PSYCHOLOGY 2A:
DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
Module II:
THE PRENATAL PERIOD
SCOPE OF THE MODULE
Module II of this subject contains the following lessons:
Lesson 1 The beginning of life
Lesson 2 Conception and prenatal development
Lesson 3 Hazards during the prenatal period
OVERVIEW OF THE MODULE
In this module, the student studies the phenomenon associated with the
beginning of life. The mechanics of fertilization, or the union of the sperm cell
(male) and egg cell (female), is explained. This is followed by a description of the
developmental stages of the fetus. The module is concluded with a study of
common hazards associated with this stage.
OBJECTIVES OF THE MODULE
After completing this module, the student is expected to have learned and
understood:
1. how life begins;
2. the conception process;
3. the development inherent in this stage; and
4. the physical hazards during this period.
PSYCHOLOGY 2A:
DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
Module II, Lesson 1:
The Beginning of Life
LESSON OBJECTIVES:
After this lesson, the student is expected to have learned and understood:
1. the beginning of life; and
2. the characteristics of the prenatal period.
INTRODUCTION
In the preceding lesson, we studied the nature of development, maturation,
changes, growth and atrophy – essential terms in understanding our present
lesson. Now we are ready to study the mystery associated with the beginning of
life and its continuous development till adulthood and death.
How life begins.
The beginning of life is marked by the union of the sperm cell and egg cell.
The sperm cell is the male reproductive cell, and is also known as spermatozoa.
The female reproductive cell is known as the ova. The gonads or reproductive
organs of the male are the testes. In females, it is the ovum (plural ova). The ova
are produced in the ovaries.
Both male and female sex cells contain 23 chromosomes in each mature sex
cell. Each chromosome contains genes which are the bearers of heredity. There
are about 3,000 genes in each chromosome which are passed on from parent to
offspring.
The male cells go through two preliminary stages: maturation and fertilization.
The female cells go through three stages: maturation, ovulation and fertilization.
Maturation is the process of chronological reduction through cell division. It
may occur during the onset or puberty in both boys and girls. It is a stage where
the organ or organism achieves its fullest development status, or has achieved a
full grown state.
Ovulation occurs only in the female sex cells. One mature ovum is ejected
during the menstrual cycle. After its release from one of the follicles of the ovary,
it finds its way to the open end of the fallopian tube. A normal length of the
menstrual cycle is 28 days. Ovulation occurs between the 5 th and the 23rd day of
the cycle. The average is on the 11th day. If the ovum is not fertilized, it dies
within 24 hours.
Fertilization is the third stage of development. In order that new life shall
begin, fertilization should take place while the ovum is still in the fallopian tube.
Once the egg cell is fertilized, it will develop a hard shield so no other sperm cell
could further fertilize it. The fertilized egg shall be implanted in the endometrium,
or uterine wall. Cell division then occurs. If the egg is not fertilized, then it dies. It
passes out of the uterus. At the same time, the uterine wall collapses and the
nutrition secreted within the wall is released as menstrual blood. The fetus is
attached to the placenta by the umbilical cord.
Pregnancy is divided into three periods:
1. Germinal – the first two weeks of life.
2. Embryo – From the third week up to the eight.
3. Fetal – From the ninth week up to birth.
Germinal period is the fertilization stage and the implantation of the fertilized
egg in the uterine wall.
The embryonic period is the development of all body systems. The
development follows a cephalo-caudal and a proximo-distal pattern. Cephalo-
caudal literally means from head to tail. The development starts from the head,
and then it progresses to the feet. In like manner, the proximo-distal refers to
development from the inside out.
The umbilical cord serves as the passage of nutrition from the mother to the
baby, and at the same time it serves as an excretory organ fro the waste. It is
also referred to as the “life-line” of the fetus and is attached to the placenta. At
birth when the umbilical cord is cut off, the baby begins to function independently
from the mother. The scar left by the umbilical cord at the abdomen of the baby is
called the navel.
A SUMMARY
Life begins with the union of the egg cell and the sperm cell. This is called
fertilization. Fertilization should take place while the egg cell is still in the fallopian
tube. This is between the 5th and the 23rd day of the cycle. The average is 11
days. The ovum has uterus, causing the inflamed uterus to release the uterine
blood which contains the nutrition of the fetus, had it been fertilized. This cycle is
repeated as long as the woman is not pregnant up to the time she reaches the
menopausal stage. Menopausal is a period when the woman no longer produces
egg cells and she is no longer capable of pregnancy. This corresponds to about
the age of 40.
Pregnancy is divided into three periods:
(a) Germinal Period – First week after fertilization
(b) Ebryonic Period – Three to eight weeks
(c) Fetal Period – Nine weeks up to birth
PSYCHOLOGY 2A, Module 2, Lesson 1
SELF-PROGRESS CHECK TEST
Test I. True or False
_____ 1. There are 23 chromosomes in both the spermatozoa and the
Ovum.
_____ 2. Ovulation does not occur in males.
_____ 3. Fertilization refers to the release of the egg cell from the fallopian
tube.
_____ 4. The average duration of ovulation is on the 15th day after
menstruation.
_____ 5. The fertilized ovum should be implanted in the cervix.
_____ 6. Germinal period is contained in the fertilization period.
_____ 7. The chromosomes are found in the genes.
_____ 8. Maturation of the gonads comes before fertilization.
_____ 9. The first period in pregnancy is the embryonic period.
_____ 10. The umbilical cord is attached to the placenta and this is where the
infant passes through during the birth process.
Test II. Identification
_____ 1. Another term for reproductive organs applied to both sexes.
_____ 2. The place in the female reproductive system where the ova are
produced.
_____ 3. The place in the male reproductive system where the spermatozoa
are produced.
_____ 4. The process of chromosome reduction through cell division.
_____ 5. The average length of the menstrual cycle.
PSYCHOLOGY 2A:
DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
Module II, Lesson 2:
Conception and Prenatal Development
LESSON OBJECTIVES:
After this lesson, the student is expected to have learned and understood:
1. what takes place during conception; and
2. the periods of prenatal development
INTRODUCTION
The previous lesson described the mechanics o the beginning of life. After
knowing the conditions essential to it, the phenomenon of conception and
prenatal development will be dealt with next.
Conception.
When a single sperm cell from a male unites with a single egg cell from a
female, conception begins. This union can occur anywhere with the female
reproductive system, but fertilization usually occurs in the fallopian tube. The
single sperm cell that fertilizes the egg cell is only one of about 350 million sperm
cells that have been deposited by the male during the sexual intercourse or
coitus. The fertilized egg cell is now called a zygote. It contains all the necessary
hereditary traits that will guide the human being throughout his life. It is estimated
that about 25 to 40% of all fertilized egg cells develop into a human being.
Special issues on conception were brought to light when Sir Francis Galton
proposed the idea of eugenics, or selective breeding. This was originally done to
improve the breed of race horses, or crows, and other animals. Eugenics among
human beings was first applied by Adolf Hitler during World War II when he
conceived the idea of a “master race” or “pure stock.” Special breeding homes
were established where the soldiers and women were chosen for their special
physical and mental characteristics. The mentally ill and those with genetic
disorders were murdered or were not allowed to mate. This, however, was an
inhuman act and the practice did not prosper.
Conditions established at conception.
1. Hereditary endowment. This is determined once and for all at conception.
However, variations in environment may not develop the endowment to the
fullest.
2. Hereditary is a matter of chance. The probability upon which a particular
sperm cell can fertilize the egg cell is one in 300,000,000,000,000 chances
(trillion).
3. Hereditary endowment establishes the number of offspring. Although the
majority of offspring are singletons, multiple births sometimes occur. It is
estimated that one out of 80 births will be twins, and one out of every 9,000
births will be triplets.
When the fertilized egg cell splits into two or more distinct parts during the
early stages of cell cleavage, multiple births occur. The baby becomes
uniovular or identical twins. They are always of the same sex. If two or more
egg cells are fertilized by different sperm cells, multiple births occur. This is
known as fraternal twins. They can be of the same or different sexes. The
siblings are not necessarily similar with each other.
4. Sex of the baby. The sex of the baby is established at conception by the kind
of spermatozoon that unites with the ovum. Spermatozoa, or sperm cells, are
of two kinds, and they are produced in the male gonads in equal number. The
first type contains 22 matched chromosomes, plus one X chromosome. The
second type contains 22 matched chromosomes plus one Y chromosome.
The X and the Y chromosomes are the sex-determining chromosomes.
The mature ovum, on the other hand, always contains an X chromosome. If
the ovum is fertilized by a Y- bearing spermatozoon, the offspring will be a
male. On the other hand, if the ovum is fertilized by an X-bearing
spermatozoon, the offspring will be a female.
Once the male and female cells have united, nothing can be done to change
the sex of the newly developed individual.
Prenatal development.
The average prenatal period is 10 lunar months. One lunar month is
equivalent to 28 days. The period, nevertheless, is not fixed. It varies from 180-
334 days.
The prenatal period is divided into three stages
1. Period of the zygote
2. Period of the embryo
3. Period of the fetus
The zygote.
From fertilization to the end of the second week, the zygote is about the size
of a pin head. It passes down the fallopian tube to the uterus and undergoes a
series of cell division. The outer layer develops into the placenta, umbilical cord
and amniotic sac. The inner layer develops into a new human being. Implantation
in the uterine wall takes place about 10 days after fertilization.
The embryo.
At the end of the second week up to the end of the second lunar month, the
embryo now becomes a miniature human being. The essential parts of the
human body are formed. It is about 1 ½ inch in length. The nourishment which
will sustain the embryo passes through the umbilical cord which is attached to
the placenta.
The fetus.
This period starts from the end of the second lunar month up to birth. The
fetal heartbeat can be detected by the 15th week. The fetal movements are
manifested between the 18th and 2nd week. After the end of the 7th lunar month,
the fetus can already survive if born prematurely.
A SUMMARY
1. Conception – the union of the egg cell and the sperm cell. The fertilized egg
becomes a zygote. It contains all the necessary endowments.
2. Hereditary endowment. Breeding or endowment can be improved through
eugenics. Eugenics is done through selective breeding. However, eugenics is
more applicable to the lower forms of animals and not to human beings.
3. Hereditary endowment is established at conception.
4. Number of offspring is established at conception. Multiple births rest upon the
splitting of the fertilized egg cell.
5. Sex. This I fixed at conception depending upon which kind of chromosome
united with the ovum. An X plus X chromosome results to a female, while X
and Y chromosome results to a male offspring.
PRENATAL PERIOD DEVELOPMENTAL MILESTONE
STAGE PERIOD PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
The First week Union of egg cell and sperm cell / Fertilization
ZYGOTE
Hard covering is developed to prevent other sperm
cells from further fertilizing the ovum.
Size of a pinhead
Source of nutrition is the egg yoke/no change in
size.
Second week Travels down the Fallopian tube to the uterus
About 10 days, the fertilized egg is implanted in the
uterine wall.
In the process, the egg undergoes cell division. It
divides many times and separates into an inner and
outer layer
The outer layer develops into a placenta, the
umbilical and the amniotic sac.
The inner layer develops into a new human being.
The End of second Embryo develops into a miniature human being
EMBRYO week All essential parts of the body are established.
The head occupies about one-half of the body
length.
There are spontaneous movements of the limbs.
The placenta, umbilical cord and amniotic sac are
developed. They serve as protection and are
instrumental in nourishing the embryo.
At the end of the second lunar month, the embryo
weighs about 1 ¼ ounces and measures about 1 ½
inches long.
The FETUS Third lunar Changes occur in the size of the parts already
month formed.
Some internal organs can function well enough.
Fetal heartbeat can be detected at about the 15th
Fourth lunar
week.
month
Nerve cells increase rapidly from the third week up
to the fourth lunar month, although the rate of
development depends upon the nutrition of the
mother.
Fifth & Sixth Fetal movement usually appears during the fifth
lunar month lunar month.
This movement will increase rapidly up to the ninth
month and then slow down because it is now
crowded in the amniotic sac.
Seventh & Eight
Some fetus may survive if born prematurely at the
lunar month
end of sixth lunar month.
Ninth lunar
By the end of the seventh lunar month, the fetus
month
can well survived if born prematurely
Tenth lunar
The fetal body is completely formed, though he may
month
be a little bit smaller.
The fetus is now a full term baby.
PSYCHOLOGY 2A, Module 2, Lesson 2
SELF-PROGRESS CHECK TEST
Test I. True or False
_____ 1. The union of the egg cell and the sperm cell results to a zygote.
_____ 2. Conception is the result of the union of the sperm cell and the egg
cell.
_____ 3. The fetus begins at the end of the second week up to the second
lunar month.
_____ 4. The heartbeat can be detected towards the beginning of the second
lunar month.
_____ 5. When the fertilized egg cell will split into two, the result will be
fraternal twins.
_____ 6. Eugenics is advisable for adaption by human begins in order to
improve the quality of our race.
_____ 7. A baby girl is the union X and Y chromosomes,
_____ 8. The females have no Y-chromosomes.
_____ 9. The average prenatal period is 10 calendar months.
_____ 10. The male, not the female, determines the sex of the baby.
Test II. Identification
_____ 1. The term given to the first prenatal period.
_____ 2. The study which deals with the improvement of the race through
selective breeding.
_____ 3. The term given to twins which develop out of two separate egg
cells.
_____ 4. The length in days for the implantation of the fertilized egg cell in
the female reproductive system.
_____ 5. The organ which serves as a passage for the nutrition of the baby
up to the time of birth.
PSYCHOLOGY 2A:
DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
Module II, Lesson 3:
Hazards During the Prenatal Period
LESSON OBJECTIVES:
After this lesson, the student is expected to have learned and understood:
1. the common physical hazards in each stage of the prenatal period; and
2. the conditions which affect the development of the zygote.
Physical Hazards during the Prenatal Period:
1. Malnutrition of the zygote. If the zygote has insufficient egg yoke to sustain
a normal life, it will suffer starvation and the mother may have an abortion.
Hence, it is important that conceiving mother receive sufficient and balanced
diets.
2. Unfavorable condition of the uterine wall. This will prevent implantation of
the zygote. Glandular imbalance will result to a hardened uterine wall which is
not conducive to implantation.
3. Improper place of implantation. The zygote may be attached to the
fallopian tube. If this happens, the zygote will die due to lack of nutrition. The
life-line of the zygote which is the umbilical cord, cannot extract nutrition from
the fallopian tube. The implantation should only take place in the uterine wall.
This condition is known as ectopic pregnancy.
4. Miscarriage. This hazard is common when the mother meets accidents such
as fall, emotional shocks, malnutrition, glandular imbalance, or serious
disease such as diabetes or pneumonia. Miscarriages usually occur between
the 10th and 11th weeks after conception, which is the most delicate time
during the woman’s scheduled menstruation. Miscarriages happen up to the
5th month of pregnancy.
5. Abnormal development. This is caused by maternal malnutrition, vitamin
deficiency, habitual use of drugs, alcohol, cigarettes, or illness such as
German measles.
Psychological Hazards during the Prenatal Period
Maternal stress. Complications in delivery may be caused by maternal
stress. Adverse emotions may lead to the contraction of the uterus, resulting to
painful labor and difficult delivery.
Illness as Hazard during the Prenatal Period
1. Developmental irregularities are serious problems for they may result to the
birth of a blue baby who may expire during delivery. The baby becomes
“blue” for lack of oxygen at the birth. Examples of these irregularities are
epilepsy, cerebral palsy and mental deficiency.
2. A mother who contacts rubella during the first trimester of her pregnancy
could lead to serious irregularities of the unborn. The defect may be in the
malformation of the eyes or ears, or abnormality in the heart.
Chemicals as Hazards during the Prenatal Period
1. Researches show that the hormones estrogen and progestin’s when taken
during the early stage of pregnancy may disturb the normal cardiovascular
development of the fetus and cause congenital heart disease when taken
after the fourth lunar month.
2. Pregnant women who are working in factories and are exposed to toxic
chemicals are in danger of developing deformed or sickly babies. The babies
may possess weak lungs, are asthmatic, or develop various respiratory
ailments, and are less resistant to illness.
Paternal and Maternal Age as Hazards
Maternal age of women approaching menopause also constitutes a physical
hazard. The uterine wall of women becomes barren and hardened with age and
cannot secrete the necessary nutrition which serves as food for the fertilized
ovum and ultimately the fetus.
There are cases of men who fathered babies when they were beyond 65
years old, and the results were not encouraging. Beyond 60, the spermatozoa
are weak and lack the necessary nutrition and vitality to sustain a healthy zygote.
Hence, the offspring is generally sickly and deficient in his mental ability.
Menopausal babies are usually smaller and sickly because of nutritional
deficiencies during the foundation stage. Deficiencies in the early stages of
development cannot be remedied by an improved diet in later years because the
development of the nervous system, especially the brain, is only confined to the
early formative years.
A SUMMARY
Hazards During the Prenatal Period:
Physical Hazards
1. Malnutrition. The zygote has insufficient egg yoke.
2. Unfavorable condition of the uterine wall as a result of glandular
imbalance
3. Inappropriate place for implantation of zygote leading to ectopic
pregnancy. Mothers should have prenatal consultation to determine the
correct placement of the zygote.
4. Miscarriage due to accidents.
5. Abnormal development. This is due to use of drugs and other chemicals.
Psychological Hazards
Maternal stress, accidents or glandular imbalance may cause abortion.
Illness as Hazards
1. A fetus born with less than 2 pounds weight has less chance of survival.
And usually becomes “Blue babies” when they suffer anoxia.
2. When the mother contacts rubella, the illness affects the development.
And may lead to malformation in the eyes or ears, cardiovascular or
congenital heart disease, cretinism or hydrocephalus (water in the head)
Chemicals as Hazards
1. Taking artificial sources of progesterone and estrogen may lead to
congenital heart defects.
2. Pregnant women working in chemical factories are exposed to hazards
that may lead to respiratory ailments.
Paternal and Maternal Age as Hazards
1. Menopausal women are advised not to get pregnant because their babies
will suffer fro malnutrition and some forms of abnormalities.
2. Fathers beyond 60 years of age have weak spermatozoa. If allowed to
fertilize an egg cell, it may result to a baby with poor bodily constitution
that is susceptible to health problems.
PSYCHOLOGY 2A, Module 2, Lesson 3
SELF-PROGRESS CHECK TEST
Test I. True or False
_____ 1. The nutrition of the zygote passes through the umbilical cord.
_____ 2. A hardened uterine wall will contribute to the favorable plantation of
the fertilized egg.
_____ 3. The fallopian tube is the appropriate place for zygote implantation.
_____ 4. Miscarriages are likely to happen up to the 5th month of pregnancy.
_____ 5. The least weight for a premature baby to survive is 2 pounds.
_____ 6. The cause of “blue babies” is lack of oxygen at birth.
_____ 7. Men are not advised to father babies at age 55 or above.
_____ 8. The intake of female hormones is advisable during the early stage
of pregnancy in order to avoid miscarriages.
_____ 9. Miscarriages seldom happen during the scheduled menstrual
period.
_____ 10. Female embryos, in general, have better chances of survival
compared to males.
Test II. Identification
_____ 1. An abnormal condition when the head of the baby is enlarged or
contains water.
_____ 2. The last prenatal stage of development.
_____ 3. The term which denotes ejection of the fetus before its normal birth.
_____ 4. The illness contracted by the mother which may result in the
malfunction of the eyes or ears.
_____ 5. This is the source of nutrition of the zygote.
PSYCHOLOGY 2A, Module II
ANSWER KEYS TO THE SELF-PROGRESS CHECK TESTS
Lesson 1
Test I. Test II.
1, True 6. True 1. Gonads
2. True 7. False 2. Ovary
3. False 8. True 3. Testes
4. False 9. False 4. Maturation
5. False 10. False 5. 28 days
Lesson 2
Test I. Test II.
1. True 6. False 1. Zygote
2. True 7. False 2. Eugenics
3. False 8. True 3. Fraternal
4. False 9. False 4. 10 days
5. False 10. True 5. Umbilical cord
Lesson 3
Test I. Test II.
1. True 6. True 1. Hydrocephalus
2. False 7. False 2. Fetus
3. False 8. False 3. Miscarriage
4. True 9. False 4. Rubella
5. True 10. True 5. Yoke
