
The high pre-monsoon and monsoon-related C:N ratios suggest that most sediment-associated
organic matter is derived from mangrove litter (Fleming et al., 1990). The high C:N ratio of
mangrove litter (e.g. leaves, wood), high rates of bacterial production (Alongi et al., 1992), and
low NH4+ fluxes across the sediment-water interface (Kristensen et al., 1988) appear to indicate
that the immobilization rates of nitrogenous organic compounds may be high in mangrove
sediments. Major losses of nitrogen from the system occur via tidal flushing and, to a lesser extent,
from denitrification.
The high N:P ratios appear to indicate that sediments supply more nitrogen than phosphorus.
Further, the low C:N ratios suggest nitrogen enriched conditions have inorganic origins and that
inorganic nutrient sources prevail during the post-monsoon. During the post-monsoon, high
chlorophyll a concentrations in mangrove creek water could be due to the delayed sinking of
organic material derived from cyanobacterial blooms; these blooms decrease the C:N ratio (5.8)
and increase the N:P ratio (up to 12) from sediment-derived nutrients. TP in surface sediments
averages 430 µg g-1 during the pre monsoon whereas during the monsoon and post-monsoon it
averages 360 µg g-1. Lower riverine flow, lesser rain and higher rate of evapotranspiration result in
higher concentrations of TP during the pre-monsoon than other seasons.
High concentrations of heavy metals (i.e. Fe, Mn, Cr, Cd, Zn and Pb) are found in areas
affected by anthropogenic activity, particularly at the entry points to the mangrove areas of the
Brahmani and Baitarani rivers (Table 1). Heavy metal concentrations are lowest in regions with
6 A. L. Ramanathan et al.
dense mangroves. The impact of pollution on river chemistry is most evident in the Brahmani
River where high concentrations correspond with high discharges from upstream industrialized
areas.
Pichavaram mangrove
The Pichavaram mangrove forest, located along the southeast coast of India, represents a case
study for mangrove degradation due to aquaculture. During the 1970s, there were no aquaculture
ponds in the area, whereas by 1984, there were 4 km 2, and by 1996 there were 7 km 2 (Kathiresan,
2000; Cho et al., 2004).
Table 1 contains sediment-associated metal concentrations for the Pichavaram mangrove
forest. The Vellar and Coleroon rivers display the highest concentrations for nearly all the heavy
metals evaluated in this study. The metals appear to have an anthropogenic source (domestic
sewage and agricultural runoff) (Ranjan et al., 2008a). The heavy metal concentrations are low in
the mangrove regions. The biogeochemical processes in this ecosystem are governed by the heavy
input of sediments and anthropogenic discharges from these two rivers, which pass through
densely populated industrial cities and, in addition, carry fertilizer, heavy metals and pesticides
from the upstream reaches of the basin (Ramanathan et al., 1999).
As noted, there has been a rapid increase in the number of aquaculture ponds during the past
40 years (Cho et al., 2004). Recently, there also has been extensive fertilizer use (DAP, Di-
Ammonium-Phosphate) in the adjoining agricultural lands (Ramanathan et al., 1999). As a result,
agricultural waste is being transferred to the estuarine mangrove complex, and there has been a
significant increase in phosphate and nitrate concentrations during the past few years (Fig. 3).
In Pichavaram sediments, the average concentration of TC and TOC is 14.5% and 10.2%,
respectively; further, total nitrogen and phosphorous average 0.9%, and 0.8%, respectively
(Ranjan et al., 2008). The elevated concentrations of OC are due to the presence of fine-grained
sediments (Ramanathan, 1997) and from the inherent biological productivity within the mangrove
area. The dense mangrove sediments are finer-grained than adjacent estuarine sediments; as a
result, mangrove sediments have a higher sorptive capacity for organic compounds and thus,
contain more TC and TOC (Ranjan et al., 2008). Dissolved OC from anthropogenic activities, in
conjunction with internal biogeochemical processes as well as simple human pressure, is
ultimately scavenged by the sediments (Subramanian, 2004; Prasad & Ramanathan, 2008) and
results in their increased nutrient loadings.
TN is higher in mangrove-associated sediment than in Vellar and Coleroon-dominated
estuarine sediment, across all grain sizes (Ranjan et al., 2008). TP in the Pichavaram sediments
ranged from 450 to 550 µg g -1 and iron bound phosphorus (Fe-P) is the dominant chemical fraction
in surface sediments (Prasad & Ramanathan, 2010). Sedimentary chemical fractions, exchangeable
(Exch-P), iron bound (Fe-P), and organic bound phosphorus (Org-P) are generally considered as
potentially bioavailable in the coastal wetland (Andrieux-Loyer & Aminot, 1997). High levels of
bioavailable P in the core mangrove zone primarily are due to retention, cycling and
mineralization of TP. Bioavailable P accounts for 53–61% of the P in mangrove sediments;
however, 39–47% of the sediment-associated P is unavailable for biological uptake (Prasad &
Ramanathan, 2010). This would indicate that the intertidal mangrove sediments are an important
autochthonous source of P for the ecosystem, whereas in the estuarine zone, allochthonous sources
of P are dominant. The C:N and N:P ratios in Pichavaram mangrove sediments are low, suggesting
that labile organic matter is high. This is likely due to inputs of aquacultural effluents, agricultural
runoff, and domestic sewage (Purvaja & Ramesh, 2000).
Mangrove seedlings require low salinity; however, growth requires higher, but limited
salinities if the growth is to be maximized (Kathiresan, 2000). The Pichavaram mangrove is
affected by cyclones occurring almost every other year. Cattle grazing and high soil salinity are
major factors which affect the local forest structure. Seasonal fluctuations in salinity are regulated
by the influx of freshwater during the monsoon and neritic water in non-monsoonal periods. In
summer, hypersaline water that has accumulated in a bowl shaped-lagoon increases the local soil
Sediment-nutrient dynamics in selected Indian mangrove ecosystems 7
salinity up to 100 g kg-1 (Kathiresan, 2000). Normally, during the monsoon, hypersaline water is
diluted with rainwater and influences biological productivity. However, this does not appear to be
occurring in Pichavaram due to reductions in upstream freshwater sources. As a result of all these
factors, the mangrove forest has shrunk from a total area of about 4000 ha (beginning of the 20th
century) to <1100 ha (Kathiresan, 2000).
Climate change perspective
Climatic factors in the region, such as temperature, humidity, and precipitation, number of rainy
days, regular wind flow, radiation, and the flow of freshwater, exert the most impact on the
development and succession of mangroves. A significant proportion (40%) of utilized carbon is
ultimately transferred back to the environment via litter fall. Worldwide nutrient balance studies
have shown that the litter fall is trapped and eventually buried in mangrove sediments (Alongi,
2009). Stable isotope studies have confirmed that nearly 100% of the sediment-associated carbon
in mangrove forests originates in the mangrove biomass itself; this carbon can accumulate, and
reaches very high concentrations (Risk & Rhodes, 1985). Sediment erosion exports large amounts
of carbon to adjacent coastal areas. Since a proportion of this carbon still has a great oxidative
capacity, substantial oxygen consumption is expected when this eroded material reaches oxygen-
rich coastal waters (Emeis, 1987). Theoretical modelling of past relative sea level increases
(RSLR) predicts the eutrophication of coastal waters (Emeis, 1987). Eutrophication also results in
increasing nitrification, nitrate enrichment of outwelling waters, and additional coastal eutrophica-
tion. The pulses of oxidation-erosion expected under conditions created by RSLR, also may lead to
the acute release of accumulated trace metals which could threaten the mangrove food chain,
declining mangrove forests, and increases in the decomposition of sediment-associated organic
matter. Several studies have demonstrated that the metal retention capacity of mangrove sediments
is adversely affected by increasing salinity (e.g. Tam & Wong 1999). Thus, it is anticipated that
mangrove ecosystems would also deteriorate as a result of increasing metal contamination from
anthropogenic sources, and changing land use patterns within the basin.
Increasing sediment temperature may lead to increases in nutrient recycling and regeneration
rates. The long-term effect of these factors on microbial activity and nutrient cycling is difficult to
predict. In addition, due to the increasing influence of seawater as sea level rises, the source of
organic matter will shift from terrestrial to marine. This shift affects carbon preservation and
carbon burial, because marine organic matter is more susceptible to degradative changes than
terrestrial organic matter (Hedges et al., 1988).
CONCLUSIONS
The mangrove ecosystems along the east coast of India are vulnerable to rapid changes in land-
use, as well as to climate-induced sea level rises. Sediment derived from both fluvial and marine
sources plays a significant role in mangrove nutrient dynamics. Studies have shown that these
mangrove ecosystems have displayed increases in autochthonous nutrient production,
accumulation, and export due to changing land use patterns and climate-induced sea level rises.
Climate variations also play a substantial role in the distribution of major nutrients such as C, N
and P. Polysaline species populations vary with respect to the differential inputs of saline water
and autochthonous nutrient rich-sediments. The sediment also shows an increasing trend in macro
and micro nutrients due to anthropogenic inputs. All these factors appear to be detrimental to the
survival of local floraand fauna, as well as biological productivity.
Acknowledgements The authors acknowledge Jawaharlal Nehru University for providing
facilities to carry out the research. Funding from various sources CSIR, UGC, and MoEF
(Government of India) and IFS and Formas (Sweden) are greatly acknowledged.
8 A. L. Ramanathan et al.
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