Chapter 4

Digital Transmission

4.1
 DIGITAL-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION

In this section, we see how we can represent digital

data by using digital signals. The conversion involves
three techniques: line coding, block coding, and
scrambling. Line coding is always needed; block
coding and scrambling may or may not be needed.

4.2
 Line coding and decoding

4.3
 Characteristics
Signal Element Versus Data Element
A data element is the smallest entity that represents a piece of information.
A signal element is the shortest unit of a digital signal.
In other words, data elements are what we need to send; Signal elements are what
we can send
r: is the number of data elements carried by each signal element
Data Rate (bit rate) Versus Signal Rate (pulse rate, modulation rate, baud rate)
The signal rate is the number of signal elements sent in 1s
In data communications, we want to increase the data rate N (increase the speed of
transmission) while decreasing the signal rate S (decrease the bandwidth
requirement).
1
S  c N 
r
c: case factor (between 0 and 1). Chose average value c = ½

4.4
 Signal element versus data element

4.5
 Characteristics
Baud rate determines the required bandwidth for a digital signal
=> the bandwidth (range of frequencies) is proportional to the signal rate
(baud rate). The minimum bandwidth can be given as:
1
Bmin  S  c N 
r
The maximum data rate if the bandwidth of the channel is given.
Br
N max 
c

DC Components: When the voltage level in a digital signal is constant for a while,
The spectrum creates very low frequencies. These frequencies around zero, called
DC components, present problems for a system that cannot pass low frequencies
=> need a scheme with no DC component.

4.6
 A signal is carrying data in which one data element is
encoded as one signal element ( r = 1). If the bit rate is
100 kbps, what is the average value of the baud rate if c is
between 0 and 1?

4.7
 Effect of lack of synchronization

4.8
 In a digital transmission, the receiver clock is 0.1 percent
faster than the sender clock. How many extra bits per
second does the receiver receive if the data rate is
1 kbps? How many if the data rate is 1 Mbps?

4.9
 Line coding schemes

4.10
 Unipolar NRZ scheme

Unipolar encoding uses only one voltage level

4.11
Polar NRZ-L and NRZ-I schemes

level of voltage determines

value of the bit

inversion or lack of inversion

determines value of the bit

 Both have an average signal rate of N/2 Bd.

 Both have a DC component problem.
5-12
 A system is using NRZ-I to transfer 1Mbps data. What are
the average signal rate and minimum bandwidth?

4.13
 RZ scheme

3 Voltage levels: +, -, 0
0 = Transition from negative to zero
1 = Transition from positive to zero
It solves the synchronization problem, DC component problem
It handles both strings of 1s and 0s
Two signal changes for each bit
• More transitions
• Occupies more bandwidth

4.14
 Polar biphase: Manchester and
differential Manchester schemes

Signal changes at the middle of the bit interval.

Signal change → bit representation and synchronization
0 is represented by a high voltage for the first half of the bit, followed by a low
voltage (or a negative voltage) in the last half. 1 is the exact opposite.

4.15
 Polar biphase: Manchester and
differential Manchester schemes
The inversion at the middle is used for synchronization
0 = Transition at the beginning of bit period
1 = No transition at the beginning of bit period
Disadvantages:
• Complex
• Higher frequency components (as RZ)

4.16
 Polar biphase: Manchester and differential Manchester schemes

4.17
 Note

In Manchester and differential

Manchester encoding, the transition
at the middle of the bit is used for
synchronization.

4.18
 Note

The minimum bandwidth of Manchester

and differential Manchester is 2 times
that of NRZ.

4.19
 Note

In bipolar encoding, we use three levels:

positive, zero, and negative.

4.20
 Bipolar schemes: AMI and pseudoternary

Advantage
Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI) • No DC component
=> Used for long distance communication • Synchronized only for 1s =>
synchronization problem for a long
sequence of 0s

4.21
 Multilevel

In mBnL schemes, a pattern of m data

elements is encoded as a pattern of n
signal elements in which 2m ≤ Ln.

Multilevel:
m: length of the data binary pattern
B: binary data
n: the length of the signal pattern
L: number of levels in the signaling
L=2 → B(inary)
L=3 → T(ernary)
L=4 → Q(uaternary)

4.22
 Multilevel: 2B1Q scheme

Used in DSL

4.23
 Multilevel: 8B6T scheme
- Eight Binary, six Ternary
- Use with 100BASE-4T cable
- Mapping table in Appendix F
-Each signal have weight of 0 or +1 DC value

Weight = 0 Weight = +1 For DC balance

=> invert the third pattern

4.24
 Multilevel: 4D-PAM5 scheme

4.25
 Multitransition: MLT-3 scheme

3 transition rules:
- Next bit = 0: no transition
- Next bit = 1, current level is not 0: next level = 0
- Next bit =1, current level = 0: next level is
opposite of the last nonzero level

4.26
 Summary of line coding schemes

polar

No DC

Worst case

4.27
 Block Coding • Synchronization
• Error detection capability

Note

Block coding is normally referred to as

mB/nB coding;
it replaces each m-bit group with an
n-bit group.

4.28
 Block coding concept

Step 1: Division

Step 2: Substitution

Step 3: Combination

4.29
 Using block coding 4B/5B with NRZ-I line coding scheme

4.30
 Substitution in 4B/5B block coding

4.31
4B/5B mapping codes

4.32
 Using block coding 4B/5B with NRZ-I line coding scheme

- 5 bit output has no more than one leading zero (left bit) and no
more than two trailing zeros (right bits)
-Increase the signal rate of NRZ-I (but less than the biphase
scheme)
- Do not solve the DC component problem of NRZ-I

4.33
 We need to send data at a 1-Mbps rate. What is the
minimum required bandwidth, using a combination of
4B/5B and NRZ-I or Manchester coding?

4.34
 The input stream to a 4B/5B block encoder is
0100-0000-0000-0000-0000-0001.
Answer the following questions:
a. What is the output stream?
b. What is the length of the longest consecutive sequence
of 0s in the input?
c. What is the length of the longest consecutive sequence
of 0s in the output?

4.35
 8B/10B block encoding

Advantage: better error detection capability and synchronization

Disadvantage: more bandwidth

4.36
 AMI used with scrambling

Scrambling:
- Done at the same time as encoding
- Avoid a long sequence of 0s → synchronization
→ suitable for long distance communication
- Two scrambling techniques: B8ZS, HDB3

4.37
 Note

B8ZS substitutes eight consecutive

zeros with 000VB0VB.

4.38
 Two cases of B8ZS scrambling technique

4.39
 Note

HDB3 substitutes four consecutive

zeros with 000V or B00V depending
on the number of nonzero pulses after
the last substitution.

4.40
 Different situations in HDB3 scrambling technique

4.41
 What is the result of scrambling the sequence
11100000000000 using one of the following
scrambling techniques? Assume that the last non-zero
signal level has been positive.
a. B8ZS
b. HDB3 (The number of non zero pules is odd at
initial time)

4.42
 ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION

We have seen in Chapter 3 that a digital signal is

superior to an analog signal. The tendency today is to
change an analog signal to digital data. In this section
we describe two techniques, pulse code modulation
and delta modulation.

4.43
 Components of PCM encoder

4.44
 Three different sampling methods for PCM

4.45
 Note

According to the Nyquist theorem, the

sampling rate must be
at least 2 times the highest frequency
contained in the signal.

4.46
 Nyquist sampling rate for low-pass and bandpass signals

4.47
For an intuitive example of the Nyquist theorem, let us
sample a simple sine wave at three sampling rates: fs = 4f
(2 times the Nyquist rate), fs = 2f (Nyquist rate), and
fs = f (one-half the Nyquist rate). Figure 4.24 shows the
sampling and the subsequent recovery of the signal.

It can be seen that sampling at the Nyquist rate can create

a good approximation of the original sine wave (part a).
Oversampling in part b can also create the same
approximation, but it is redundant and unnecessary.
Sampling below the Nyquist rate (part c) does not produce
a signal that looks like the original sine wave.
4.48
Recovery of a sampled sine wave for different sampling rates

Sampling at the Nyquist

rate can create a good
approximation of the
original sine wave.

Oversampling can also

create the same
approximation, but is
redundant and
unnecessary.

Sampling below the

Nyquist rate does not
produce a signal that
looks like the original
sine wave.

5-49
 Consider the revolution of a hand of a clock. The second
hand of a clock has a period of 60 s. According to the
Nyquist theorem, we need to sample the hand every 30 s
(Ts = T/2 or fs = 2f ). The sample points, in order, are 12,
6, 12, 6, 12, and 6. The receiver of the samples cannot tell
if the clock is moving forward or backward. In part b, we
sample at double the Nyquist rate (every 15 s). The
sample points are 12, 3, 6, 9, and 12. The clock is moving
forward. In part c, we sample below the Nyquist rate (Ts =
3/4T or fs = 4/3 f ). The sample points are 12, 9, 6, 3, and
12. Although the clock is moving forward, the receiver
thinks that the clock is moving backward.

4.50
 Sampling of a clock with only one hand

4.51
 Telephone companies digitize voice by assuming a
maximum frequency of 4000 Hz. The sampling rate
therefore is 8000 samples per second.

4.52
 A complex low-pass signal has a bandwidth of 200 kHz.
What is the minimum sampling rate for this signal?

4.53
 A complex bandpass signal has a bandwidth of 200 kHz.
What is the minimum sampling rate for this signal?

4.54
 Quantization and encoding of a sampled signal
1. Assume original analog
signal has amplitude
between Vmin and Vmax

2. Divide the range into L

zones, each of height
Delta =(V max -Vmin)/L

3. Assign quantized value of 0

to L-1 into the midpoint
of each zone

4. Approximate the value of the

sample amplitude to the
quantized value

- Δ/2 < error < Δ/2

4.55
 The number of quantization levels changes
the signal-to-noise ratio of the signal:
SNRdB = 6.02nb + 1.76 [dB]
nb: number of bits per sample

What is the SNRdB in the previous example?

4.56
 A telephone subscriber line must have an SNRdB above
40. What is the minimum number of bits per sample?

4.57
 Bit rate = sampling rate * number of bit per sample
= f s* nb
We want to digitize the human voice. What is the bit rate,
assuming 8 bits per sample?

4.58
 Components of a PCM decoder

4.59
 PCM bandwidth of the signal (low-pass signal)
Bmin = S = c*N*1/r = c * f s* nb * 1/r
= c * 2* B * nb * 1/r
With c=1/2, r = 1
Bmin = B * nb
minimum bandwidth of the digital signal is nb times greater than the
bandwidth of the analog signal.

We have a low-pass analog signal of 4 kHz. If we send the

analog signal, we need a channel with a minimum
bandwidth of 4 kHz. If we digitize the signal and send 8
bits per sample, we need a channel with a minimum
bandwidth of 8 × 4 kHz = 32 kHz.

4.60
 We have sampled a low-pass signal with a bandwidth
of 200KHz using 1024 levels of quantization.
a. Calculate the bit rate of the digitized signal.
b. Calculate the SNRdB for this signal.
c. Calculate the PCM bandwidth of this signal.

4.61
 The process of delta modulation

Reduce the complexity of PCM

No codewords here; bits are sent one after another

4.62
 TRANSMISSION MODES

The transmission of binary data across a link can be

accomplished in either parallel or serial mode. In
parallel mode, multiple bits are sent with each clock
tick. In serial mode, 1 bit is sent with each clock tick.
While there is only one way to send parallel data, there
are three subclasses of serial transmission:
asynchronous, synchronous, and isochronous.

4.63
 Data transmission and modes

4.64
 Parallel transmission

- Increase the transfer speed by a factor of n over serial transmission

- High cost
=>Suitable for short distance transmission

4.65
 Serial transmission

4.66
Asynchronous transmission

We send 1 start bit (0) at the beginning and 1 or more stop

bits (1s) at the end of each byte.
There may be a gap between each byte.

It is “asynchronous at the byte level,” bits are still

synchronized; their durations are the same.
5-67
 Synchronous transmission

- The bit stream is combined into longer “ frames” which may contain
multiple bytes
- Synchronous transmission is faster than asynchronous transmission
=> Used to transmit of data from one computer to another

4.68
 Note

In synchronous transmission, we send

bits one after another without start or
stop bits or gaps. It is the responsibility
of the receiver to group the bits.

4.69
 Note

The isochronous mode provides

synchronized for the entire stream of
bits. In other words, it guarantees that
the data arrive at a fixed rate.
TV images are broadcast at the rate of 30 images per second used this
mode

4.70
 Chapter 5
Analog Transmission

5.1
5.1 Digital-to-Analog Conversion
o Amplitude shift keying
o Frequency shift keying
o Phase shift keying
o Quadrature amplitude modulation
5.2 Analog-to-Analog Conversion
o Amplitude modulation
o Frequency modulation
o Phase modulation
 DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION

Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of

changing one of the characteristics of an analog
signal based on the information in digital data.

5.3
 Digital-to-analog conversion

5.4
 Types of digital-to-analog conversion

 Bit rate is the number of bits per second.

 Baud rate is the number of signal elements per second.
 In the analog transmission of digital data, the baud rate is
less than or equal to the bit rate.

5.5
 Baud rate vs bit rate
S = N*1/r [baud]
r the number of data elements carried in one signal element r=log 2L
L: type of signal element (not a level)
An analog signal carries 4 bits per signal element. If
1000 signal elements are sent per second, find the bit
rate.

5.6
 An analog signal has a bit rate of 8000 bps and a baud
rate of 1000 baud. How many data elements are
carried by each signal element? How many signal
elements do we need?

5.7
 Carrier signal
A carrier signal is a transmitted electromagnetic pulse or
wave on which information can be imposed by varying
the base frequency, phase, or amplitude. This
modification is called modulation.

5.8
 Binary amplitude shift keying

ASK → on/off keying (OOK). Bandwidth = (1+d) S

S is the baud rate
d is the modulation factor 0 ≤ d ≤ 1
In BASK baud rate = bit rate (L=2)
Minimum BW= N

5.9
 Implementation of the binary ASK

5.10
 We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which
spans from 200 to 300 kHz. What are the carrier
frequency and the bit rate if we modulated our data by
using ASK with d = 1?

5.11
We normally use full-duplex links with communication in
both directions.
We need to divide the bandwidth into two with two
carrier frequencies.

The available bandwidth for each direction is now 50

kHz, which leaves us with a data rate of 25 kbps in each
direction.
12
 Binary frequency shift keying

Logic 0 is represented by a wave at a specific

frequency, and logic 1 is represented by a wave
at a different frequency.

5.13
 We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which
spans from 200 to 300 kHz. What should be the carrier
frequencies and the bit rate if we modulated our data
by using FSK with d = 1?

5.14
 Implement of BFSK

5.15
 We need to send data 3 bits at a time at a bit rate of 3
Mbps. The center frequency is 10 MHz. Calculate the
number of levels (different frequencies), the baud rate,
and the bandwidth (d=0).

5.16
 Bandwidth of MFSK

5.17
 Binary phase shift keying
Phase-shift keying (PSK): the phase of a transmitted signal is varied
to convey information. There are several methods that can be used to
accomplish PSK.

PSK minimum bandwidth = ASK minimum bandwidth.

Advantages of PSK:
- Not susceptible to noise
- No bandwidth is wasted for separating 2 carrier signals
Disadvantages:
- Distinguishing small difference in phase depending on the equipment used.

5.18
 Implementation of BPSK

The simplest PSK technique is called 2-PSK or BPSK. It uses

two opposite signal phases (0 and 180 degree).

5.19
 QPSK and its implementation

5.20
 Find the bandwidth for a signal transmitting at 12
Mbps for QPSK. The value of d = 0.

5.21
 Concept of a constellation diagram

Signal element type

5.22
 Show the constellation diagrams for an BASK (OOK),
BPSK, and QPSK signals.

5.23
 Constellation diagrams for some QAMs

Quadrature amplitude modulation is a

combination of ASK and PSK.

Unipolar NRZ Polar NRZ Signal with 2 Signal with 4

positive levels positive and 4
negative levels

5.24
 ANALOG TO ANALOG CONVERSION

Analog-to-analog conversion is the representation of

analog information by an analog signal. One may ask
why we need to modulate an analog signal; it is
already analog. Modulation is needed if the medium is
bandpass in nature or if only a bandpass channel is
available to us.

5.25
 Types of analog-to-analog modulation

5.26
Amplitude modulation

27
AM band allocation

The total bandwidth required for AM

can be determined from the bandwidth of
the audio signal: BAM = 2B.

28
Frequency modulation

29
FM band allocation

The total bandwidth required for FM can be

determined from the bandwidth of the audio signal:
BFM = 2(1 + β)B.

30
Phase modulation

31
PM band allocation

The total bandwidth required for PM can be

determined from the bandwidth and maximum
amplitude of the modulating signal:
BPM = 2(1 + β)B.

32
 Chapter 6
Bandwidth Utilization:
Multiplexing and
Spreading

6.1
 Bandwidth utilization is the wise use of
available bandwidth to achieve
specific goals.

Efficiency can be achieved by

multiplexing; privacy and anti-jamming
can be achieved by spreading.

6.2
 MULTIPLEXING

Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two

devices is greater than the bandwidth needs of the
devices, the link can be shared. Multiplexing is the set
of techniques that allows the simultaneous
transmission of multiple signals across a single data
link. As data and telecommunications use increases, so
does traffic.

6.3
 Dividing a link into channels

link refers to the physical path.

channel refers to the portion of a link that carries a transmission between a
given pair of lines

Combine many transmission separates the stream back into its

streams into a single stream component transmissions

6.4
 Categories of multiplexing

6.5
 Frequency-division multiplexing

6.6
 Note

FDM is an analog multiplexing technique

that combines analog signals.

6.7
 FDM process
Each source generates Inside the multiplexer, these similar signals
a signal of a similar
modulates different carrier frequencies
frequency range.

6.8
 FDM demultiplexing example

uses a series of filters to decompose the multiplexed signal into its constituent
component signals

6.9
 Assume that a voice channel occupies a bandwidth of 4
kHz. We need to combine three voice channels into a link
with a bandwidth of 12 kHz, from 20 to 32 kHz. Show the
configuration, using the frequency domain. Assume there
are no guard bands.

6.10
6.11
 Assume that a voice channel occupies a
bandwidth of 4kHz. We need to multiplex 10
voice channels with guard bands of 500Hz
using FDM. Calculate the required bandwidth.

6.12
 Five channels, each with a 100-kHz bandwidth, are to be
multiplexed together. What is the minimum bandwidth of
the link if there is a need for a guard band of 10 kHz
between the channels to prevent interference?

6.13
6.14
 Four data channels (digital), each transmitting at 1
Mbps, use a satellite channel of 1 MHz. Design an
appropriate configuration, using FDM.

6.15
 B = S = N*1/r [baud]; d = 0

6.16
 We need to transmit 100 digitized voice
channels (64 kbps) using a pass-band
channel of 200 kHz. What should be the
ratio of bits/Hz (r) if we use no guard band?

6.17
 Analog hierarchy

6.18
 Wavelength-division multiplexing

Very narrow bands of light from different sources are combined

to make a wider band of light. At the receiver, the signals are
separated by the demultiplexer.

6.19
 Note

WDM is an analog multiplexing

technique to combine optical signals.

6.20
 Prisms in wavelength-division multiplexing and demultiplexing

A prism bends a beam of light based on the angle of incidence and the frequency

A multiplexer combine several input beams

of light, each containing a narrow band of A demultiplexer can also be
frequencies, into one output beam of a wider made to reverse the process
band of frequencies.

6.21
 TDM

6.22
 Note

TDM is a digital multiplexing technique

for combining several low-rate
channels into one high-rate one.

6.23
 Synchronous time-division multiplexing

Time slots are grouped into frames. A frame consists of

one complete cycle of time slots, with one slot dedicated
to each sending device.

6.24
 Note

In synchronous TDM, the data rate

of the link is n times faster, and the unit
duration is n times shorter.
A unit can be 1 bit, one character, or one block of data.

6.25
6.26
 Given that the data rate for each input connection is 1
kbps. If 1 bit at a time is multiplexed (a unit is 1 bit), what
is the duration of (a) each input slot, (b) each output slot,
and (c) each frame?

6.27
6.28
 A synchronous TDM with a data stream for each input
and one data stream for the output. The unit of data is 8
bits. Find (a) the input slot duration, (b) the output slot
duration, (c) the output bit rate, and (d) the output frame
rate.

6.29
 Interleaving

Two fast-rotating switches rotate at the same speed,

opposite direction

6.30
 Four channels are multiplexed using TDM. If each
channel sends 100 bytes/s and we multiplex 1 byte per
channel, show the frame traveling on the link, the size of
the frame, the duration of a frame, the frame rate, and
the bit rate for the link.

6.31
6.32
 A multiplexer combines four 100-kbps channels using a
time slot of 2 bits. Show the output with four arbitrary
inputs. What is the frame duration? What is the frame
rate? What is the output bit rate? What is the output bit
duration?

6.33
6.34
 Empty slots

one of the input lines has no data to send and one slot in another
input line has discontinuous data

6.35
 Multilevel multiplexing

6.36
 Multiple-slot multiplexing

A serial-to-parallel converter in the

line to make two inputs out of one

6.37
 Pulse stuffing

Pulse stuffing, bit padding, or bit stuffing.

6.38
 Frame Synchronizing

In most cases, this synchronization information consists of 1 bit per frame,

alternating between 0 and 1

6.39
 We have four sources, each creating 250 characters per
second. If the interleaved unit is a character and 1
synchronizing bit is added to each frame, find (a) the data
rate of each source, (b) the duration of each character in
each source, (d) the frame rate, (c) the duration of each
frame, (e) the number of bits in each frame, (f) the output
bit rate

6.40
 Digital Signal Service
Digital hierarchy
136 kbps of
overhead.

192 kbps of
overhead.

7.92 Mbps of
overhead.

8 kbps of
overhead.

6.41
 To implement those services, the telephone companies use T lines
(T-1 to T-4). These are lines with capacities precisely matched to
the data rates of the DS-1 to DS-4 services

DS and T line rates

6.42
 Europeans use a version of T lines called E lines. The two systems
are conceptually identical, but their capacities differ.

E line rates

6.43
 TDM slot comparison

6.44
 Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing

Slots are dynamically allocated to improve bandwidth efficiency.

Only when an input line has a slot's worth of data to send is it

given a slot in the output frame.

The multiplexer checks each input line in round-robin fashion

• It allocates a slot for an input line if the line has data to send
• Otherwise, it skips the line and checks the next line.

Addressing: We need to include the address of the receiver

inside each slot to show where it is to be delivered.
•n bits to define N different output lines with n =log2N.

6.45
 SPREAD SPECTRUM

In spread spectrum (SS), we combine signals from

different sources to fit into a larger bandwidth, but our
goals are to prevent eavesdropping and jamming. To
achieve these goals, spread spectrum techniques add
redundancy.

6.46
 Spread spectrum

The spreading code is a series of numbers that look random, but are
actually a pattern.

6.47
 Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)

A pseudorandom
code generator,
called
pseudorandom
noise (PN), creates
a k-bit pattern for
every hopping
period Th

6.48
The frequency
table uses the
pattern to find the
frequency to be
used for this
hopping period and
passes it to the
frequency
synthesizer.

6.49
The frequency
synthesizer
creates a carrier
signal of that
frequency, and the
source signal
modulates the
carrier signal.

6.50
 Frequency selection in FHSS

6.51
 FHSS cycles with eight hopping frequencies.

6.52
 Bandwidth sharing

6.53
 1. What is the minimum number of bits in a PN
sequence if we use FHSS with a signal with bandwidth
of B= 4kHz and Bss = 100kHz?

2. An FHSS system uses a 4-bit PN sequence. If the bit

rate of the PN is 64 bits per second, answer the
following questions:
a. What is the total number of possible hops?
b. What is the time needed to finish a complete cycle
of PN

6.54
 DSSS

we replace each data bit with n bits using a spreading code. In other
words, each bit is assigned a code of n bits, called chips, where the
chip rate is n times that of the data bit.

6.55
 DSSS example

Barker sequence: n=11

6.56
 We have a digital medium with a data rate of
10Mbps. How many 64-kbps voice channels
can be carried by this medium if we use DSSS
with the Barker sequence

6.57