Principle of Information Technology (CST-1111)

Number Systems
Two types of number systems are:
Non-positional number system
- Use symbols such as I for 1, II for 2, III for 3, IIII for 4, IIIII for 5, etc
- Each symbol represents the same value regardless of its position in the number
- The symbols are simply added to find out the value of a particular number

Difficulty
 It is difficult to perform arithmetic with such a number system

Positional number system

- Use only a few symbols called digits.
- These symbols represent different values depending on the position they occupy in the number
- The value of each digit is determined by:
1. The digit itself
2. The position of the digit in the number
3. The base of the number system
(base = total number of digits in the number system)
- The maximum value of a single digit is always equal to one less than the value of the base

Decimal number system

- A positional number system that has10 symbols or digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9). (base = 10)
- The maximum value of a single digit is 9 (one less than the value of the base)
- Each position of a digit represents a specific power of the base (10)
- We use this number system in our day-to-day life
For example, decimal number 2586 =258610
(2*10 )+(5*10 )+(8*10 )+(6*100)=2000+500+80+6
3 2 1

=2586

Note: Positional number system suggests the following characteristics:

1. The value of the base determines the total number of different symbols or digits available in
the number system. The first of these choices is always zero.
2. The maximum value of a single digit is always equal to one less than the value of the base.

Binary Number System

- A positional number system that has only 2 symbols or digits (0 and 1). (base = 2 )
- The maximum value of a single digit is 1 (one less than the value of the base)
- Each position of a digit represents a specific power of the base (2)
- This number system is used in computers.
Example
101012 = (1 * 24) + (0 * 23) + (1 * 22) + (0 * 21) x (1 * 20)
= 16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1
= 2110

Representing Numbers in different number system

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Principle of Information Technology (CST-1111)

- In order to be specific about which number system we are referring to, it is a common practice to
indicate the base as a subscript. Thus, we write:
101012 = 2110

Bit
- Bit stands for binary digit.
- A bit in computer terminology means either a 0 or a 1.
- A binary number consisting of n bits is called an n-bit number.

Memory Dump
- Every computer stores numbers, letters, and other special characters in binary form.
- Computer professionals need to know raw data contents of a computer’s memory on several
occasions.
- A commonly used way of doing this is to print/display raw memory contents, which is called
memory dump.

Binary Decimal
Equivalent
000 0
001 1
010 2
011 3
100 4
101 5
110 6
111 7

Figure: 3.1 3-bit numbers with their decimal values.

Octal Number System

- A positional number system has total 8 symbols or digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7)( base = 8 )
- The maximum value of a single digit is 7 (one less than the value of the base.
- Each position of a digit represents a specific power of the base (8)
- Since there are only 8 digits, 3 bits (23 = 8) are sufficient to represent any octal number in binary
Example
20578 = (2 * 83) + (0 * 82) + (5 *81) + (7 * 80)
= 1024 + 0 + 40 + 7
= 107110

Hexadecimal number system

A positional number system has total 16 symbols or digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F)
(base = 16 )
- The symbols A, B, C, D, E and F represent the decimal values 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15
respectively
- The maximum value of a single digit is 15 (one less than the value of the base)
- Each position of a digit represents a specific power of the base (16)
- Since there are only 16 digits, 4 bits (24 = 16) are sufficient to represent any hexadecimal number
in binary

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Principle of Information Technology (CST-1111)

Example 1AF16 = (1* 162) + (A *161) + (F * 160)

= 1 * 256 + 10 * 16 + 15 * 1
= 256 + 160 + 15
= 43110

Converting a Number of Another Base to a Decimal Number

Method
Step 1: Determine the column (positional) value of each digit
Step 2: Multiply the obtained column values by the digits in the corresponding columns
Step 3: Calculate the sum of these products

Example
47068 = ?10
47068 = 4 * 83 + 7 * 82 + 0 *81 + 6 * 80
= 4 * 512 + 7 *64 + 0 + 6* 1
= 2048 + 448 + 0 + 6
= 250210

Note: Common values multiplied by the corresponding digits

Converting a Decimal Number to Number of Another Base

Division-Remainder Method
Step 1: Divide the decimal number to be converted by the value of the new base
Step 2: Record the remainder from Step 1 as the rightmost digit (least significant digit) of the new
base number
Step 3: Divide the quotient of the previous divide by the new base
Step 4: Record the remainder from Step 3 as the next digit (to the left) of the new base number
Repeat Steps 3 and 4, recording remainders from right to left, until the quotient becomes zero in Step
3
Note that the last remainder thus obtained will be the most significant digit (MSD) of the new base
number
Example 95210 = ?8
Solution:
8 952 Remainders

119 0
14 7
1 6
0 1

Hence, 95210 = 16708

Converting from a Base Other Than 10 to Another Base Other Than 10
Method
Step 1: Convert the original number to a decimal number (base 10)
Step 2: Convert the decimal number so obtained to the new base number

Example 5456 = ?4
Solution: Step 1: Convert from base 6 to base 10
5456 = 5 * 62 + 4 * 61 + 5 * 60
= 5 * 36 + 4 * 6 + 5 * 1
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Principle of Information Technology (CST-1111)

= 180 + 24 + 5
= 20910
Step 2: Convert 20910 to base 4
4 209 Remainders
52 1
13 0
3 1
0 3

Hence, 20910 = 31014

So, 5456 = 20910 = 31014
Thus, 5456 = 31014
Shortcut Method for Converting a Binary Number to its Equivalent Octal Number
Method
Step 1: Divide the digits into groups of three starting from the right
Step 2: Convert each group of three binary digits to one octal digit using the method of binary to
decimal conversion
Example
11010102 = ?8
Step 1: Divide the binary digits into groups of 3 starting from right
001 101 010
Step 2: Convert each group into one octal digit
0012 = 0*22 + 0 * 21 + 1 * 20 = 1
1012 = 1 * 22 + 0 * 21 + 1 * 20 = 5
0102 = 0 * 22 + 1 * 21 + 0 * 20 = 2
Hence, 11010102 = 1528

Shortcut Method for Converting an Octal Number to its Equivalent Binary Number
Method
Step 1: Convert each octal digit to a 3 digit binary number (the octal digits may be treated as decimal
for this conversion)
Step 2: Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 3 digits each) into a single binary number
Example
5628 = ?2
Step 1: Convert each octal digit to 3 binary digits 58 = 1012, 68 = 1102, 28 = 0102
Step 2: Combine the binary groups 5628 = 101 110 010
Hence, 5628 = 1011100102

Shortcut Method for Converting a Binary Number to its Equivalent Hexadecimal Number
Method
Step 1: Divide the binary digits into groups of four starting from the right
Step 2: Combine each group of four binary digits to one hexadecimal digit
Example
1111012 = (?)16
Step 1: Divide the binary digits into groups of four starting from the right
0011 1101
Step 2: Convert each group into a hexadecimal digit
00112 = 0 * 23 + 0 *22 + 1 * 21 + 1 * 20
= 310 = 316
11012 = 1 x 23 + 1 x 22 + 0 x 21 + 1 x 20

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Principle of Information Technology (CST-1111)

= 1310 = D16
Hence, 1111012 = 3D16

Shortcut Method for Converting a Hexadecimal Number to its Equivalent Binary Number
Method
Step 1: Convert the decimal equivalent of each hexadecimal digit to a 4 digit binary number
Step 2: Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 4 digits each) in a single binary number

Example
2AB16 = ?2
Step 1: Convert each hexadecimal digit to a 4 digit binary number
216 = 210 = 00102
A16 = 1010 = 10102
B16 = 1110 = 10112

Step 2: Combine the binary groups (2AB)16 = (0010 1010 1011) 2

Hence, 2AB16 = 0010101010112

Fractional Numbers
Fractional numbers are formed same way as decimal number system
In general, a number in a number system with base b would be written as: an an-1… a0 . a-1 a-2 … a-m
And would be interpreted to mean: an * bn + an-1 * bn-1 + … + a0 * b0 + a-1 * b-1 + a-2 * b-2 + … + a-m *
b-m
The symbols an, an-1, …, a-m in above representation should be one of the b symbols allowed in the
number system
Formation of Fractional Numb Binary Point
y Number System)
Position 4 3 2 1 0. -1 -2 -3 -4

Position Value 24 23 22 21 20 2-1 2-2 2-3 2-4

Quantity 16 8 4 2 1 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/16

Represented

Example
110.1012 = 1 x 22 + 1 x 21 + 0 x 20 + 1 x 2-1 + 0 x 2-2 + 1 x 2-3

= 4 + 2 + 0 + 0.5 + 0 + 0.125
= 6.62510

Octal Point

Position 3 2 1 0 . -1 -2 -3

Position Value 83 82 81 80 8-1 8-2 8-3

Quantity 512 64 8 1 1/8 1/64 1/512

Represented

Example

127.548 = 1 * 82 + 2 * 81 + 7 * 80 + 5 * 8-1 + 4 * 8-2

= 64 + 16 + 7 + 5/8 + 4/64
= 87 + 0.625 + 0.0625

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Principle of Information Technology (CST-1111)

= 87.687510

Key Technologies Words/

Base
 Binary number system
 Binary point
 Bit
 Decimal number system
 Division-Remainder technique
 Fractional numbers
 Hexadecimal number system
 Least Significant Digit (LSD)
 Memory dump
 Most Significant Digit (MSD)
 Non-positional number

System
 Number system
 Octal number system
 Hexadecimal system
 Positional number system

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Principle of Information Technology (CST-1111)

Computer Codes

Numeric Data
- consists of only numbers 0, 1, 2, …, 9
Alphabetic Data
- consists of only the letters A, B, C,…, Z, in both uppercase and lowercase, and blank
character
Alphanumeric Data
- is a string of symbols where a symbol may be one of the letters A, B, C, …, Z, in either
uppercase or lowercase, or one of the digits 0,1, 2, …, 9, or a special character, such as + - * /
, . () = etc.

Computer codes
- are used for internal representation of data in computers
- As computers use binary numbers for internal data representation, computer codes use binary
coding schemes
- In binary coding, every symbol that appears in the data is represented by a group of bits
- The group of bits used to represent a symbol is called a byte.

- As most modern coding schemes use 8 bits to represent a symbol, the term byte is often used
to mean a group of 8 bits

- Commonly used computer codes are BCD, EBCDIC, and ASCII

Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)

- is one of the early computer codes
- In BCD code, each digit of a decimal number is represented by its binary equivalent instead
of converting the entire decimal value to a binary number.
-
Decimal BCD
digits Equivalent
0 0000
1 0001
2 0010
3 0011
4 0100
5 0101
6 0110
7 0111
8 1000
9 1001
Figure: 4.1 BCD equivalent of decimal digits.

Figure 4.1 shows BCD equivalent of each decimal digit. Since 8 and 9 require 4 bits, all decimal
digits are represented in BCD by 4 bits.
Converting 4210 is equal to 1010102
Converting 4210 into BCD result is 4210 = 0100 0010 or 01000010 in BCD
4 2

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Principle of Information Technology (CST-1111)

- uses 6 bits to represent a symbol

- It can represent 64 (26) different characters

Characte BCD Code Octal Character BCD Code Octal

r equivalent equivalent
Zone Digit Zone Digit
A 11 0001 61 S 01 0010 22
B 11 0010 62 T 01 0011 23
C 11 0011 63 U 01 0100 24
D 11 0100 64 V 01 0101 25
E 11 0101 65 W 01 0110 26
F 11 0110 66 X 01 0111 27
G 11 0111 67 Y 01 1000 30
H 11 1000 70 Z 01 1001 31
I 11 1001 71
0 00 0000 00
J 10 0001 41 1 00 0001 01
K 10 0010 42 2 00 0010 01
L 10 0011 43 3 00 0011 03
M 10 0100 44 4 00 0100 04
N 10 0101 45 5 00 0101 05
O 10 0110 46 6 00 0110 06
P 10 0111 47 7 00 0111 07
Q 10 1000 50 8 00 1000 10
R 10 1001 51 9 00 1001 11
Figure: 4.2 Alphabetic and numeric characters in BCD along with their Octal equivalent

Example4.1
Write the binary digits used to record the word BASE in BCD

Solution:
B = 110010 in BCD binary notation
A = 110001 in BCD binary notation
S = 010010 in BCD binary notation
E = 110101 in BCD binary notation
So the binary digits
110010 110001 010010 110101
B A S E
will record the word BASE in BCD

EBCDIC

EBCDIC stands for Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code. It uses 8 bits to
represent a symbol. It can represent 256(28) different characters.

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Principle of Information Technology (CST-1111)

Coding of Alphabetic and Numeric Characters in EBCDIC

Example
Using binary notation, write EBCDIC coding for the word BIT. How many bytes are required for
this representation?
Solution:
B = 1100 0010 in EBCDIC binary notation
I = 1100 1001 in EBCDIC binary notation
T = 1110 0011 in EBCDIC binary notation
Hence, EBCDIC coding for the word BIT in binary notation will be

11000010 11001001 11100011

B I T

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Principle of Information Technology (CST-1111)

ASCII

ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange. ASCII is of two
types- ASCII-7 and ASCII-8. ASCII-7 uses 7 bits to represent a symbol and can represent 128(2 7)
different characters. ASCII-8 uses 8 bits to represent a symbol and can represent 256(2 8) different
characters. First 128 characters in ASCII-7 and ASCII-8 are same.

Coding of Numeric and Alphabetic Characters in ASCII

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Principle of Information Technology (CST-1111)

Example

Write binary coding for the word BOY in AsCII-7. How many bytes are required for
this representation?

Solution:

B = 1000010 in ASCII-7 binary notation

O = 1001111 in ASCII-7 binary notation
Y = 1011001 in ASCII-7 binary notation

Hence, binary coding for the word BOY in ASCII-7 will be

1000010 1001111 1011001

B O Y

Example

Write binary coding for the word SKY in AsCII-8. How many bytes are required for
this representation?

Solution:

S = 01010011 in ASCII-8 binary notation

K = 01001011 in ASCII-8 binary notation
Y = 01011001 in ASCII-8 binary notation

Hence, binary coding for the word SKY in ASCII-8 will be

01010011 01001011 01011001

S K Y
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Principle of Information Technology (CST-1111)

Computer Arithmetic

Basic arithmetic operations using binary numbers:

(1) Addition (+)
(2) Subtraction (-)
(3) Multiplication (*)
(4) Division (/)

Why Binary?
Almost all computers use binary numbers for internal computations because we can design
and implement electronic circuit for performing arithmetic operations in binary mode more easily,
reliably, and inexpensively than those required for performing arithmetic operations in decimal
mode.

 Information is handled in a computer by electronic/ electrical components

 Electronic components operate in binary mode (can only indicate two states – on (1) or off
(0)
 Binary number system has only two digits (0 and 1), and is suitable for expressing two
possible states
 In binary system, computer circuits only have to handle two binary digits rather than ten
decimal digits causing:
 Simpler internal circuit design
 Less expensive
 More reliable circuits
 Arithmetic rules/processes possible with binary numbers

Binary arithmetic is simple to learn as binary number system has only two digits : 0 and 1.
The followings are rules and example for the four basic arithmetic operations using binary numbers.

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Principle of Information Technology (CST-1111)

(1) Binary Addition

Rule for binary addition is as follows:
0+0=0
0+1=1
1+0=1
1+1=0 plus a carry of 1 to next higher column
1
1+
10

1/ (carry)
111
110
11 01

Example (5.1)
Add binary numbers 10011 and 1001 in both decimal and binary form.
Solution
Binary Decimal
11 (carry) 1/ (carry)
10011 19
+1001 +9
11100 28
In this example, carry are generated for first and second columns

Example (5.2)
Add binary numbers 100111 and 11011 in both decimal and binary form.
Solution
Binary Decimal
11111 (carry) 1 (carry)
100111 39
+11011 +27
1000010 66
(1*2^6)+(1*2^1)=66
The addition of three 1s can be broken up into two steps.
First, we add only two 1s giving 10 (1 + 1 =10).
The third 1 is now added to this result to obtain 11 (a 1 sum with a 1 carry).
Hence, 1 + 1 + 1 =1, plus a carry of 1 to next higher column.

(2) Binary Subtraction

Rule for binary subtraction is as follows:
0-0=0
0 - 1 = 1 with a borrow from the next column
1-0=1
1-1=0

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Principle of Information Technology (CST-1111)

Example (5.3)
Subtract 011102 from 101012
Solution

12
0202 (borrow)
10101
-01110
00111

Additive Method of Binary Subtraction

- is known as complementary subtraction.

Complement of a number

Complement of the number = (Base)n -1-N

where, n is the number of digits in the number and N is the number.

Example (5.4)
Find the complement of 3710
Solution
Since the number has 2 digits and the value of base is 10,
(Base)n - 1 = 102 - 1 = 99
Now 99 - 37 = 62
Hence, complement of 3710 = 6210
Example (5.5)
Find the complement of 68
Solution
Since the number has 1 digit and the value of base is 8,
(Base)n - 1 = 81 - 1 = 78
Now 78 - 68 = 18
Hence, complement of 68 = 18

Complement of a binary number

- can be obtained by transforming all its 0’s to 1’s and all its 1’s to 0’s

Complement of 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 is

0 1 0 0 1 0 1

Note: Verify by conventional complement

Complementary method of subtraction

Involves following 3 steps:
Step 1: Find the complement of the number you are subtracting (subtrahend)
Step 2: Add this to the number from which you are taking away (minuend)

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Principle of Information Technology (CST-1111)

Step 3: If there is a carry of 1, add it to obtain the result; if there is no carry, recomplement the sum
and attach a negative sign
Complementary subtraction is an additive approach of subtraction
Example (5.6)
Subtract 5610 from 9210 using complementary method.
Solution
Step 1: Complement of 5610 = 102 - 1 - 56 = 99 – 56 = 4310
Step 2: 92 + 43 = 135 (Here, 1 is carry.)
Step 3: Add carry 1 to sum: 35 + 1
Result = 36
The result may be verified using the method of normal subtraction: 92 - 56 = 36

Example (5.7)
Subtract 3510 from 1810 using complementary method.
Solution
Step 1: Complement of 3510 = 102 - 1 – 35 = 99 – 35 = 6410
Step 2: 18 +64 = 82
Step 3: Since there is no carry, re-complement the sum and attach a negative sign to obtain the result.
Result = -(99 - 82) = -17
The result may be verified using normal subtraction: 18 - 35 = -17

Binary Subtraction using complementary method

Example (5.8)
Subtract 01110002 (5610) from 10111002 (9210) using complementary method.
Solution
1011100
+1000111 (complement of 0111000)
10100011
1 (add the carry of 1)
0100100
Result = 01001002 = 3610

Example (5.9)
Subtract 1000112 (3510) from 0100102 (1810) using complementary method.
Solution
010010
+011100 (complement of 100011)
101110
Since there is no carry, we have to complement the sum and attach a negative sign to it. Hence,
Result = -0100012 (complement of 1011102)= -1710

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Principle of Information Technology (CST-1111)

(3) Binary Multiplication

Table for binary multiplication is as follows:

0x0=0
0x1=0
1x0=0
1x1=1

Example (5.10)
Multiply the binary numbers 1010 and 1001
Solution
1010 Multiplicand
x 1001 Multiplier
1010 Partial Product
0000x Partial Product
0000xx Partial Product
1010xxx Partial Product
1011010 Final Product

Whenever a 0 appears in the multiplier, a separate partial product consisting of a string of zeros need
not be generated (only a shift will do). Hence,
1010
x 1001
1010
1010xxx (left shift for 3 bits)
1011010

(4) Binary Division

Table for binary division is as follows:

0 ÷ 0 = Divide by zero error
0÷1=0
1 ÷ 0 = Divide by zero error
1÷1=1
As in the decimal number system (or in any other number system), division by zero is
meaningless, computers deal with this problem by raising an error condition called ‘Divide by zero’
error. (or)
"Divide by zero " is an error condition raised by the computer when it divides any number by zero.

Rule for Binary Division

1. Start from the left of the dividend
2. Perform a series of subtractions in which the divisor is subtracted from the dividend
3. If subtraction is possible, put a 1 in the quotient and subtract the divisor from the corresponding
digits of dividend
4. If subtraction is not possible (divisor greater than remainder), record a 0 in the quotient

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Principle of Information Technology (CST-1111)

5. Bring down the next digit to add to the remainder digits. Proceed as before in a manner similar to
long division

Example (5.11)
Divide 1000012 by 1102
Solution
0101 (Quotient)
110 100001 (Dividend)
0
1000
110
100
0
1001
110
11 (Remainder)
1 Divisor greater than 100, so put 0 in quotient
2 Add digit from dividend to group used above
3 Subtraction possible, so put 1 in quotient
4 Remainder from subtraction plus digit from dividend
5 Divisor greater, so put 0 in quotient
6 Add digit from dividend to group
7 Subtraction possible, so put 1 in quotient

Additive Method of Multiplication and Division

Most computers use the additive method for performing multiplication and division operations
because it simplifies the internal circuit design of computer systems

Additive Method of Multiplication

Example (5.12)
4 * 8 = 8 + 8 + 8 + 8 = 32
Rule for Additive Method of Division
Subtract the divisor repeatedly from the dividend until the result of subtraction becomes less
than or equal to zero
_ If result of subtraction is zero, then:
_ quotient = total number of times subtraction was performed
_ remainder = 0
_ If result of subtraction is less than zero, then:
_ quotient = total number of times subtraction was performed minus 1
_ remainder = result of the subtraction previous to the last subtraction

Example (5.13)
Divide 3310 by 610 using the method of addition
Solution:
33 - 6 = 27
27 - 6 = 21
21 - 6 = 15
15 - 6 = 9
9-6=3
3 - 6 = -3
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Total subtractions = 6
Since the result of the last subtraction is less than zero,
Quotient = 6 - 1 (ignore last subtraction) = 5
Remainder = 3 (result of previous subtraction)

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