The Vietnam War
HIST1014 – The Contemporary World since 1945
Dr Alex Bryne
First Indochina Second Indochina Third Indochina
War War War
1946-1954 1955-1975 1975-1991
The Vietnam War
Laotian Civil Cambodian
War Civil War
1959-1975 1967-1975
“The war emerges … not only as a military or political event but also as
a social, economic, and cultural process.”
We “do not have to discount the enormous … impact of the American
intervention in Vietnam in order to explore and appreciate the
Vietnamese dimensions of the war.”
- Edward Miller and Tuong Vu, “The Vietnam War as a Vietnamese War:
Agency and Society in the Study of the Second Indochina War,” Journal of
Vietnamese Studies 4, no. 3 (2009): 1-16.
“the name [the American War] encourages Vietnamese people to
think of themselves as victims of foreign aggression. As victims, they
are conveniently stricken with amnesia about what they did to one
another and how they extended their war westwards into Cambodia
and Laos, countries that a unified Vietnam would strive to influence,
dominate, and even invade in the post-war era.”
- Việt Thanh Nguyễn, Nothing Ever Dies: Vietnam and the Memory of
War (Harvard University Press, 2016)
History of Nam Việt
• 111 BC – Chinese Empire establishes rules over Vietnam.
• 938 – Victory at Battle of Bạch Đằng River over China.
• 1802 – Nguyễn dynasty established under Emperor Gai Long.
• 1858 – France begins invasion of southern Vietnam.
• 1863 – France establishes colonial rule over Cambodia.
• 1884 – France establishes colonial rule over Vietnam.
• 1887 – French Indochina created.
• 1893 – France establishes colonial rule over Laos (integrated
into French Indochina in 1899).
Hồ Chí Minh and Nationalism
• 1890 – Born as Nguyễn Sinh Cung.
• Travels Vietnam as a teacher in early adulthood.
• 1911 – Works on French merchant ship and lives in Paris.
• Begins to formulate plans for Vietnamese independence.
• 1919 – Unsuccessfully seeks audience with Woodrow Wilson.
• 1920 – Founding member of the French Communist Party.
• 1923 – Moves to Moscow and embraces Communist International.
• 1930 – Founding member of Indochinese Communist Party (ICP).
Nationalism in Retrospect
Robert McNamara reflects on Vietnam in 1995:
• “We misjudged … the geopolitical intentions of our adversaries …
and we exaggerated the dangers to the United States of their
actions.”
• “We underestimated the power of nationalism to motivate a
people”.
• “Our misjudgements of friend and foe alike reflected our profound
ignorance of the history, culture, and politics of the people in the
area.”
Japan and the Second World War
• 1940 – France surrenders to Germany. Japan occupies Vietnam.
• Collaborative Vietnamese government under Emperor Bảo Đại
(Nguyễn dynasty) established in Saigon.
• 1941 – Hồ returns to Vietnam and forms Việt Minh.
• Việt Minh collaborates with Allied operatives in Southeast Asia.
• 1945 – Great Famine in Tonkin region.
• 1945 – Japan surrenders and Bảo Đại abdicates. Hồ declares
independence from Hanoi.
First Indochina War
• 1946 – France reclaims Cochinchina and seeks to recover
Indochinese colonies.
• 1950 – Stalemate reached. United States finances France
as Cold War ally against perceived communist threat.
• 1952 – War became unpopular in France.
• 1954 – French defeat at Battle of Điện Biên Phủ. United
States refuses to intervene.
The Geneva Conference
• Vietnam divided along 17th Parallel: Democratic Republic of
Vietnam (North Vietnam) and Republic of Vietnam (South
Vietnam).
• Reunification elections to be held within one year.
• Dwight Eisenhower outlines “domino theory” – fall of Vietnam
to communism would lead to further communist gains in
region.
• South East Asian Treaty Organization (SEATO) established.
Ngô Đình Diệm
• United States supports new Catholic, anti-communist leader
of South Vietnam Ngô Đình Diệm.
• Conducts covert operations and trains South Vietnamese
Army (ARVN).
• Diệm represses opposition, including Buddhists and former
Việt Minh.
• National Liberation Front (NLF) established in December
1960 to confront Diệm regime.
Kennedy and Diệm
• John F. Kennedy sends Special Forces and military advisors to
South Vietnam.
• Strategic Hamlets cause further resentment in South
Vietnam.
• June 1963 – Quảng Đức self-immolates in protest to
repression. Seen worldwide.
• Kennedy seeks to remove Diệm and supports military coup.
• November 1963 – Diệm assassinated.
Johnson and the Gulf of Tonkin
• Lydon Johnson’s policy shifts from political to military solution.
• General Nguyễn Khánh advocates aggression against North
Vietnam.
• United States increases covert operations.
• August 1964 – Gulf of Tonkin incident and Joint Resolution
1145.
• February 1965 – NLF attacks base in Pleiku. United States
responds with bombing raids.
• March 1965 – United States group troops deployed.
Fighting the War – the MACV
• MACV – Military Assistance Command Vietnam.
• NLF challenging foe to locate – United States and South Vietnam
normally on the defensive.
• Defoliant to destroy jungle terrain – angers South Vietnamese.
• Search and destroy missions – unrestricted media shows
brutality of United States troops and generates anti-war protest.
• GIs become demoralised rapidly – racial tensions, lack of
progress, drug use, drafted, and boredom.
• Illusion of the “body count” and “tipping point.”
Fighting the War – the ARVN
• ARVN – Army of the Republic of Vietnam.
• Became reliant on United States supplies and equipment.
• Low pay.
• Lacked the motivation and cause of the NLF.
• Overlooked by MACV and relegated to village defence and
support roles.
• Despite MACV’s low opinion, ARVN still demonstrated
tenacity in duty.
The Tet Offensive
• January 1968 offensive strike on major cities in South
Vietnam.
• Causalities significant on both sides, but NLF suffered
devastating losses.
• Psychological impact on United States was severe – public
sees evidence of lack of progress and defeat.
• Imagery of Saigon Embassy under siege.
• Johnson seeks peace talks and does not run for re-election.
Nixon’s “Peace with Honor”
• Richard Nixon wins presidency on mandate of “peace
with honor.”
• But sabotages peace talks and initiates slow process of
withdrawal – “Vietnamisation.”
• Only withdraw troops – not United States economic aid
or threat of nuclear weapons.
• But expands the war into Laos and Cambodia.
Laos and Cambodia
• Ho Chi Minh Trail supply route through Laos and Cambodia
secretly bombed.
• 1969 – United States begins bombing NLF bases in Cambodia.
• 1970 – Cambodia invites ARVN to expel NLF but United
States joins.
• 1971 – Devastating bombing raids in Cambodia.
• 1971 – Ground war expands into Laos via ARVN troops and
United States air support.
United States Withdrawal
• By the end of 1972 only 27,000 United States troops remain.
• March 1972 – Easter Offensive conducted by Peoples’ Army
of Vietnam (PAVN).
• Attempt to prove to Nixon that Vietnamisation had failed.
• Bombing raids conducted in response and peace talks
resume.
• 1973 – Ceasefire agreed and United States withdraws.
• 1975 – Saigon captured by PAVN.
After the War
• Third Indochina War begins and lasts until 1991.
• Saigon renamed Ho Chi Minh City – Hồ had died in 1969.
• Communist Party of Vietnam ratifies new constitution in
1976.
• Rehabilitation program forces many southern Vietnamese
to flee the country.
• “Vietnam Syndrome” afflicts United States foreign policy
for remainder of Cold War.
• Contention over how to memorialise the conflict.
