UNIT-3

THE Z-TRANSFORM
3.1 INTRODUCTION
A mathematical tool commonly used for the analysis and synthesis of the discrete time
systems is the z-transform. The role of the z-transform in discrete time systems is similar to that
of the Laplace transform in continuous time systems. The z-transform provides a method for the
analysis of the discrete time systems in the frequency domain than its time domain analysis.
In a linear discrete time control system, a linear difference equation characterizes the
dynamics of the system. To determine the system’s response to a given input, such a difference
equation must be solved. With the z-transform method, the solution’s to the linear difference
equation become algebraic in nature.
3.2. THE Z-TRANSFORM
The z-transform method is an operational method that is very powerful when working
with discrete time systems. For a given sequence values of f(kT), its z-transform is defined by
F(z) and is given by
∞
∑
F ( z) = Z [ f (kT )] =k =−∞
f (kT ) z−k
--- (3.1)
Where ‘z’ is a complex variable.
The sequence of the above equation is considered to be two sided and the transform is
called two-sided z-transform, since the time index k is defined for both positive and negative
values. If the sequence f(kT) is one sided sequence [i.e. f(kT) is defined only for the positive
values of k] than the z-transform is called one sided z-transform.
The one sided z-transform of the f(kT) is defined as
∞
F ( z )=Z [ f (kT )]= ∑ f (kT ) z−k
k=0 --- (3.2)
3.3. Z-TRANSFORMS OF SOME STANDARD FUNCTIONS
(i) Unit step function: Consider the unit step function

f(t)=¿ {1 , t≥0¿¿¿¿
∞
∑ 1×z−k
F ( z)=Z [1 ] =k =0
−1 −2
=1+ z + z + …………

Page 1
 1 z
−1
= 1−z = z−1
z
i.e. if f(t)=1, then F(z)= z−1
(ii) Unit ramp function: Consider the unit ramp function

f(t)=¿ {t , t≥0¿¿¿¿
Put t=kT, k= 0, 1, 2,………
¿ ¿

F [ z ]=Z [ kT ] = k =0
∑ (kT ) z −k
∑ kz−k
= Tk =0
−1 −2 −3
= T[ z +2 z +3 z +. . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . . ]
We know that
z
1+z−1 +z−2 +. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. . ]=
F ( z)=Z [1 ] = [ z−1 --- (3.3)
Differentiating both sides w.r.t ‘z’
( z +1)−z 1
2
=−
−2 −3 −4
−z −2 z −3 z −. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. = ( z−1) ( z−1 )2
z
2
⇒ z −1 +2 z −2 +3 z −3 +.. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. = ( z−1 ) --- (3.4)

From eqns.(3.3) and (3.4), we have

F ( z) =
T×
[ z
( z−1 )2
=
] zT
( z−1 )2

zT
2
i.e., if f (kT )=kT , then F ( z) = ( z−1 )
(iii) Exponential function: Consider the exponential function

f(t)=¿ {e−at , t≥0 ¿ ¿¿¿

Put t=kT, k= 0, 1, 2,………
f (kT ) =e−akT , k=0,1,2……..
∞
∑
at
F ( z)=Z [e ] =k =0
f (kT )z−k

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 ∞
∑ e−akT z −k
=k =0
−aT −1
= 1+e z +e−2 aT z−2 +e−3 aT z−3 +.. .. . .. ..
−at −1 1
= 1+[e z ] +[ e−at z−1 ]2 +..............
1 z
−aT −1 −aT
= 1−e z = z−e
z
−at −aT
i.e., if f (t ) =e then F ( z) = z−e
1
2 3 4
Note: Sum of the infinite series, 1 ++r +r + r +. .. .. . . = 1−r
t
(iv) Polynomial function, a : Let us obtain the z-transform of f(t) as defined by

f(t)=¿ { at , t≥0 ¿ ¿¿¿

Put t=kT, k= 0, 1, 2,………
f (kT )= a kT
∞

F ( z)=Z [a kT ]
∑ akT z−k
k =0
=
T −1 2 T −2 3 T −3
= 1+a z +a z +a z +.. . .. .. .
T −1 1 T −1 2
= 1+( a z ) +(a z ) +. .. . .. .. .. .
1 z
T −1
=
= 1−a Z z−aT
z
t T
i.e., if f (t )= a , then F ( z)= z−a
(v) Sinusoidal function: Consider the sinusoidal function

f(t)=¿ {sinωt, t≥0¿¿¿¿

Noting that

e jωt =cos ωt+ j sin ωt

e− jωt =cos ωt− jsin ωt

we have,
1 jωt − jωt
[ e −e ]
sin ωt= 2 j

Page 3
 1 jωt − jωt
[ e +e ]
cos ωt= 2

Put t=kT, k=0,1,2…..

f (kT )=sin ωkT for k=0,1,2…..

1 jωt − jωt 1
[
z
−
z
]
Z[ (e −e )]
= 2 j z−e z−e− jωT
jωT
F ( z)=Z [sin ωt ]= 2j
z z−e− jωT −z+ e jωT z 2 jsin ωT
[ 2 × 2
jωT
= 2 j z −z (e +e
− jωT
)+1 = 2 j z −2 z cosωT +1
z sin ωT
2
= z −2 z cos ωT +1

z sin ωT
If f (t )=sin ωt , then F ( z)= z −2 z cos ωT +1
2

(vi) Cosine function: consider the cosine function

f(t)=¿ {cosωt, t≥0¿¿¿¿

Put t=kT, k=0,1,2…..
f (kT )=cosωkT , k=0,1,2,3.....

X ( z )=Z [cos ωt ] =
Z [ e jωt +e− jωt 1
2
[ ]z
= 2 z −e
jωt
+
z
z −e− jωt
]

z z−e− jωT + z −e jωT z 2 z−e jωT −e− jωT

[ 2 jωT − jωT
] [ 2 ]
= 2 z −z (e +e )+1 = 2 z −2 z cos ωT + 1
z ( z−cos ωT )
2
= z −2 z cos ωT +1
z ( z−cos ωT )
i.e. if f (t )=cos ωt , then F ( z)= z −2 z cos ωT +1
2

(vii) f(k) = kP, P being a positive integer

∞

P ∑ k P z−k
F(z)=Z[k ] =k =0
∞
z ∑ k P−1 kz
−(k +1 )

= k=0 --- (3.5)

Also by definition
∞
∑ k P−1 z−k
Z [k P−1 ]= k =0 --- (3.6)

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Differentiating of eqn.(3.6) with respect to ‘z’
∞
d
{Z [ k P−1 ]}=∑ k P−1 (−k )z−( k +1 )
dz k =0 --- (3.7)
From eqns. (3.5) and (3.7)
d
P −z {Z [k P−1 ]}
Z [k ] = dz --- (3.8)
This gives a recurrence formula.
z
Z [k ]=
Example: ( z−1)2
We know that
d
Z [k P ]= −z {Z [k P−1 ]}
dz
Put p=1
d d z
Z [k ]=−z {Z [1 ]}=−z ( )
dz dz z−1
( z−1)×1−z×1 z
=−z [ =
( z−1 )2 ( z−1 )2
z
⇒ Z [ k ]=
( z−1 )2
Table (3.1): Some Standard Z –transforms

S. No f(t) f(kT) or f(k) Z-transform, F(z)

1 - δ (k ) 1

z
2 - u(k) or 1
z−1
z
3 - aK
z−a

az
4 - ka k
( z−a )2

k z2
5 - (k +1 )a
( z−a )2
ak −1
6 - e az
k!
zT
7 t kT
( z−1 )2

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 2 2 2
T 2 z ( z +1)
8 t k T
( z−1)3
z
9 e−at e−akT
z−e−aT

Tze−aT
10 te−at kTe−akT
( z−e−aT )2

z sin ωT
11 sin ωt sin ω kT 2
z −2 z cos ωT +1

z ( z−cos ωT )
12 cos ωt cos ωkT 2
z −2 z cos ωT +1

ze aT sin ωT
13 e−at sin ωt e−akT sin ω kT
z2 e2 aT −2 ze aT cos ωT +1

ze aT ( ze aT −cos ωT )
14 e−at cosωt e−akT cos ωkT
z2 e2 aT −2 ze aT cos ωT +1

d
15 - kP −z {Z [k P−1 ]}
dz
1 1
16 - e z
k!

1
F (s)=
-1: Obtain the z-transforms of s( s+1 )
Solved Problem

Solution:

f (t )=L−1 [ F (s)]=L−1
[ 1
s( s+1 ) ] [
1 1
=L−1 −
s s+1 =1−e−t ]
−kT
Put t=kT, f (kT )=1−e
z z
−kT −kT = −
F ( z)=Z [1−e ] =Z [1 ]−Z [ e ] z−1 z−e−T

z ( z−e−T −z +1 ) z (1−e−T )
= =
( z−1)( z−e−T ) ( z−1 )( z−e−T )

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Solved Problem-2: Obtain the z-transform of k2?
Solution:
¿
Z [k 2 ]= ∑ k 2 z−k
k =0

From the recurrence relation

d
Z [k P ]=−z {Z [ k P−1 ]}
dz
Put p=2,
d d z
Z [k 2 ]=−z {Z [ k ]}=−z dz [ ]
dz ( z−1)2
( z−1)2 ×1−z×2×( z−1 )
−z [ ]
= ( z−1)4

(1−z 2 ) −z (1−z )(1+z ) z ( z+ 1)

−z =
= (z −1)4 = ( z−1 )4 ( z−1 )3
1
Solved Problem-3: Obtain the z-transform of (k +1 )! ?
Solution:

[ ]
∞
1 ∞
1 1
Z ∑
( k +1)! =k =0 ( k+1)!
z −k
∑ k
=k =0 ( k +1)! z
1 1 1
1+ + + +. .. .. . ..
= 2! z 3 ! z 2
4 ! z 3

1 1 1
z [ + 2 + 3 +. .. .. .. . .. .. ]
= z z 2! z 3!

1 1 1
z z2 z3
z [1+ + + +.. . .. .. . ]−z
= 1 ! 2! 3 !
1 1
z
= ze −z = z (e −1 )
z

x x
e x=1+ + +−−−−−
Note: 1! 2 !
3.4. PROPERTIES OF Z-TRANSFORMS
In this section we present important properties of the z-transforms, which can be used to
determine F(z) and its inverse.
(i) Multiplication by a constant: If F(z) is the z-transform of f(t), then

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 Z[af(t)] = aZ[f(t)] = aF(z), Where ‘a’ is a constant
∞ ∞
∑ af (kT ) z−k =a ∑ f (kT ) z−k=aF ( z )
Proof: Z[af(t)] = k =0 k=0

∴ Z [ af (t )]=aF ( z) --- (3.9)

(ii) Linearity of the z-transform: If f1(k) and f2(k) are z-transformable and a and b are
constants, then f(k)= af1(k) +bf2(k) has the z-transform F(z) = aF 1(z)+bF2(z), where F1(z) and
F2(z) are the z-transforms of f1(k) and f2(k) respectively.
∞
=Z [ af 1 ( k )+bf 2 (k )]= ∑ [af 1 (k )+bf 2 ( k )] z−k
F ( z)=Z [ f (k )] k =0

Proof:

∞ ∞
=a ∑ f 1 (k )z −k +b ∑ f 2 (k ) z−k
k=0 k =0
¿ aZ [ f 1 (k )]+bZ [ f 2 ( k )]=aF 1 ( z )+bF 2 ( z )
∴ Z [ af 1 (k )+bf 2 (k )]=aF 1 ( z )+bF 2 ( z ) --- (3.10)

(iii) Time reversal Property: If F(z) is the z-transform of f(k), then the z-transform of f (−k )
−1
can be given by F ( z )
∞
Z [ f (−k )]= ∑ f (−k )z −k
Proof: k=−∞

Let m=-k
If k=-∞, m=∞
If k=∞, m=-∞
−∞ ∞
∴ Z [ f (−k )]= ∑ f (m )z m= ∑ f (m )( z −1 )−m=F ( z−1 )
m=∞ m=−∞ --- (3.11)
(iv) Multiplication by Exponential sequence: If F(z) is the z-transform of f(k), then the z-
k −1
transform of a f (k ) can be given by F (a z)
k −1
i.e. Z [a f (k)]=F( a z)=F ( z/a)
∞
Z [a k f (k )]= ∑ a k f (k ) z−k
Proof: k =0

Page 8
 ∞
= ∑ f (k )( a−1 z )−k =F (a−1 z )=F( z /a )
K=0

∴Z [ a k f ( k )]=F ( z/a ) --- (3.12)

3.5 THEOREMS OF THE Z-TRANSFORM
The use of the z-transform method in the analysis of discrete time control systems is very
helpful if the theorems of the z-transforms are discussed. In this section we present important
theorems of the z-transforms. We assume that the time function f(t) is z-transformable and f(t) is
zero for t<0.
(i) Shifting theorem or real translation theorem: If f(t)=0 for t<0 and f(t) has the z-transform
F(z), then

Z [ f (t−nT )]=z−n F ( z)
(a)
n−1
Z [ f ( t + nT )]=z n [ F ( z )− ∑ f ( kT ) z−k
k =0
(b)
Proof:
∞
Z [ f (t−nT )]= ∑ f ( kT −nT ) z−k
k =0

(a)
∞ ∞
= ∑ f (k−n )Tz−k +n−n =z−n ∑ f [(k −n )T ) z
−( k −n)

k=0 k =0

Put k-n = m
If k=0, m=-n
If k=∞ , m=∞
∞
∴ Z [ f (t−nT )]=z−n ∑ f (mT ) z−m
m=−n

Since x(mT)=0 for m<0, we may change the lower limit on the summation from m=-n to m=0.
Hence
∞
Z [ f (t−nT )]=z−n ∑ f (mT )z−m
m =0 =z −n F ( z)

∴Z [ f (t−nT )]=z−n F ( z) --- (3.13)

∞
Z [ f (t+ nT )]= ∑ f (kT +nT ) z−k
(b) k =0

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 ∞
= ∑ f (k +n )T z−k−n+n
k=0
∞
¿z n
∑ f [(k +n)T )z −( k +n)
k =0

Put m=k+n
If k=0, m=n
If k=∞ , m=∞
∞
∴ Z [ f (t+nT )]=z n ∑ f (mT )z −m
m=n

[ ]
∞ n−1 n−1
=z n ∑ f ( mT ) z −m + ∑ f ( mT ) z−m− ∑ f ( mT ) z−m
m=n m=0 m=0

[∑ ]
∞ n−1
=z n f ( mT ) z −m − ∑ f ( mT ) z−m
m=0 m=0

[ ]
n−1
¿ z n F ( z )− ∑ f ( kT ) z −k
k =0

n−1
∴ Z [ f ( t +nT ) ]=z n [ F ( z )−∑ f ( kT ) z−k ]
k =0 --- (3.14)

From the above equation, we obtain

Z [ f (k +1 )]=zF ( z )−zf (0)
2 2
Z [ f (k +2 )]=z. Z [ f (k +1)]−zf (1) =z F ( z)−z f (0)−zf (1)
Similarly,

Z [ f (k+n )]=z n F ( z)−z n f (0 )−z n−1 f (1)−−−−−zf (n−1) --- (3.15)

Table(3.2) : Z-Transform of f(k+m) and f(k-m)
Discrete Function Z-Transform

Page 10
 f (k +4 ) z 4 F ( z)−z 4 f (0 )−z 3 f (1 )−z 2 f (2)−zf (3)
f (k +3 ) z 3 F (z )−z 3 f (0)−z 2 f (1 )−zf (2 )
f (k +2 ) z 2 F( z )−z 2 f ( 0)−zf (1)
f (k +1 ) zF ( z)−zf (0)
f (k ) F ( z)
f (k−1 )
z−1 F( z )
f (k−2)
f (k−3) z−2 F (z )
f (k−4 ) z−3 F ( z)
z−4 F ( z)
(ii) Complex translation theorem: If f(t) has the z-transform F(z), then the z-transform of
±aT
e∓at f(t) can be given by F ( ze )
Proof: Put t = kT

Z [e−at f (t )]=Z [e−akT f (kT )]

∞
= ∑ e−aKT f (kT ) z−k
k=0

∞
= ∑ f (kT )( ze aT )−k
k=0 =F ( ze aT )
∴Z [ e∓at f (t )]=F( ze±aT ) --- (3.16)
−at
Thus, we see that replacing z in F(z) by ze gives the z-transform of e
aT
f (t )
−at
Solved Problem-4: Obtain the z-transform of te
Solution: we know that
zT
Z [t ]= =F( z )
( z−1 )2
According to complex translation theorem
ze aT T ze aT
Z [te−at ]=F( ze aT )= =T
(ze aT −1 )2 ( ze aT −1)2

Solved Problem-5: Given the z-transforms of sin ωt and cos ωt , obtain the z-transform of
e−at sin ωt and e−at cosωt respectively by using the complex translation theorem.
Solution: We know that
z sin ωT
Z [sin ωt ]= 2
=F ( z )
z −2 z cos ωT +1

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Solved Problem-6: Find the z-transform of the sequence

()
k
1
f ( k )=
2 ,for k=0, 1, 2, 3 . . . . .

()
∞
1 k −k
=∑ z
Solution: F(z) = Z[f(k)] k=0 2
1 1 1
=1+ z−1 + z−2 + z−3 +−−−−−
2 4 8

( ( ))
1 z
= =
1 z−0.5
1
=1+ +
2z 2z
+ ( )( )
1 2 1 3
2z
+−−−−− 1−
2z

Solved Problem -7: Obtain the z-transform of

f(a)=¿ {ak−1 , k=1, 2, 3....... ¿ ¿¿¿

Solution:
∞
1 ∞ k −k
Z [ f (a )]= ∑ a z = ∑a z
k −1 −k

k =0 a k =0

( ) [( ) ( ) ( ) ]
∞
1 a k 1 a 1 a 2 a 3
= ∑
k −1
= + + +−−−−−−− (∵ f (a )=a =0 for k =0 )
a k =0 z a z z z

= ( )[ 1+ ( ) +( ) +−−−−−− ]=
[ ]
1 2
1 a a a 1 1 1
=
a z z z z a z−a
1−
z

Page 12
Solved Problem-8: Consider the function y(k), which is a sum of functions x(h), where h=0,1,2,

k
y (k )= ∑ x (h ), k=0 , 1 , 2 .. . .. ..
. . . k, such that h=0

Where y(k) = 0 for k < 0. Obtain the z-transform of y(k).

Solution:
k
y ( k )= ∑ x ( h )=x (0 )+ x (1 )+−−−+ x (k−1 )+ x (k )
h=0
k −1
y (k −1)=∑ x ( h )=x (0 )+ x (1 )+−−−+ x (k−1 )
h=0

∴ y (k )− y (k −1)=x( k )

Z [ y (k )− y ( k−1 )]=Z [ x (k )]
Y ( z)−z−1 Y (z )=X (z )
1
Y ( z)= X(z)
1−z−1

Where X(z) = Z[x(k)]

(iii) Partial differentiation theorem: Let the z-transform of the function f(t,a) be represented by
F(z,a), where ‘a’ is an independent variable or constant. The z-transform of the partial derivative
of f(t,a) with respect to ‘a’ is given by

{ }
Z ∂ [ f (t ,a)] = ∂ [ F ( z ,a)]
∂a ∂a

Proof: From the z-transform definition

∞

{ }
Z ∂ [ f (t , a)] =∑ ∂ f (kT , a)z −k
∂a k=0 ∂a
∞
= ∂ ∑ f ( kT , a )z−k = ∂ F ( z, a )
∂ a k=0 ∂a

∂a{ ∂a }
∴Z ∂ [ f (t ,a)] = ∂ F ( z,a)
--- (3.17)

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Solved Problem-9: Find the z-transform of f(t)= t e-at by using partial differentiation theorem.

Solution: We know that

∂ [−e−at ]=te−at
∂a

[ ] [
Z [te−at ]=Z ∂ (−e−at ) =Z − ∂ [ e−at ]
∂a ∂a ]
=− ∂ F ( z ,a) [ ∵
∂a By using partial Differentiation theorem]
z
F ( z , a )=Z [e−at ]=
Where z−e−at

∴ Z [ te−at ]=− ∂
z
∂ a z−e−aT[=−
] [
( z−e−aT )×0−ze−aT (−T )
−aT 2
( z−e )
=
zTe−aT
]
−aT 2
( z−e )

Solved Problem-10: Find the z-transform of f(t)= t2 e-at by using partial differentiation

theorem.

Solution: We know that

Where

zTe−aT
F ( z , a )=Z [te −at ]=
( z−e−aT )2

[ ] [ ]
2
Tze−aT =−TZ ( z −e ) e (−T )−e (−T )−e 2( z−e )(−e )(−T )
aT −aT −aT −aT −aT −aT
2 −at
∴ Z [ t e ]=− ∂
∂a ( z−e−aT )2 [ z −e−aT ] 4

Page 14
 −aT
[−Te−aT −2 Te−2 aT ] 2 [ ze +e−2 aT ]
=−zT ( z−e−aT ) =T z
[ z−e−aT ]4 [ Z−e−aT ]3
Lt F( z )
(iv) Initial value theorem: If the function f(t) has the z-transform F(z) and z→∞ exists,
f ( 0)= Lt f ( k )= Lt F ( z )
then the initial value f(0) of f(t) or f(k) is given by k →0 z→∞

Proof: From the z-transform definition

∞
Z [ f ( k )]=F ( z )= ∑ f ( k ) z −k
k =0
=f ( 0 )+ f ( 1 ) z + f ( 2) z−2 +−−−−−
−1

Applying both sides as Lt

z→ ∞

Lt F( z )= Lt f (0)+
z→∞ z→∞ [ f (1) f (2)
z ]
+ 2 −−−− =f (0 )+ 0+0+. .. . .. .. =f (0 )
z
∴ f ( 0)= Lt f ( k )= Lt F ( z )
k →0 z→∞ --- (3.18)

v) Final value theorem: If the function f(k) has the z-transform F(z) and if the function

(1-z-1)F(z) does not have poles on or outside the unit circle |z|=1 in the z-plane, then

f (∞)= Lt f (k )= Lt (1−z −1 )F ( z )
k →∞ z →1
∞
= ∑ f (k ) z−k
Proof: Z [ f (k )] =F ( z) k=0 --- (3.19)

Z [ f (k−1)]=z−1 F ( z)
∞
= ∑ f (k−1 )z−k
k=0 --- (3.20)

By subtracting eqn.(3.20) from eqn.(3.19)

∞ ∞
F ( z )−z−1 F (z )= ∑ f (k )z −k− ∑ f ( k−1 )z−k
k =0 k=0

Lt
Applying both sides as z→1
∞ ∞
Lt [ F ( z)−z−1 F (z )]= Lt [ ∑ f (k )z −k− ∑ f ( k−1 )z−k ]
z→1 z→1 k =0 k=0

Page 15
 ∞
= ∑ [ f ( k )−f ( k−1)]
k=0
¿ [ f (0)−f (−1 )]+[ f (1)−f ( 0)]+[ f (2)−f (1)]−−−−−−+f (∞ )]
¿ f (∞)

i. e . Lt [1−z−1 ]F ( z )=f (∞ )= Lt f (k )
z→1 k→∞

∴ f (∞ )= Lt f ( k )= Lt (1−z−1 )F ( z )
k →∞ z→ 1 --- (3.21)

Solved Problem-11: Determine the initial value f(0) if the z-transforms of f(t) is given by
(1−e−1 ) z−1
F ( z)=
(1−z −1 )(1−e−T z−1 )
Solution: According to the initial value theorem

f (0)= Lt F ( z )= Lt
z →∞ z →∞ [ (1−e−1 ) z−1
−1 −T −1
(1−z )(1−e z ) ]
=0

1 1
F ( z )= − , a>0
Solved Problem-12: Determine the final value f (∞) of
−1 −aT −1
1−z 1−e z by
using final value theorem?
Solution: According to final value theorem
f (∞)= Lt (1−z −1 )F ( z )
z→ 1

= Lt (1−z )
z→1
−1
[ 1
1−z−1
−
1
1−e−aT z−1 ]
¿ Lt 1 −
z→1 [ 1−z−1
1−e−aT z−1
=1
]
Solved Problem-13: Consider the difference equation f (k )−af ( k−1 )=1 , −1<a<1. Determine
the initial and final values of f(k) by using initial and final value theorems?
Solution:
f (k )−af ( k−1 )=1
On taking z-transforms both sides
Z [ f (k )−af ( k−1 )]=Z [ 1 ]
z 1
F ( z)−az −1 F ( z )= =
z −1 1−z −1
1
⇒ F ( z )[ 1−az −1 ]=
1−z−1

Page 16
 1
⇒ F ( z )=
(1−z )(1−az−1 )
−1

1
f ( 0)= Lt F ( z ) = Lt −1 −1
=1
Initial value, z →∞ z→∞ (1−z )(1−az )

Final value, f (∞)= z→1

= Lt
−1
Lt (1−z ) F (z ) z→1 (1−z
−1
)×
[ 1
=
1
(1−z−1 )(1−az−1 ) 1−a ]
Solved Problem-14: Determine the initial value and final value of the sequence f (k ) to which
4 z 3 −5 z 2 +8 z
F ( z )=
the z-transform is ( z−1 )(z −0 .5 )2
Solution:
Initial value is given by
f ( 0)= Lt F ( z )
z →∞

[ ]
5 8
z 3 ( 4− + 2)
4 z 3 −5 z 2 +8 z z z 4
= Lt 2
= Lt = =4
z →∞ ( z−1 )( z−0 .5 ) z →∞ 3 1 0 .5 2 1
z ( 1− )(1− )
z z

Final value is given by

f (∞)= Lt (1−z −1 )F ( z )
z→ 1

= Lt
z→1 { [
( z−1 ) 4 z 3 −5 z 2 + 8 z
z ( z−1 )( z −0 .5 ) 2
= Lt
]} [
z→1 ( z−0 .5 )
2]
4 z 2 −5 z+ 8
=
4−5+8
(1−0. 5 )2
=28

vi) Complex differentiation theorem

In the region of convergence of a power series in z may be differentiated with respect to z
any number of times to get a convergent series. The derivative of F(z) converge in the same
region as F(z).

i.e.,
(
Z [k m f (k )]= −z
d m
dz )
F ( z)

Proof: Let us consider

∞
F ( z )= ∑ f (k )z −k
k =0

Differentiating X(z), w.r.t z

∞
d
F (z )= ∑ (−k )f (k ) z−k −1
dz k =0

Multiplying both sides w.r.t (-z)

Page 17
 ∞
d
−z F ( z )= ∑ kf ( k ) z−k =Z [ kf (k )]
dz k=0 --- (3.21)

Differentiating eqn.(3.21), w.r.t ‘z’ on both sides

[ ]
∞
d d
− z F ( z ) = ∑ (−k 2 )f (k )z−k −1
dz dz k =0

[ ]
∞
d d
−z −z F ( z ) = ∑ k 2 f (k )z−k
dz dz k=0 =Z [ k 2 f (k)]

(
∴ −z
d 2
dz )
F (z )=Z [k 2 f (k )]

d 2 d
(−z ) −z
The operation dz implies that we apply the operator dz twice.
Similarly, we can write in general

Z [k m f (k )]= −z ( d m
dz )
F ( z)
--- (3.22)

Such a complex differentiation theorem enables us to obtain the new z-transform pairs from the
known z-transform pairs.
vii) Convolution theorem
If f(k) has the z-transform F(z), then the z-transform of f 1(k) * f2 (k) = F1(z).F2(z) i.e. the
convolution in discrete time domain results in multiplication in Z domain.
Proof: Let us consider
∞
F ( z )= ∑ f (k )z −k
k =0

By definition of convolution
k
∑ f 1( n ) f 2 ( k−n)
[f1(k) ×f2 (k)] = n=0
∞ k
= ∑ ∑ f 1( n ) f 2 ( k−n) z−k
n=−∞ n=0

Let k-n = l, then k = l + n

Limits are if n = 0; l = k
if n = k ; l = 0
∞ k
∑ ∑ f 1 (n) f 2(l) z−l z−n
n=−∞ l=0

We can generalize the above expression into

∞ ∞
∑ ∑ f 1 (n )f 2 (l )z −l z−n
n=−∞ l=−∞

Page 18
 ∞ ∞
= ∑ f 1 (n ) z−n ∑ f 2 (l )z−l
n=−∞ l=−∞

--- (3.23)
Solved Problem-15: Obtain the z-transform of unit ramp of f(k) with the knowledge of z
transform of unit step signal.

Solution: For the unit step signal, f (k )=1

z
∴ F( z )=Z [ 1 ]=
z−1

For the ramp signal, f 1 (k )=tf (k )=kT .1

F 1 ( z)=Z [ kT . 1 ]

=−Tz
d
dz
F( z )=−Tz
d z
dz z−1
=−Tz ( )
( z−1)−z
( z−1)2
=
Tz
( z−1)2 [ ]
Solved Problem-16: Find the z-transform of f (t )=t cos t
Solution:
t =kT
Put
f (kT )=kT cos kT
Z [ f (kT )]=Z [ kT cos kT ]

−at
Solved Problem-17: Find the z-transform of f (t )=te
Solution:
Put t =kT

f (kT )=kTe−at

Page 19
 d
−at
Z [ f (kT )]=Z [ kTe ]
=T (−z) {Z [ e−akT ]}
dz

=−Tz
d
[ z
dz z−e−aT ] [
=−Tz
( z−e−aT )−z
−aT 2
( z−e )
=zT
] [
e−aT
−aT 2
( z−e ) ]

Table (3.3): Theorems on z-transforms

3.6. THE INVERSE Z-TRANSFORMS

The z-transforms serve the same role for discrete time control systems that the Laplace
transforms serves for continuous time control systems. For the z-transform to be useful, we must
be familiar with the methods of finding inverse z-transform. The notation for the inverse z-
−1
transform is Z . the inverse z-transform of F(z)gives the corresponding time sequence f(k) at
sampling instants. Thus, the inverse z-transform of F(z) yields a unique f(k), but does not yields
a unique f(t). This means that the inverse z-transform yields a time sequence that specifies the
values of f(t) only at discrete instants of time t=0 , T , 2 T , … … , and say nothing about the values
of x(t) at all other times. That is, many different time functions f(t) can have same f(kT).
Given the z-transform function F(z), the inverse z-transform of F(z) is denoted by

f (k )=Z −1 [ F ( z)].
In general, the inverse z-transform can be carried out with one of the following four methods.
(i) Z-transforms table
(ii) Partial fraction expression method
(iii) Power series or direct division method
(iv) Contour integration or inversion integral method.

Page 20
(i) Z-Transform table
For simple functions, the inverse z-transform can be looked up from the z-transform table.
1
z ( z−cos θ )
e z+ 2
-18: Evaluate the inverse z-transform of z −2 z cos θ+1
Solved Problem

Solution:

[ ]
1

( )
1
z( z− cos θ ) −1 −1 z ( z −cos θ ) 1
Z−1 e z + =Z [ e z ]+ Z = −cos kθ
2
z − 2 z cos θ+1 2
z −2 z cos θ+1 k!

(ii) Partial fraction expansion method

The partial fraction expansion method is parallel to the partial fraction expansion method
used in the Laplace transform, with a minor modification. The z-transform F(z) can e expanded
into partial fractions and using z-transform table corresponding inverse z-transform can be
obtained. As indicated in z-transform table ‘z’ appears in the numerator of the z-transform and as
F( z)
such it is convenient to expand z into partial fractions instead of F(z).

-19: Evaluate
Z−1
[ 3 z2 +z
(5 z−1)(5 z+2) ]
Solved Problem

3 z 2 +z
F ( z)=
Let (5 z−1)(5 z+2)
Solution:

F ( z) 3 z+1 A B
= = +
z (5 z−1 )(5 z+2 ) 5 z−1 5 Z +2

( )
8 1 1 1 8 1 1 1
= . + . = +
15 5 z−1 15 5 z +2 75 1 75 2
z− ( z+ )
5 5

8z z
⇒ F ( z)= +
75 ( z−0 .2 ) 75( z+0 . 4 )

∴ Z −1 [ F ( z)]=Z−1
[ 8( z )
+
z 8
75( z−0 . 2) 75 ( z+0. 4 ) 75 ] 1
= (0 .2 )k + (−0. 4 )k
75
4 z 2 −2 z
3 2
-20: Find the inverse transform of z −5 z +8 z−4
Solved Problem

Page 21
 4 z 2 −2 z z ( 4 z−2 )
F ( z )= = 3
Let z −5 z +8 z−4 z −5 z 2 +8 z−4
3 2

Solution:

F( z) 4 z−2 A B C
= = + +
z ( z−1 )( z−2)2 z−1 z −2 ( z−2 )2

2 2 6
= − +
z−1 z−2 (z −2)2

2z 2z 6z
⇒ F ( z )= − +
z−1 z−2 (z −2)2

∴ Z −1 [ F ( z )]=Z−1
[ 2z
−
2z
+
6z
]
z−1 z−2 ( z−2 )2 =2 (1 )k −2(2)k +3 k (2 )k

(iii) Power series or direct division method

In the direct division method, we obtain the inverse z-transform by expanding F(z) into
an infinite power series in z-1. This method is useful when it is difficult to obtain the closed form
expression for the inverse z-transform or it is desired to find only the first several terms of f(k).
In general the z-transform equation can be given by
∞
F ( z )= ∑ f (kT )z−k =f (0)+ f (2 T )z −2 + .. .. . .. ..+ f (kT ) z−k
k =0 --- (3.24)

The given function F(z) can be expressed as a ratio of two polynomials in ‘z’ as follows
a0 z n + a1 z n−1 + a2 z n−2 +.. . .. .. . ..+ an
F ( z )=
b0 z m +b 1 z m−1 + b2 z m−2 +. .. . .. .. . .+ bm --- (3.25)

If n≤m , then dividing the numerator by denominator the above eqn.(2.24), can be written as
F ( z )=f 0 z 0 +f 1 z−1 +f 2 z−2 +. .. . .. .. --- (3.26)

By comparing the coefficients of power series of eqn.(3.25) and the z-transforms

expression of eqn.(3.23), it is concluded that the value of f(kT) at sampling instants i.e., f(0),
f(T), f(kT)……, whereas the partial fraction expansion method gives an expression for f(k) in
closed form.
10 z+5
F ( z)=
Solved Problem-21: Find f(k) for k=0,1,2,3,4 when F(z) is given by ( z−1)(z−0 .2) by
using

Page 22
direct division method
5
z ( 10+ )
10 z+5 z 10 z−1 +5 z−2
X ( z )= = =
( z−1)( z−0. 2 )
z 2 ( 1−
1
)(1−
0 .2
) 1−1 . 2 z−2 + 0 .2−2
Solution: z z

18 .73 z−5 −3 .736 z−6

∴ F( z )=10 z−1 +17 z−2 +18 . 4 z−3 +18 . 68 z−4 +
1−1. 2 z −1 +0 .2 z−2
⇒ f(0)=0, f(1)=10, f(2)=17, f(3)=18.4, f(4)=18.68

iv) Inversion integral method

This method is a very useful technique for obtaining the inverse Z-transform.the
inversion integral for the Z-transform F(z) is given by
1
Z−1 [ F ( z)] =f (kT )=f (k )= ∮ F ( z) zk −1 dz
2 πj c
k−1
Where c is a circle with its center at the origin of the z- plane such that all poles of F ( z)z are
inside it.
The equation for giving the inverse z- transform in terms of residues can be derived by
using the theory of complex variables. It can be obtained as follows
m
=∑ [ residue of F( z ) z k-1 at pole z=z i of F ( z ) z k-1 ]
f (k )= k 1 +k 2 +k 3 +……….. . .. +k n i=1

k−1
where k1, k2, k3,………..,kn denote the residues of F ( z)z at poles z1, z2, z3,……,zn
respectively.
In evaluating residues, we come across the following two cases
k−1
Case-1: If F ( z)z contains a simple pole z = zi, then the corresponding residue is given by
k −1
K i = Lt [( z−z i ) F ( z ) z ]
z →z i

k−1
Case-2: If F ( z)z contains multiple pole zj of order q, then the residue is given by

Page 23
 q−1
1 d q k−1
K j= Lt q−1 [( z−z j ) F ( z ) z ]
(q−1 )! z→ z j dz

Solved Problem-22: Find the inverse z- transform of the following by using inverse integral
method.
z
F ( z )=
i) ( z−1 )2
(

Solution: Here there is a multiple pole, z1 =1 of order 2

Residue corresponding to multiple poles is given by

1 d q−1
K j= Lt [( z−z j )q X ( z ) z k−1 ]
(q−1 )! z→ z j dz q−1
.

1 d z
= Lt [( z−1)2 z k −1 ]
(2−1)! z→1 dz ( z−1 )2
..

d k
= Lt [ z ]= Lt kz k−1 =k
z→1 dz z→1

∴ Z −1
[ z
(z −1)2
=k
]
(1−e−aT ) z
F ( z )=
ii) ( z−1 )(z −e−aT )

Solution: Here, the simple poles are given by

z 1=1 , z 2 =e−aT

Residue corresponding to simple pole is given by

Page 24
 k −1
K i = Lt [( z−z i ) F ( z ) z ]
z →z i

Re sidue , K 1 = Lt [ ( z −z1 ) F ( z ) z k−1 ]

z→ z1

= Lt ( z −1)
z →1 [ (1−e−aT ) z×Z k −1
( z −1)( z−e
−aT
) ] =
( 1−e−aT )
( 1−e
−aT
)
×1=1

Re sidue , K 2 = Lt [ ( z−z 2 ) F ( z ) z k−1 ]

z→ z 2

[ ]
−aT k−1 −aT
( 1−e ) z ×Z ( 1−e )
= Lt ( z−e−aT ) −aT
= −aT
×e−akT =−e−akT
z →e −aT ( z−1)( z−e ) ( 1−e )

∴ Z −1
[ (1−e−aT )z
−aT
(z −1)( z−e )
=1−e−akT
]
z2
F ( z)=
iii) ( z−1)(z−0 .02 )
Solution: Here, the simple poles are given by
z 1=1 , z 2=0 .02

Re sidue , K 1 = Lt ( z−1)
z→1 [ z2
( z−1)( z−0. 02 )
×z k −1
]
= Lt
z→1 [ z k +1
=
1
]
=
1
( z−0 . 02) 1−0 . 02 0 . 98
=1 . 02

Re sidue , K 2 = Lt
z→0 . 02 [ ( z−0 . 02)
z2
( z−1)( z−0. 02 )
×z k −1
]
z
k +1
(0 .02 )k +1 0 .02
= Lt = = ×(0 .02 )k =−0 . 0204×(0 . 02)k
z →0 .02 z−1 −0. 98 −0 . 98

∴ Z −1
[ z2
(z−1)( z−0 . 02) ]
=1 . 02−0 . 0204×(0 . 02)k

3.7 Z-TRANSFORM METHOD FOR SOLVING DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS

Page 25
 Difference equations can be solved easily by the use of a digital computer provided the
numerical values of all coefficients and parameters are given. However, closed form expressions
for x(k) cannot be obtained from the computer solution, except for very special cases. The
usefulness of the z- transform method is that it enables us to obtain the closed form expression
x(k).
Consider the linear time invariant discrete time system characterized by the following
linear difference equation.
x (k ) +a 1 x (k-1)+…………. + an x ( k-n) = b 0 u(k ) + b1 u (k-1) +…………….. + bn u (k-n)
th
Where u(k) and x(k) are the system’s input and output respectively, at the k iteration.

In describing such a difference equation in the z-plane, we take the z-transform of each term in
the equation.
Solved Problem-23: Solve the following difference equation by use of the z- transform method.
x(k+2) + 3x(k+1)+ 2x(k) = 0, x(0) = 0, x(1) = 1
Solution: Taking the z- transform on both sides of the given difference equation, we obtain
z 2 X ( z)−z 2 X (0 )−zX (1 )+3 zX ( z)−3 zx(0 )+2 X ( z)=0
z 2 X ( z)−z+3 zX ( z)+2 X ( z)=0
X ( z )[ z 2 +3 z+2 ]=z
z z
X ( z )= =
z 2 +3 z+2 ( z +1)( z +2 )

=z
[ 1
−
1
=
z
]
−
z
z+1 z +2 z+1 z+ 2
On taking inverse Z-transform on both side

x (k )=(−1) k−(−2)k
Solved Problem-24: Solve the differential equation

y (k +2)+3 y (k +1 )+2 y ( k )=r(k ),, r(k )=(1)k , y (0 )=1 , y (k )=0 , k <0

y (k +2)+3 y (k +1 )+2 y ( k )=r (k )

Solution:

Page 26
 put k =−1

y(1)+3 y(0)+2 y(−0)=(1)−1 =1

y(1)=1−3=−2
On taking Z-transforms to the above equation
2 2 z
z Y ( z)−z y (0 )−zy (1 )+3[ zY ( z)−zy (0)]+2 Y ( z)=
z−1
z
Y ( z)( z 2 +3 z+2 )−z 2−z(−2)−3 z=
z−1
z3
⇒Y ( z )=
( z−1 )(z 2 +3 z +2 )
Y ( z) z2 1 1 1 1 4 1
⇒ = = . − . + .
z ( z−1 )( z+1 )( z+2) 6 z−1 2 z +1 3 z +2

⇒Y ( z )= [ 1 z
.
1 z 4 z
− . + .
6 z−1 2 z+1 3 z +2 ]
By taking inverse Z-transforms on both sides
1 1 4
y (k )= (1)k − (−1 )k + (−2 )k
6 2 3

3.8. LIMITATIONS OF THE Z-TRANSFORM METHOD

The following considerations should be kept in mind while applying the Z-transform.
(i) Ideal sampler assumption
The derivation of the Z-transform of a continuous data function f(t) is based first on the
sampling of the function by an ideal sampler. The result of this is that the Z-transform F(z)
represent the function f(t) only at the sampling instants.
(ii) Non uniqueness of the Inverse Z-transform
Given F(z), the inverse Z-transform of F(z) gives only a unique solution to f(kT).
Strictly the solution to f(t) is unknown.
(iii) Accuracy of the Z-transform method
The accuracy of the Z-transform method depends on the magnitude of the sampling

frequency
ω s or the sampling period T, relative to the highest frequency component contained in
the function f(t). If the sampling period is too large or sampling frequency is too low, relative to

Page 27
 ¿
the variation of f(t), the z-transform solution may be erroneous , since f (t ) would not be a good
representative of f(t) at the sampling instants.
ADDITIONAL SOLVED PROBLEMS

Find out
Z−1
[ 10
( z+1 )( z+2) ]
ASP-1:

ution: Let
F ( z)=
[ 10
( z +1)( z+2 ) ]
Sol

The simple poles are given by

z 1=−1, z 2 =−2

Re sidue , K 1 = Lt ( z+1 )
z→−1 [ 10
( z+1 )( z+2)
×z k−1
]
[ ]
k−1
10 z k−1 10(−1 )
= Lt = =−10(−1)k
z →−1 ( z +2 ) 1

Re sidue , K 2 = Lt ( z+2)
z→−2 [ 10
( z+1)( z +2)
×z k−1
]
[ ]
k −1
10 z k−1 −10 (−2 )
= Lt = =5(−2 )k
z →−2 ( z +1 ) 1

∴Z −1
[ 10
(z+1 )(z+2 ) ]
=−10(−1)k +5(−2)k

1
F (s )= 2
ASP-2: Given s (s+1) , obtain F(z) by using residue method?
Solution:-
Residue Method:

 If X(s) has poles

s1 , s2 ,......s n and s=s i is a simple pole, then the corresponding residue
z
K i = lt ( s−si ) F ( s ) Ts
is given by s→ si z−e

 If X(s) has multiple pole

s j of order q ,then the corresponding residue is given by

[ ]
q−1
1 d q z
K j= Lt q −1 ( s−s j ) F ( s )
(q−1 )! s →s j ds z−e Ts

Page 28
 1
F (s )= 2
s (s+1)
Given that

The given system has simple pole at

s1 =−1 and multiple pole at s2 =0 of order 2

Re sidue , K 1 = Lt ( s+1 )
s →−1 [ 1
×
z
( s+1 )s z −eTs
2 ]
= Lt
s→−1 [ 1
s 2
×
z
z−e Ts
=
z
z−e−T ]
Re sidue , K 2 =
1
Lt
d
(2−1)! s →0 ds
21
( s−0 ) 2
[z
s ( s+1 ) z−eTs ]
= Lt
d 1
[(
z
s→ 0 ds s +1 z−e
Ts
)
]
d
= Lt z
ds
[ (s +1)−1 ( z−e Ts )−1 ]
s→0
¿ lt [−( s+1)−1 ( z−eTs )−2 (−e Ts )+( z−e Ts )−1 (−1)( s+1 )−2 ]
s→ 0

=z
[ T
( z−1 )
−
1
2 z −1 ]

∴ F( z )=Z
[ 2
1
s ( s+1 ) ]
=sum of residues=
z
z−e −T
+
Tz
2
−
( z−1 ) z−1
z

Find out
Z
[ 10
s( s+2 ) ]
ASP-3:

ution: Let
F (s )=
[ 10
s( s+2) ]
Sol

The simple poles are given by

Page 29
 s1 =0 , s 2 =−2

Re sidue , K 1 = Lt s
s →0 [ 10
×
z
( s+2 )(s ) z−e Ts
= Lt
] [
10
s→0 s +2
×
z
z−e Ts
=
10 z
=
] 5z
2( z−1) ( z−1 )

Re sidue , K 2 = Lt ( s+2)
s→−2 [ 10
×
z
(s+2)( s) z−e Ts ] [
= Lt
10
s→−2 s
×
z
z −e Ts
=
10 z
] =
−5 z
−2( z−e ) ( z−e−2T )
−2T

∴ X ( z )=Z
[ 10
s (s +2) ]
=sum of residues
5z
−
−5 z
= ( z−1 ) ( z−e )
−2T

ω
F (s)=
4: Find the Z-transform of ( s+ω)(s−ω)
ASP-

Solution: Given that

ω ω
F (s )= 2
=
2 (s +ω)( s−ω)
s −ω

The simple poles are given by

s1 =ω , s2 =−ω

Re sidue , K 1= Lt (s−ω)
s→−ω [ ω
×
z
( s+ω )(s−ω) z −e Ts ]
= Lt
s→ ω [ ω
×
z
=
z
2 ω z−e Ts 2( z−e−Tω ) ]
Re sidue , K 2 = Lt (s +ω )
s→ω [ ω
×
z
( s+ω )( s−ω ) z−eTs ]
= Lt
s→−ω [ ω
×
z
−2 ω z−e Ts
=
−z
2( z−e−Tω ) ]
∴ F( z )=Z
[ ω
s +ω2
2 ]
=sum of residues =
z
Tω
+
−z
2( z−e ) 2( z−e−Tω )
z( z−2 )
F ( z)=
: Find inverse Z-transform for the given function 3( z−1)( z−4 ) ?
ASP-5

z( z−2 )
F ( z)=
Let 3( z−1)( z−4 )
Solution:

Page 30
 F ( z) z−2 A B 1 1 2 1
= = + = . + .
z ( z−1 )( z−4 ) z−1 z−4 9 z−1 9 z−4

1 z 2 z
⇒ F ( z )= . + .
9 z−1 9 z−4

∴ f (kT )=Z−1 [ F( z)]=Z −1 [ 1 z 2 z

. + .
1
] 2
= (1) k + (4 )k
9 z−1 9 z−4 9 9
ASP-6: Find the Z-transform for the following
s+2
F (s )= 2
(a) s (s+1)( s+4 )
s+2
F (s )= 2 2
(b) s (s +2 s +3 )
Solution:
s+2
F (s )= 2
Given that s (s+1)( s+4 )
(a)

The given system has simple poles at

s1 =−1 , s 2 =−4 and multiple pole at s3 =0

Residue corresponding to simple pole,

s1 =−1

Re sidue , K 1 = Lt ( s+1 )
s →−1 [ s+2
×
z
s 2 ( s+1 )(s +4 ) z−e Ts ]
= Lt
s→−1 [ s +2
×
z
=
1 z
s 2 ( s+ 4 ) z−eTs 3 ( z−e−T ) ]
, s 2 =−4
Residue corresponding to simple pole

Re sidue , K 2 = Lt ( s+4 )
s→−4 [ s +2
×
z
s 2 ( s+1 )(s +4 ) z−e Ts ]
= Lt
s→−4 [ s +2
2
×
z
s ( s+1 ) z−e Ts
=
1 z
]
24 ( z−e−4 T )

s3 =0
Residue corresponding to multiple pole,

Page 31
Re sidue , K 3=
1
Lt
d
(2−1 )! s→0 ds
s+2
(s−0 )2 2
z
[
s ( s+1 )(s+4 ) z−eTs ]
= Lt
d s+2
[ (
s→ 0 ds (s+1)( s+4 ) z−e
z
Ts
)
]
= Lt
d s+2
[ (
z
s→0 ds ( s +5 s+4 ) z−e
2 Ts
)
]
= Lt
d
s→0 ds
(
z
z−e
Ts
)
[
s 2 +5 s+ 4−(s +2)(2 s+5 )
2
( s +5 s+ 4 )
2
+ 2
( s+ 2)
.(
−z
( s +5 s +4 ) z−e
Ts
)(−Te Ts )
]
z −6 2 zT
= . 2 +
z−1 4 (1)( 4 ) ( z−1)2
−3 z 1 zT
¿ ( )+
8 z−1 2 ( z−1 )2

∴ F( z )=Z
s+2
[
s2 (s +1)( s+4 ) ]
=sum of residues=K 1 +K 2 +K 3

1z 1 z 3 z 1 zT
= −T
+ −4 T
− ( )+
3 z−e 24 z−e 8 z−1 2 ( z−1 )2
s+2
F (s )=
Given that s2 (s 2 +2 s +3 )
(b)

The given system has simple poles at

s1 =−1+ j 1. 414 , s 2 =−1− j1 . 414 and multiple pole at

s3 =0

Residue corresponding to simple pole, s1 =−1+ j 1. 414

Re sidue , K 1 = Lt (s−s1 )
s →s 1 [ 2
s+2
×
z
s (s−s1 )(s−s2 ) z−e
Ts
]
= Lt
s→ s1 [ s +2
2
×
z
s ( s−s 2 ) z−e
Ts
]
=
[ −1+ j1 . 414+ 2
×
z
(−1+ j1 . 414 )2 (−1+ j 1 . 414+1+ j1 . 414 ) z−eT (−1+ j1 . 414) ]
=
[ ( 0 .056+ j 0 .196 ) z
z−e
T (−1+ j 1. 414 ) ]
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 Residue corresponding to simple pole,
s2 =−1− j1 . 414

Re sidue , K 1 = Lt (s−s 2 )
s →s 2 [ 2
s +2
×
z
s (s−s 1 )(s−s2 ) z−e
Ts
]
= Lt
s→ s2 [ s +2
×
z
s ( s−s 1 ) z−e Ts
2
]
=
[ −1− j1 . 414+2
2
×
(−1− j 1. 414 ) (−1− j 1. 414 +1− j1 . 414 ) z −e
z
T (−1− j1. 414 ) ]
=
[ ( 0 .056− j 0 . 196) z
z− e
T (−1− j 1. 414 ) ]
Residue corresponding to multiple pole,
s3 =0

Re sidue , K 3=
1
Lt
d
(2−1 )! s→0 ds [
2 s +2
(s−0 ) 2 2
z
s ( s +2 s+3) z−e Ts ]
= Lt
d s +2
2 [ (
z
s→ 0 ds (s +2 s+3 ) z−e
Ts
)
]
= Lt
d z
s→0 ds
(
z−e
Ts
)[
[s2 + 2 s+3−( s+2 )(2 s+ 2) (s+ 2)
2
( s +2 s +3)
2
]+ 2 .(
−z
(s +2 s +3 ) z−e
Ts ]
)(−TeTs )

z −1 2 zT −1 z 2 zT
¿ . 2 + = ( )+
z−1 3 3 ( z−1 ) 9 z−1 3 ( z−1)2
2

∴ F( z )=Z
[ 2
s +2
2
s ( s +2 s+3) ]
=sum of residues=K 1 +K 2 +K 3

=
[ (0 .056+ j 0 .196 )z
z−e
T (−1+ j 1. 414 )
+=
z−e ] [
(0 .056− j 0 . 196) z 1 z
T (−1− j 1. 414)
− (
9 z−1
)+
]
2 zT
3 ( z−1 )2

ASP-7: Find the inverse Z-transform for the following

z2
F ( z)=
(a) ( z−2 )( z−3)
z−2
F ( z )= 2
(b) z +2 z +1

5 z 2 + z +2
F ( z )=
(c) z (z 2 + 4 z +3 )
Solution:
z2
F ( z)=
(a) ( z−2 )( z−3)
Here, the simple poles are given by

Page 33
 z 1=2, z 2 =3

Re sidue , K 1 = Lt ( z−2)
z→2 [ z2
( z−2 )(z −3) ] [ ]
×z k −1 = Lt
z→ 2 (
z k +1
z−3 )
=
2k +1
2−3
=−2×(2)k

z2
[ ] [ ]
k +1 k +1
Re sidue , K 2 = Lt ( z−3 ) ×z k−1 z (3 )
= Lt = =3×(3 )k
z→3 ( z−2 )( z−3 ) z→3 z−2 3−2

∴ Z −1
[ z2
(z−2)( z−3 )
=−2×(2)k +3×(3) k
]
z−2
F ( z )= 2
z +2 z +1
(b)

Here there is a multiple pole, z1 =-1 of order 2

Residue corresponding to multiple pole is given by

q−1
1 d
K j= Lt [( z−z j )q F ( z ) z k−1 ]
(q−1 )! z→ z j dz q−1
.

1 d z−2 k −1
= Lt [(z +1 )2 z ]
(2−1)! z→−1 dz (z +1 )2
..

d d k
= Lt [(z −2) z k−1 ]= Lt [ z −2 z k −1 ]
z→−1 dz z →−1 dz

= Lt [ kz k−1 −2(k −1) z k−2 ]=(−1) k−2 (k−1 )(−1 )k =(−2 k +3 )(−1 )k
z→−1

∴Z
−1
[ z−2
(z +1 )2 ]
=(−2 k +3 )(−1)
k

Page 34
 5 z 2 + z+2 5 z 2 +z +2
(c ) X ( z )= =
z ( z 2 +4 z+3) z( z +3 )( z+1 )
Here, the simple poles are given by
z 1=0 , z 2 =−1 , z 3=−3

z 1=0 is
Residue K1 corresponding to simple pole,

K 1 = Lt ( z−0 )
z →0 [ 5 z 2 +z +2
z ( z+1 )( z+3 ) ] [
×z k −1 = Lt
z→ 0 ( z+1)( z +3) ]
5 z 2 +z +2 k +1
z =0

z 2 =−1 is
Residue K2 corresponding to simple pole,

K 2 = Lt ( z+1 )
z=−1 [ 5 z 2 + z+2
z ( z+1)( z+3) ] [
×z k −1 = Lt
z→ 0 z ( z+3 ) ]
5 z 2 +z +2 k +1
z =
5−1+2
−1(−1+3)
(−1 )k +1=3(−1 )k

z 3 =−3 is
Residue K3 corresponding to simple pole,

K 3 = Lt ( z +3)
z=−3 [
5 z 2 +z +2
z ( z+1)( z+3 )
×z k−1
]
∴ Z −1
[ 5 z 2 + z+2
2
z ( z +4 z+3 ) ] 22
=3(−1 )k + (−3 )k +1
3
ASP-8: Find the response y(k) when the input x(k) is a unit step sequence for the following
difference equation, y (k+1)+0.5y(k)= x(k)and y(0)=0
Solution: The given equation is
y (k+1) +0.5y (k) = x (k)
Applying the Z-transform on both the sides,
z
zY ( z)−zy(0 )+0 . 5Y (z )=
z−1
z
zY ( z)−z×0+0 .5 Y ( z)=
z−1
z
[ z+0 . 5 ]Y ( z)=
z−1
z
⇒Y ( z)=
( z−1 )(z+0 . 5)

Page 35
 Y ( z) 1 31 31
⇒ = = −
z ( z−1)( z+0 .5 ) 2 ( z−1) 2 ( z+0 . 5)
3z 3z
⇒Y ( z)= −
2 (z−1) 2 ( z+0 .5 )
On taking inverse Z-transform on both the sides

3 3
y (k )= (1)k − (−0 . 5)k
2 2
ASP-9: Find the solution of the following difference equation
x(k+2) -1.3x(k+1)+0.4(k) = u(k), where x(0)=x(1)=0 and x(k)=0 for k<0. For the input function
u(k), consider the following two cases

u(k)=¿ {1 ,k=0,1,2 ,.. . ..¿¿¿¿

Solution: Taking the z- transform on both sides of the given difference equation, we have

z
z 2 X ( z)−1. 3 zX ( z)+0 . 4 X ( z)=
z−1
2 z
X ( z )[ z −1. 3 z+0. 4 ]=
z−1
z z
X ( z )= =
( z−1 )( z 2−1 . 3 z+0 . 4 ) ( z−1 )(z−0 .5 )( z−0 . 8)

=z
[ 10
+
3. 33 13
− =
]
10 z 3. 33 z 13 z
+ −
z−1 z−0 . 5 z −0 .8 z−1 z−0 .5 z−0 . 8
Taking inverse Z-transform on both sides

x(k )=10(1 )k +3 . 33(0 .5 )k −13(0 . 8) k

ASP-10: Solve the following differential equation
y (k +2)+3 y (k +1 )+2 y ( k )=0 , y (−1)=−1/2, y (−2)=3/4
Solution: Given that
y (k +2)+3 y (k +1 )+2 y ( k )=0
y(−1)=−1/2, y(−2)=3/4

put k=−2

Page 36
 y(0 )+3 y(−1 )+2 y(−2 )=0
−1 3
y(0 )=−3 y(−1)−2 y(−2 )=−3× −2× =0
2 4
put k=−1
y(1)+3 y(0 )+2 y(−1 )=0
−1
y(1)=−3 y(0 )−2 y(−1 )=−3×0−2× =1
2
On taking Z-transforms to the above equation
z 2 Y ( z)−z 2 y(0 )−zy (1 )+3[ zY ( z)−zy (0)]+2 Y ( z)=0
Y ( z)( z 2 +3 z+2 )=z 2 y(0)+zy (1 )+3 zy(0)=z
z
⇒Y ( z )= 2
z +3 z+ 2
Y ( z) 1 1 1
⇒ = = −
z ( z +1)( z +2 ) z +1 z +2

⇒Y ( z )= [ z
−
z
z+ 1 z +2 ]
By taking inverse Z-transforms on both sides

y(k )=(−1)k −(−2)k

ASP-11: Find the inverse z- transform of the following function.
2 z 3 +z
F ( z)=
( z−1 )2 ( z−1)
Solution: Given that
2 z 3 +z
F ( z)=
( z−1 )2 ( z−1)
F ( z ) (2 z 2 +1) A B B
= + +
z ( z−1) = z−1 ( z−1 ) ( z−1)3
3 2

2z2+1 = A (z-1)2 + B (z-1) + C

2z2+1 = A (z2-2z+1) + B (z-1) + C
By comparing z 2-terms: A = 2 --- (1)
z- Terms: -2A + B = 0 --- (2)
constants: A – B + C = 1 --- (3)
By solving the above three equations
A = 2; B = 4; C = 3

F( z) A B B
= z−1 + +
z ( z−1 )2 ( z−1)3

Page 37
F( z) 2 4 3
= z−1 + +
z ( z−1 ) ( z−1)3
2

2z 4z 3z
+ +
F ( z) = z−1 ( z−1 ) ( z−1)3
2

Applying inverse z-transform on both sides

3 k (k-1 )
f(k) = 2 (1)k + 4 k.u(k) + 2 u(k)

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of digital control system?

2. Explain clearly the configuration of basic digital control scheme with the help of neat
block diagram?
3. Explain different types of sampling operations?
4. State and prove the following properties / theorems of Z – transform.
(i) Shifting theorem (ii) Complex translation theorem (iii) Final value theorem
5. Obtain the Z-transform of the following functions
(i) Unit step function (ii) Exponential function (iii) Sinusoidal function
6. Explain the operation of ideal sampler?
7. State and prove any four important theorems of z-transform?
8. What are the limitations of z-transform method?
9. Explain the sample and hold operating with suitable circuit diagram and wave forms?
10. What are the various methods used to determine inverse z- transform? Explain partial
fraction inverse z- transform method.

EXERCISE SOLVED PROBLEMS

1. Find the Z-transforms of the following

2
F (s )= 2
(a) f(t) = e-atsinωt (b) s (s+ 2)

(c ) k 2 (d ) kak−1

ze aT sin ωT z z Tz ( z +1) z z
− −
[Ans:(a) z e −2 ze cos ωT +1 (b) 2( z−e ) 2( z−1 ) ( z−1) (c) ( z−1) (d) ( z−a ) ]
2 2 aT aT −2T 2 3 2

2. Find the inverse Z-transforms of the following

Page 38
 z2
F ( z)=
(a) ( z−1 )(z−0 .2 ) (b)

kT e−aT (1−e−akT )
f (kT )= −
[Ans:(a)f(k)1.02+(0.02)k+1 (b) T (1−e−aT ) (1−e−akT )2 ]
3. Obtain the inverse z-transform of

z−2 z +2
X ( z )= X ( z )=
(a) (1−z−1 )3 (b)
2
z ( z−2)
Using (i) Direct division method (ii)Partial fraction expansion method

1 (b ) x (k )=1 for k=2

x (k )= k ( k−1 )
[Ans: (a) 2 =2k−1 for k=3 , 4 , 5 , . . .. .. ]

z
X ( z )=
4. Find the inverse z-transform of 1+ z 2

1 1
x (k )= ( j)k −1 + (− j) k−1
[Ans: 2 2 ]
5. Obtain the z-transform of unit step functions that are delayed by 1 sampling period and 4
sampling periods
1 z−4
, −1
[Ans: z−1 1−z ]

6. Obtain the z-transform of

1
[Ans: z−a ]

7. Obtain the z-transform of the curve x(t) as shown in figure. Assume that the sampling period T
is 1 sec?

Page 39
 [Ans:
1
X ( z )= z−1
4
1−z −4
[
(1−z−1 )2 ] ]
8. Solve the following difference equation
y (k+2)+3y(k+1)+2y(k)= 0 and y(-1)= -1/2, y(-2)=3/4
k k
[Ans: y (k )=(−1 ) −(−2) ]

9. Obtain the solution of the following difference equation in terms of x(0) and x(1)
x (k+2)+(a+b)x(k+1)+abx(k)= 0
Where a and b are constants and k=0, 1, 2........
bx (0 )+ x(1 ) ax (0 )+x (1)
[ Ans : x (k )= (−a )k + (−b )k , a≠b , where k=0 , 1 , 2. . ..
b−a a−b
x (k )=x( 0)(−a ) +[ ax (0)+x (1)]k (−a )k −1 , a=b , where k=0 , 1, 2 .. . .]
k

10. Given the Z-transform

Where a is a constant and T is the sampling period, determine the inverse z-transform x(kT)
by use of the partial fraction expansion method

[Ans: ]
11. Find the solution of the following difference equation
x (k+2)-1.3x(k+1)+0.4x(k)= u(k). Where x(0)=x(1)=0 and x(k)=0 for k<0. For the input
function u(k), consider the following two cases

k k k
[Ans: x(k )=10(1 ) +3 . 33(0 .5 ) −13(0 . 8) ]

8 z−19
F ( z)=
12. Find the inverse Z-transform of ( z−2 )( z−3) ?
19 3 5
f (k )=− (1 )k + (2)k + (3 )k
[Ans: 6 2 3 ]

Page 40