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Aminul Sir Biology 1st Paper : Botany

Assistant Professor, CESC CHAPTER ONE [HSC-2026]
01912 - 85 33 95
Cell & its Structure Subject code: 1 7 8

[ Cytology & Molecular Biology ]

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Topic - 1  Introduction : Definition of Cell, History of discovery of Cell, Types of Cell, Structure of a typical Plant Cell.

Topic - 2  - Detail study on Cell covering :

i) Cell wall (Non-living)
ii) Cell membrane / Plasma-membrane / Bio-membrane / Cyto-membrane / Plasma-lemma (Living).

- Cytoplasm / Cytoplasmic matrix / Hyaloplasm / Cytosol : Ectoplasm & Endoplasm.

Topic - 3  Cytoplasmic Organelles (Location, Structure & Function) :

i) Ribosome (Microsome) : 70S [50S & 30S] and 80S [60S & 40S]
ii) Lysosome / Spherosome / Oleosome : Phagocytosis, Autophagy / Autolysis
iii) Golgi body / Dictyosome / Idiosome / Lypochondria / Carbohydrate factory / Traffic Police
iv) Endoplasmic Reticulum : SER & RER; Cisterna(e), Vesicles & Tubules
v) Plastid : Leucoplast, Chromoplast & Chloroplast
vi) Mitochondria (sing. Mitochondrion) : Power house of Cell
vii) Centrosome & Centrioles (Diplosome)
viii) Cytoskeleton : Microtubules, Microfilaments, Intermediate filaments
ix) Per-oxisome (Microsome), Gly-oxisome, Cell Vacuole .

Topic - 4  Nucleus : Nuclear envelope, Nucleoplasm, Nucleolus, Nuclear reticulum or Chromatin fibre.

Topic - 5  Chromosome :
i) Physical - and Chemical - structures, Functions
ii) Role of Chromosome in cell division.

Topic - 6  Hereditary / Genetic Materials :

i) Nucleic acids : 2 types – (Detail study) DNA and RNA
ii) Replication of DNA
iii) Transcription & Processing of mRNA
iv) Gene (Factor) & Genetic code
v) Translation (Protein synthesis).

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Topic - 1  Introduction : Definition of Cell, History of discovery of Cell,

Types of Cell, Structure of a typical Plant Cell .

Definition of Cell :
The word ‘Cell’ came from Latin word ‘cellula’ means ‘Little room’ or ‘Little box’. The structural, functional & biological unit of a
living organism, consisting of protoplasm surrounded by a semi-permeable membrane and capable of self reproduction, is called
‘Cell’.

Scientists presented different definitions of cell at different times –

 According to Jean Brachet (1961), ‘Cell is the elementary structural unit of a living organism’.

 According to Loewy and Siekevitz (1963), ‘Cell is the unit of biological activity which is surrounded by a semi-permeable
membrane and capable of self-reproduction without any other living medium’. For this reason, virus is not a cell.

 According to C P Hickman (1970), ‘Cell is the unit of organic structure & function and it is the smallest organic unit which is
capable of its own control and reproduction’.

 According to De Robertis (1979), ‘Cell is the fundamental structural and functional units of living being’.

Cytology :
Greek ‘kytos’ means ‘Cell’ and ‘-logos’ means ‘discourse’. The branch of Biology which deals with the study of cells, their
structural organization and all the components & organelles inside the cell, is known as ‘Cytology’. British scientist Robert Hooke
[1635–1703] is called the ‘Father of Cytology’ and Carl P Swanson [1911–1996] is called the ‘Father of Modern Cytology’.

History of discovery of Cell :

 In 1665, British scientist Robert Hooke [1635-1703] discovered the ‘Dead cell’ (actually, cell wall) and published his
observation in the book ‘Micrographia’. He is called the ‘Father of Cytology’.

 In 1674, Dutch scientist Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek [1632-1723] first observed the ‘Living cell’ along with cell wall. He
observed bacteria, protozoa, erythrocyte / RBC & sperm by using his microscope with 270X magnifying capacity.

 Though in 1781 Felice Fontana predicted the presence of nucleus in the cell but in 1833 Robert Brown first discovered
clear spherical nucleus in plant cell.

 In 1835, French cytologist Felix Dujardin named a type of jelly-like transparent in cell as ‘Sarcode’. In 1840, Johannes
Purkinje named that liquid living substance as ‘Protoplasm’.

 After knowing various information about the cell, in 1838-1839, German botanist Jacob Schleiden and zoologist Theodor
Schwann and later, Rudolf Virchow gave the ‘Cell Theory’. Main points of Cell Theory are –
 Living organisms are composed of cell.
Aminul Sir
 Cell is the smallest structural & functional unit of life. Assistant Professor, CESC
01912 - 85 33 95
 All cells are created from pre-existing cell.

 In 1931, after the invention and development of Electron Microscope by Max Knol and Ernst Ruska, the ultra-structure of
cell & cell organelles are known.
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 Though most of the cells are microscopic (5–15 μm), there are some exceptions also. Birds’ egg is visible by open eye.
Research has shown that, a typical body cell is generally about 10 μm in size and weight is 1 ng (nanogram).

 Largest cell in animal kingdom is - egg cell of Ostrich (17 x 12.5 cm). Longest cell of human body is ‘motor Neuron’ (1.37
meter, approximately) and extended from spinal cord to thumb toe.

 The unicellular alga Acetabularia is the largest unicellular plant cell having a length of about 55 cm. Among multicellular
plants, the sclerenchyma fibre cell of Ramie plant (Boehmeria nivea) is the longest, measuring about 55 cm long.

 Smallest cell is - Mycoplasma gallisepticum (diameter 0.1 μm), also called PPLO (Pleuro Pneumonia Like Organism).
Smallest cell of human body is Platelets / Thrombocyte.

 Regarding plants, fibers of jute, cotton, palm trees are much longer and they are visible by naked eyes.

Origin of First Cell or How have ‘Cells’ evolved in nature?

It has been established since 1880 that, new cells are formed from pre-existing cells. But when there was no cell, where did
the pre-existing cell come from? How was the first cell formed?
According to Alexander Oparin and JBS Haldane (1920), there was methane (CH4), ammonia (NH3), hydrogen (H2) &
water vapour (H2O) in the atmosphere of ancient earth but there was no free oxygen (O 2). Some organic molecules had been
produced due to the friction between these gases. During thunderstorms, these gaseous substances fused to form organic
molecules that are the principal initial substances of cells.
Stanley Miller and Harold Urey (1953), passed electric current by accumulating all the above mentioned gases in
laboratory and as a result Amino acid was formed. Many of the scientists think that, pre-existing life was probably simple RNA,
from which protein was formed later on. This concept is known as ‘RNA-World Hypothesis’.

Aminul Sir
Assistant Professor, CESC
01912 - 85 33 95

Besides, millions of species at present (from simple unicellular to complex multicellular) contain the same genetic codons (64
genetic codons). From here, it is proved that, origin of all organisms was from a protocell or prokaryotic cell. Eukaryotic cell was
then produced from that protocell or prokaryotic cell. In that cell, an aerobic bacterium entered which later converted to
mitochondria and eukaryotic animal cell was formed. In that animal cell later, photosynthetic bacterium entered which later
converted to chloroplast and plant cell was formed. The process of survival of aerobic and photosynthetic bacteria by entering into
a nucleated host cell, is called, ‘Endosymbiosis’ [diagram is given at next page]. Every second thousands of biochemical reactions
occur inside a living cell to keep the plant and animal bodies functioning. These reactions all together are called ‘Metabolism’.
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Fig: Endosymbiotic Process

Aminul Sir
Assistant Professor, CESC
01912 - 85 33 95

Types of Cell :
A) Based on the structure of nucleus, Cells are two types – 1) Prokaryotic cell and 2) Eukaryotic cell.

1) Prokaryotic cell [Grk. pro = before and karyon = nut / nucleus]: Cell devoid of membrane-bound nucleus, even other
membranous organelles are absent, is called ‘Prokaryotic cell’. Prokaryotic cell has non-histone protein containing only one circular
DNA which lies freely in cytoplasm. This type of DNA is called ‘Nucleoid’. Their ribosome is 70S (50S & 30S). Prokaryotic cell
divides through amitosis or binary fission. Anaerobic respiration takes place in Prokaryotes. Their chief mode of nutrition is -
Absorption, though some of them produce their food through Photosynthesis. e.g. Bacteria, Cyanobacteria (BGA) & Mycoplasma.

2) Eukaryotic cell [Grk. eu = good and karyon = nut / nucleus]: Cell having membrane-bound nucleus and other membranous
organelles, is called ‘Eukaryotic cell’. Nucleus of eukaryotic cell contains - bilayered nuclear membrane or nuclear envelope,
nucleopore, nucleoplasm, chromatin fibres & nucleolus. More than one DNA lies in nucleoplasm and it is not circular rather having
two ends i.e. linear. Chromosome is made up of DNA and histone protein. Their ribosome is 80S (60S & 40S). Eukaryotic cell
divides through mitosis and meiosis. Aerobic respiration takes place in Eukaryotes. Their chief mode of nutrition is - Absorption,
Assimilation & Photosynthesis. e.g. Cells of Algae, Fungi, Bryophytes (Moss), Pteridophytes (Fern), Gymnosperms, Angiosperms
and all animal cells.

Probably the first eukaryotic and multicellular organism is a red alga named as Bongiomorpha pubescens whose fossil has been
discovered from 1200 million years aged old rock. It reproduced by large female gamete and small male gamete.

B) Based on physiological function, Cells are two types – 1) Somatic cell and 2) Gametic cell / Reproductive cell.

1) Somatic cell / Vegetative cell / Body cell: Cells constituting the organ & organ system of living organisms, are called ‘Somatic
cell’. Usually, cells of higher organisms have diploid (2n) number of chromosome and lower organisms, like – Algae, Fungi etc
have haploid (n) number of chromosome. e.g. Cells of root, stem & leaves and neuron, blood corpuscles etc. In human somatic cell
the number of chromosome is 2n = 46.

2) Gametic cell / Reproductive cell / Gamete: Cells produce through meiosis cell division for sexual reproduction in the
reproductive organ of living organisms, are called ‘Gametic cell or Reproductive cell’. They are always haploid (n). e.g. Sperm &
Ovum. In human gametic cell the number of chromosome is n = 23.
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Structure of a typical Plant Cell :

All cellular organelles may not be present in a single plant cell. For the purpose of description, all structural components and
organelles are supposed to be present in a single cell, which is known as - Ideal plant cell. An ideal plant cell is mainly formed by
the following parts –
1) Cell wall (Non-living)
2) Cell membrane / Plasma-membrane / Bio-membrane / Cyto-membrane / Plasma-lemma (Living)
3) Cytoplasm
4) Nucleus
5) Cellular inclusions / Ergastic substances

Fig: Electron microscopic view of an Ideal Plant Cell

Ideal Plant Cell :

A) Non-living particles : Aminul Sir
Assistant Professor, CESC
1) Cell wall 01912 - 85 33 95

2) Cellular inclusions / Ergastic substances –

a) Reserved materials : Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids etc.
b) Secretory products : Pigments, Nectar, Enzymes, Hormones etc.
c) Excretory products : Tannin, Resin, Latex, Glue, Organic acid, Volatile oil, Alkaloid, Minerals,
Crystal (e.g. Calcium oxalate  Raphide, Cystolith).
B) Protoplasm (Living particles) :
1) Cell membrane
2) Cytoplasm –
a) Cytoplasmic matrix / Cytosol
b) Cytoplasmic organelles –
i) Membranous: Mitochondria, Plastid, Golgi body, ER, Lysosome, Per-oxisome, Cell vacuole
ii) Non-membranous: Ribosome, Centriole, Proteasome,
Microtubule, Microfilament, Intermeadiate filament
3) Nucleus: Nuclear membrane / Nuclear envelope with Nucleopore, Nucleoplasm,
Chromatin fibre / Nuclear reticulum, Nucleolus.
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Topic - 2  - Detail study on Cell covering :

i) Cell wall (Non-living)
ii) Cell membrane / Plasma-membrane / Bio-membrane / Cyto-membrane / Plasma-lemma (Living).
- Cytoplasm / Cytoplasmic matrix / Hyaloplasm / Cytosol : Ectoplasm & Endoplasm.

i) Cell Wall (Non-living)

The entire plant cell is covered by a comparatively rigid, non-living layer, is known as ‘Cell Wall’. The ‘Cell’ which was
observed by Robert Hooke in 1665 through his self-made microscope, was actually the cell wall. Cell wall is the unique
characteristic of plant cell. It also remains in unicellular plants, fungi and bacteria.

Physical Structure : Cell wall is made up of 3 layers – 1) Middle lamella, 2) Primary wall & 3) Secondary wall (3 layered).

1) Middle Lamella: The common layer in between two adjacent cells, is called ‘Middle
Middle lamella
lamella’. During telophase stage of cell division, its formation is started. It is composed of
Primary wall
‘Phragmoplast’ derived from cytoplasm and ‘Pectin type vesicles or droplets’ from golgi
Secondary wall
body. Initially, it is jelly-like due to presence of more pectic acid. Middle lamella is the
Pit pair
common layer between two cells. Two cells become separate when it is melted.

2) Primary Wall: The thin layer (1-3 μm) is formed by deposition of Cellulose,
Hemicellulose & Glycoprotein on middle lamella, is called ‘Primary Wall’. This layer is
formed on the inner surface of Middle lamella.

3) Secondary Wall: In some cells (e.g. Tracheid, Fibre etc), another comparatively thick Pit membrane
layer (5-10 μm), composed of Cellulose & Lignin is developed on the Primary wall, is called
Fig: Structure of Cell wall
‘Secondary Wall’. It is three layered. Secondary wall is not formed in meristematic cells
and highly metabolic cells.
Generally, in leaf, fruit & cells of cotex, cell wall remains up to primary wall (means, secondary wall is not created). In very rare
case, Tertiary wall may develop just inside the Secondary wall in the tracheid of Gymnosperms. Chemically, it is composed of
xylan (second most abundant natural polysaccharide) than cellulose.

Pit field: This is the thinnest area of Cell wall. In the Cell wall, there are some cavities or gaps where no deposition takes place on
middle lamella. This region is known as ‘Pit field’ and the cavity or gap is called ‘Pit’. Pits are common in between two adjacent
cells positioned side by side and opposite to each other. That’s why, a pit field also called ‘Pit pair’. In between two pits only Middle
lamella is present and because of this, it is called ‘Pit membrane’. In the pit membrane (middle lamella), there are some small
pores, called ‘Plasmodesmata’ (sing. Plasmodesma). They facilitate the movement of water and minerals between the cells.

[ Two pits  Pit field / Pit pair  Pit membrane (Middle lamella)  Plasmodesmata ]

Chemical Structure : Aminul Sir

Assistant Professor, CESC
1) Middle Lamella: - Pectic acid (more in quantity), 01912 - 85 33 95

- Pectin (composed of insoluble calcium pectate & magnesium pectate),

- Proto-pectin (Less in quantity).
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2) Primary Wall: - Cellulose,

- Hemi-cellulose (Xylan, Araban, Galactan, Xyloglucan etc polysaccharides),
- Glycoprotein (Carbohydrate & Protein).
3) Secondary Wall: - Cellulose, Lignin, Suberin, Cutin (waxy polymer), Wax etc.

Usually, 40% Cellulose, 20% Hemicellulose, 30% Pectin, 10% Glycoprotein of dry weight & huge water (60%) are present in
the Cell wall. Cell wall of Fungi is composed of ‘Chitin’, for Bacteria it is ‘Lipid-protein’ polymer made, algal cell wall composed of
polysaccharide & glycoprotein, Archaea (Archaebacteria) call wall also composed of polysaccharide & glycoprotein. Silicic acid
remains in the cell wall of diatom, a unicellular alga.

Ultra-structure :
Cellulose is the main component of Cell wall. Cellulose is a polysaccharide which is composed of infinite number of 6C β-D-
Glucose. A single Cellulose chain is composed of 1,000-3,000 Celluloses. A crystalline ‘Micelle’ is formed in combination of around
100 Cellulose chains. Micelle is considered as the ‘Smallest structural unit’ of Cell wall. A ‘Microfibril’ is made up of about 20
micelle and a ‘Macrofibril’ is formed by the combination of 250 microfibrils. Many ‘Macrofibril’ together form a single ‘Fibre’.
According to Wordrop (1962), Macrofibril is the main structural unit of cell wall.

Functions : The Cell wall serves a variety of purposes including –

Aminul Sir
1) Gives definite size and shape of plant cell. Assistant Professor, CESC
01912 - 85 33 95
2) Protects the living materials of cell from all external injuries.
3) Provides the strength and mechanical rigidity.
4) Controls the movement of water and minerals.
5) Prevents the cell membrane from bursting in a hypotonic medium i.e. resists water pressure.
6) Keeps the cells apart from each other.
7) Plasmodesmata works as a carrier of external & internal stimuli.

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Protoplast :
The entire materials surrounded by the cell wall, is called ‘Protoplast’. In other way, except cell wall rest of the part of a cell, is
called ‘Protoplast’. It is found in Bacteria, Plant cell & Fungi. It has 2 (two) parts – 1) Protoplasm (living) and 2) Ergastic substances
(Non-living).

1) Protoplasm :
The living, semi-transparent, sticky, jelly-like, colloidal substance inside the cell, is called ‘Protoplasm’. It contains 70-90%
water. Its specific gravity is more than water. It has 3 (three) main parts – Cell membrane, Cytoplasm & Nucleus.
In 1835, French cytologist Felix Dujardin named a type of jelly-like transparent in cell as ‘Sarcode’. In 1840, Johannes
Purkinje named that liquid living substance as ‘Protoplasm’. In 1840, Johannes Purkinje first used the word ‘Protoplasm’.
According to scientist Huxley, Protoplasm is the physical basis of life.
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Movement of Protoplasm :
Protoplasm remains never static (stagnant). This kinetic property of Protoplasm is called ‘Movement of Protoplasm’. The
water stream-like movement is seen in the Protoplasm with cell wall, is called ‘Cyclosis’. Cyclosis is of 2 (two) types – i) Rotation &
ii) Circulation.

i) Rotation: When protoplasm moves around a vacuole in a single direction, then it is called ‘Rotation’.
e.g. Movement of protoplasm in Vallisneria sp.

ii) Circulation: When protoplasm moves around some vacuoles in different directions, then it is called ‘Circulation’.
e.g. Movement of protoplasm in Tradescantia sp.

Aminul Sir
              Assistant Professor, CESC
01912 - 85 33 95

ii) Cell membrane / Plasma-membrane / Bio-membrane / Cyto-membrane / Plasma-lemma

Just beneath the Cell wall, there is a living, elastic, selectively permeable, lipo-protein made, bi-layered membrane,
surrounding the protoplasm, is called ‘Cell membrane’ or ‘Plasma-membrane’. In 1855, Carl Nageli & Cramer named this
membrane as ‘Plasma-membrane’. In 1931, J Q Plower first used the word ‘Plasma-lemma’. Now-a-days, it is also called ‘Bio-
membrane’ & ‘Cyto-membrane’. There may be folding at some places in the membrane. Each folding is called ‘Microvillus’ (pl.
Microvilli). The microvillus which is more folded inward, is called ‘Pinocytic vesicle’ and these are well visualized in animal cell.

Physical Structure :
Scientists have proposed different model or hypothesis to explain the structure of Cell membrane, such as –
1) ‘Sandwitch Model’ of Danielli & Davson (1935) [ Very first proposed model ]
2) ‘Unit membrane Hypothesis’ of Robertson (1959)
3) Benson’s Model (1966)
4) Lenard & Singer’s Model (1966)
5) ‘Fluid-mosaic Model’ or ‘Iceberg Model’ of Singer & Nicolson (1972) [ Most accepted model ]

Unit membrane: In 1959, Robertson proposed the ‘Unit membrane Hypothesis’ of Cell membrane. According to him - all
biological membrane is made up of phospho-lipid bi-layer where proteins are lying in different places. Such membrane which is
composed of phospho-lipid bi-layer along with the protein, is called ‘Unit membrane’.

‘Fluid-mosaic Model’ or ‘Iceberg Model’ of Singer & Nicolson (1972) :

To explain the structure of Plasma-membrane, ‘the model’ which is proposed by S J Singer & G L Nicolson (1972), is called
‘Fluid-mosaic Model’. According to this model, Cell membrane is bi-layered. Each layer is made up of phospho-lipid. Protein
molecules are dispersed within the phospho-lipid bi-layer. This model also called ‘Iceberg Model’. The description of ‘Fluid-mosaic
Model’ or ‘Iceberg Model’ is mentioned below –
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1) Phospholipid bi-layer: It’s a bi-layered membrane made of phospho-lipid. Each phospho-lipid molecule has a hydrophilic
‘phosphate head’, one molecule ‘glycerol’ and two hydrophobic ‘fatty acid tail’. Glycerol lies in between phosphate head &
fatty acid tail. 40% lipid and 60% protein are in the membrane. Hydrophilic heads of both layers pointing toward the outside,
hydrophobic tails form the inside of the bi-layer. Phospho-lipid bi-layer is ‘amphipathic’, since its one portion is hydrophilic
(head) and another portion is hydrophobic (tail). 75% of dry weight of Cell membrane is lipid. So far, 5 types of phospho-
lipid are found of which ‘Lecithin’ is the main complex ones (out of 4) and phosphatidic acid is the simplest one.

2) Membrane proteins: Three types of membrane proteins are found in Cell membrane –
a) Integral protein : These are extended from one layer to another.
Aminul Sir
b) Peripheral protein : These are found at the inner surface. Assistant Professor, CESC
01912 - 85 33 95
c) Lipid saturated protein : These are combined with lipid core.
Besides, ‘Carrier proteins’ are available as enzyme.

3) Glycocalyx: It’s a sugar layer on the outer surface of membrane. When carbohydrate chains joined with phospho-lipid and
protein, then they are called ‘Glycolipid’ and ‘Glycoprotein’, respectively. Glycolipid and Glycoprotein together called
‘Glycocalyx’. Carbohydrate chains stay always on the outer surface of membrane. Glycocalyx works as recognizer of cell.

4) Cholesterol: It is a lipid substance (steroid) found in between phospho-lipid molecules. It is relatively more in animal cell
membrane.

Fig: Structure of Cell membrane according to Fluid-mosaic Model or Iceberg Model

Within the phospho-lipid bi-layer, different type of membrane proteins are embedded which spawned the term ‘Mosaic’. Cell
membrane has described to be fluid because each phospho-lipid molecule can move laterally throughout the membrane i.e. it is
not solid, rather more like a ‘Fluid’. On account of its fluidity and the mosaic arrangement of protein molecules, this model of cell
membrane is known as ‘Fluid-mosaic Model’.

From recent research it is seen that, each phospho-lipid molecules can change their position within the same layer, such as –
they can diffuse laterally and can rotate along with the long axis. This type of movement of phospho-lipid molecules is called ‘Flip-
flop movement’.

Chemical Structure :
1) Lipid (20–40%): Mainly, lipid stays as Phospho-lipid. So far 5 types of phospho-lipids are identified, among them -
‘Phosphotidic acid’ is the simplest one and rests are complex in nature. ‘Lecithin’ is the main phospho-lipid among the
complex and it is more than half of the phospho-lipids in the membrane.
2) Protein (60–80%): Structural proteins, enzymes and carrier proteins.
3) Polysaccharide (4–5%).
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Functions : The Cell membrane serves a variety of purposes including –

1) Surrounds the whole cell components.
2) Protects all internal materials from outer unfavourable conditions.
3) Control and coordination of diffusion of different materials occur through the Cell membrane.
4) Works as framework so that enzymes can be arranged.
5) Secretes enzyme & antigen.
6) Transport materials from inside to outside and vice versa.
7) Can synthesize macro-molecules.
8) Receives solid and liquid substances through phagocytosis and pinocytosis, respectively.
9) Carries nerve impulses. Fig: Different modified condition of Cell membrane

10) Bacterial cell membrane folds inward and creates ‘Mesosome’ which generates energy.

Different modified condition of Cell membrane:

1) Microvilli: Plama-membrane of cells of inner surface of small intestine creates tiny hair-like projections or folds, known as
‘Microvilli’. Each cell of small intestine has around 3,000 microvilli. Microvilli greatly increase the surface area for absorption.

2) Desmosome: In some places of Cell membrane, a circular region is seen along with tonofibril named innumerous filaments.
This circular region with tonofibril is called ‘Desmosome’.

3) Tight Junction: It is a type of cell junction formed between adjacent epithelial cells of vertebrates where cell membranes
attached together, thereby serving as a barrier to the passage of fluid between the cells usually found in neuron of brain.

4) Phagocytic vesicle: It is a membrane bound intra-cellular vesicle that arises from the ingestion of solid food particle by
phagocytosis process.

5) Pinocytic vesicle: It is a membrane bound intra-cellular vesicle that arises from the intake of liquid material particularly water
by pinocytosis process.
              Aminul Sir
Assistant Professor, CESC
01912 - 85 33 95

Cytoplasm / Cytoplasmic matrix / Hyaloplasm / Cytosol : Ectoplasm & Endoplasm

The part of protoplasm which is placed outside the nucleus and surrounded by cell membrane, is called ‘Cytoplasm’. It
contains 65-96% water (in plant cell 75% & in animal cell 67%). Its specific gravity is more than water. First stage of both aerobic &
anaerobic respiration ‘Glycolysis’ takes place in cytoplasm.
Matrix of Cytoplasm which is semi-liquid, semi-transparent, granular, colloidal liquid substance, is known as ‘Cytoplasmic
matrix’. It is also called ‘Hyaloplasm’ & ‘Cytosol’. In 1965, H A Lardy first used the word ‘Cytosol’. Cytoplasmic matrix contains
different cytoplasmic organelles, such as - Ribosome, Lysosome, Golgi body, Endoplasmic reticulum, Plastid, Mitochondria etc.

Ectoplasm & Endoplasm :

Comparatively thicker & less granular outer hard part of cytoplasm, is called ‘ectoplasm’ and centrally placed, less thicker
region, is called ‘Endoplasm’.
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Topic - 3  Cytoplasmic Organelles (Location, Structure & Function) :

i) Ribosome (Microsome) : 70S (50S & 30S) and 80S (60S & 40S)
The non-membranous granular cytoplasmic organelle which remains free in the cytoplasm or attached with endoplasmic
reticulum and where protein systhesis takes place, is called ‘Ribosome’. It is very much small (60–200 nm in diameter) and almost
round. Whenever several Ribosomes remain connected to an mRNA like a pearl-necklace during protein synthesis, then they are
called ‘Polyribosome’ or ‘Polysome’. Free ribosome (70S) is one of the mentionable features of prokaryotic cell. Since, Ribosome is
present in both prokaryotic & eukaryotic cells, therefore Ribosome is called ‘Universal Organelle’.

 Solitarily situated Ribosome in the cytoplasm, is called ‘Monosome’.

Aminul Sir
 Ribosome located in the cytoplasm, is called ‘Cytoribosome’. Assistant Professor, CESC
01912 - 85 33 95
 Ribosome located inside the mitochondria, is called ‘Mitoribosome’.

Discovery :
1) In 1954, Albert Claude centrifuged the cytoplasm of hepatocyte and separated RNA enriched many small particles having
600–2,000 Å (60–200 nm) diameter and named them ‘Microsome’.
2) In 1955, Romanian cytologist George Palade discovered Ribosome.
3) In 1958, Richard Roberts named it as ‘Ribosome’.
4) ‘Ribo-Nucleoprotein Particle (RNP)’ named ribosome has been discovered from Chloroplast, Mitochondria and Nucleoplasm.

Origin: In Prokaryotic cell, Ribosome is produced from DNA but in Eukaryotic cell, 2 sub-units is created separately inside the
nucleus and later come in the cytoplasm. These 2 sub-units of Ribosome stay freely in the cytoplasm before starting translation
process or polypeptide chain formation.

Types :
Based on size and sedimentation co-efficient (S), Ribosomes are 2 (two) types – i) 70S Ribosome and ii) 80S Ribosome.
i) 70S Ribosome: These are comparatively smaller and molecular weight 2.7×106 Dalton. They occur in all Prokaryotic cells
and Mitochondria & Chloroplast of Eukaryotic cells. 70S Ribosome has 2 sub-units – 50S & 30S. During protein synthesis
i.e. translation, these 2 sub-units join together and construct 70S Ribosome. Chemically, 70S Ribosome has – 23S, 16S &
5S named 3 rRNA and 52 types protein molecules.

ii) 80S Ribosome: These are comparatively bigger and molecular weight 40×106 Dalton. They occur in all Eukaryotic cells.
80S Ribosome has 2 sub-units – 60S & 40S. During protein synthesis i.e. translation, these 2 sub-units join together and
construct 80S Ribosome. Chemically, 80S Ribosome has – 28S, 18S, 5.8S & 5S named 4 rRNA and 80 types protein
molecules. Besides, there are 2–3 types of RNAase enzymes and small amount of metal ions, such as – Ca2+, Mg2+ & Mn2+.

Besides, presence of 77S Ribosome in Fungi has been identified. 55S Ribosome has been found in the mitochondria of mammals.

What is ‘S’ ?
Ans.: ‘S’ indicates ‘Svedberg unit / Sedimentation co-efficient. A Svedberg unit is a unit for sedimentation rate (S=Weight/Time). This unit is
named after the Swedish biochemist Theodor Svedberg (1884–1971), winner of the 1926 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work on colloids
and his invention of the ultracentrifuge.
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What is Dalton ?
Ans.: A unit of mass used to express atomic and molecular weights that is equal to 1/12 of the mass of an atom of Carbon-12. It is equivalent to
1.66 × 10–27 kg. [ Abbreviation: Atomic mass unit (amu) or Dalton. ]

Physical Structure :
Usually, Ribosome is round or circular in structure. It is 22 nm in width and 20 nm in height. Mainly, Ribosome is made of
proteins (actually, enzymes) and rRNA. In E. coli bacterium the number of Ribosome is about 20,000 which is 22% of its dry
weight. 70S & 80S both Ribosomes have two sub-units. Usually, these sub-units remain separate and stay freely in the cytoplasm.
These two sub-units combined together only during protein synthesis.

When mRNA molecule is associated with Ribosome, protein synthesis is started with the help of tRNA. Amino acids are
carried out by tRNA and form polypeptide chain or protein in translation process. At this time, 4 (four) places are observed in
Ribosome. These are –

1) A-site: Amino-acyl site or Acceptor site

2) P-site: Peptidyl site
Fig.: Polyribosome or Polysome
3) E-site: Exit site
4) mRNA attachment site / mRNA binding site

In most cases, more than two Ribosomes translate an mRNA molecule, to form Polyribosome or Polysome OR, Many
Ribosomes line up on the mRNA molecule during protein synthesis. Such a series of active Ribosomes, is called ‘Polyribosome’ or
‘Polysome’.

Chemically, Ribosome has 50% RNA and 50% Protein at the ratio of almost 1:1.

Functions :
1) Main function of Ribosome is protein synthesis i.e. take part in translation process. Therefore, Ribosomes are the sites in a
cell where translation or protein synthesis takes place. That’s why, Ribosome is called the ‘Protein factory’ of cell. Prior to
start translation process, mRNA connects with 30S sub-unit of prokaryotic cell and 40S sub-unit of eukaryotic cell. 30S
together with 50S and 40S together with 60S form 70S and 80S Ribosomes, respectively and protein synthesis begins.
2) Ribosome produces ‘Cytochrome’ which transports electrons during cellular respiration.
3) Phosphorylation of glucose and metabolism of lipids held in Ribosome.
4) Ribosome protects mRNA from nuclease enzyme and new polypeptide chain from the harmful effects of the proteolytic
enzyme.

Aminul Sir
Assistant Professor, CESC
01912 - 85 33 95
 13

ii) Lysosome / Spherosome / Oleosome : Phagocytosis, Autophagy / Autolysis

Grk. ‘lyso’ means ‘digesting’ and ‘-soma’ means ‘body’. The single layered membranous round organelle lies in cytoplasm
works as the reservoir of hydrolytic enzymes, is called ‘Lysosome’. In 1955, Belgian cytologist Christian de Duve discovered and
named ‘Lysosome’. Lysosome is originated from Endoplasmic reticulum and packaged by Golgi body.

Distribution: Lysosomes are found almost all animal cells especially cells of kidney, epithelial cells of small intestine etc. They
are more abundant in WBC but RBC is lack of Lysosome. Recently, Lysosome-like single layered ‘Spherosome’ is discovered in
plant cell. These are also called ‘Oleosome’. ‘Packaging of oily substances’ is their main function.

Fig: Structure of Lysosome Fig: Phagocytosis process

Physical Structure: Usually, Lysosome is round or circular or spherical in structure. It is 0.2–0.8 μm in diameter. Lysosomes of
cells of kidney are comparatively bigger. Each Lysosome is covered by a single layered lipo-protein made membrane. Lysosome
contains 40–50 types of enzymes. Mentionable enzymes are – Lysozyme, Esterase, Saccharase, Acid lipase, DNAase, RNAase
etc.

Some substances provide stability to the membrane of Lysosome therefore enzymes cannot come out from it. They are called
‘Lysosome Stabilizer’. e.g. Cholesterol, Cortigen. Again, some substances help to burst the membrane of Lysosome therefore
enzymes can come out from it and occur autolysis. They are called ‘Lysosome Labilizer’. e.g. Progesterone, Testosterone.

Functions: Enzymes of Lysosome become activated in acidic medium. They are nonfunctioning in the neutral pH of cytoplasm,
so they do not cause any harm of cell. When necessary, they bring proton (H +) from cytoplasm and create acidic environment for
their work. Functions of Lysosome are –

1) Lysosome kills the germ through ‘Phagocytosis’ process.

2) During extreme starvation its membrane bursts, enzymes are coming out and destroy other cytoplasmic organelles. This is
called ‘Autophagy’ or ‘Autolysis’. Thus, entire cell can be digested. They are also called ‘Suicidal bag’ or ‘Suicidal squad’. 15
genes regulate the autophagy process.
3) They destroy unnecessary cells of the living body through autolysis process.
4) It protects the organelles of respective cell by keeping enclose the hydrolytic or proteolytic enzymes.
5) Lysosome of sperm secretes hyaluronidase enzyme which melts the covering of ovum.
6) Lysosome helps in intra-cellular digestion.
7) It helps to break down the nuclear membrane as well as cell membrane during cell division.
8) It produces ‘keratin’ within the cell.
9) It stores tissue melting ‘Phosphatase’ enzyme. Aminul Sir
Assistant Professor, CESC
10) Lysosome may create cancer. 01912 - 85 33 95
 14

iii) Golgi body / Dictyosome / Idiosome / Lypochondria / Carbohydrate factory / Traffic Police :

Cytoplasmic organelle located near the nucleus and covered by bi-layered membrane, small tubule, vesicle or lamella-like
structure, is called ‘Golgi body’ or ‘Golgi apparatus’. It is also called ‘Dictyosome / Idiosome / Lypochondria’. In 1898, Italian
neurologist Camillo Golgi first observed it in the neuron of Owl & Cat and later it is named after him. In 1954, Dalton & Felix
provided the electron microscopic structure of Golgi apparatus. Golgi bodies are found in almost all animal cells. They are also
found in plant cell. They are originated from smooth endoplasmic reticulum. In animal cell, generally Golgi bodies stay together in
same place of the cell but in plant cell, more than hundred Golgi bodies are found dispersed in the cytoplasm.

Physical Structure :
Typically, Golgi apparatus is a complex array of – 1) Cisterna(e), 2) large Vacuole and 3) small Vesicle. The flattened tubular
sac-like structures of Golgi body are Cisternae (sing. Cisterna) and somewhat irregular tubules and vesicles together are called
‘Trans-Golgi Network (TGN)’. Cisternae stack together and each specific stack is called ‘Golgi body’ or ‘Dictyosome’.

The part of Golgi body nearer to the plasma membrane is called ‘Trans-face’ and part towards the center is called ‘Cis-face’.
The last cisterna of trans-face, is called ‘Trans-cisterna’ and the last cisterna of cis-face, is called ‘Cis-cisterna’. The middle
cisternae which lie in between trans-cisterna and cis-cisterna, are called ‘Medial cisternae’. The round structure just beside the
cisternae, is called Vacuole (large). Sac-like small ‘Vesicle’ lies just below the Trans-cisterna.

Fig: (a) 3D structure of Golgi body; (b) Transport through Golgi apparatus

Chemically, 60% protein and 40% phospholipid are in the membrane of Golgi body. Besides, it contains Carotenoids, Fatty
acid & Vitamin-C & Vitamin-K. Sacs of Golgi body are filled up by different types of enzymes, such as – ADPase, ATPase,
CTPase, TTPase, NADH Cytochrome, Glucose-6-phosphatase and Transferase.

Functions :
1) Golgi body carries different membranous particles (i.e. vesicles) from centre to periphery up to plasma membrane. Because
of this, Golgi body is called the ‘Traffic Police’ of the cell.
2) In plant cell, main function of Golgi body is to take part in synthesizing oligosaccharide of glycoprotein, synthesizes and
transports complex polysaccharides, constructs cell wall etc. Hence, Golgi body is called ‘Carbohydrate factory’ in plant cell.
3) Substances produced in endoplasmic reticulum are taken by cis-cisterna, gradually transported by medial cisternae and
finally through trans-cisterna, go to other places of the cell or plasma membrane.
4) Creates – Cell plate (actually, middle lamella) during cell division, Lysosome, Hemi-cellulose, Microfibril, Protein, Vitamins.
5) Golgi apparatus takes part in the formation of ‘Acrosome’ of sperm in mammals.
6) Transports – H2O, enzymes, hormones etc.
Aminul Sir
7) Accelerates mitochondria to produce ATP. Assistant Professor, CESC
01912 - 85 33 95
8) Golgi body stores – Protein and Vitamin-C.
 15

iv) Endoplasmic Reticulum : SER & RER; Cisterna(e), Vesicles & Tubules

The membrane bounded reticular network observed in the cytoplasm of mature cell, is called ‘Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)’.
In 1945, Keith R Porter, Albert Claude & Ernest F Fullman first discovered it from the cytoplasm of embryonic cell of
chicken. In 1953, Keith R Porter named it as ‘Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)’. It is available in most of the eukaryotic cells but is
more abundant in the cells of liver, pancreas and endocrine glands. Endoplasmic Reticulum is originated from plasma membrane
or nuclear membrane.

Types : ER are 2 (two) types –

1) Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER): If no ribosome is attached with endoplasmic reticulum, then it is called SER.
Lipid & hormone are synthesized here.
2) Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER): If ribosome is attached with the surface of endoplasmic reticulum, then it is called
RER. Protein & enzyme are synthesized here. Small disconnected part of rough endoplasmic reticulum, is called
‘Microsome’. RNA and Glyoxysome named small particle may present in RER.

Physical Structure : Structurally, ER are 3 (three) types –

1) Cisternae: They are flat, unbranched, elongated like a tube / lamella and arranged together parallelly in the cytoplasm.
They are 40–50 millimicron (mμ) in diameter. Sometimes ribosomes remain attached with them.
2) Vesicles: They are spherical / globular, like a blister (‡dv¯‹v). Their diameter varies from 25–50 millimicron (mμ).
3) Tubules: They are tubule-like, branched or unbranched. Their diameter varies from 50–190 millimicron (mμ). Generally,
ribosome doesn’t remain attach with them.

(a) (b)

Fig: (a) 3D structure of Endoplasmic Reticulum; (b) Different types of Endoplasmic Reticulum

The main chemical components of Endoplasmic Reticulum are – Protein (60–70%) and Lipid (30–40%). Around 15 types of
enzymes are available in ER, such as – ATPase, Gluccse-6-phosphatase, NADH diaphorase etc.

Functions :
Aminul Sir
1) ER acts as structural framework of protoplasm. Assistant Professor, CESC
01912 - 85 33 95
2) In animal cell, Lipid, Hormones, Glycogen, Vitamin, Steroid etc are synthesized in SER.
3) ER synthesizes cellulose for cell wall. Protein is synthesized in RER.
4) It plays major role to transport protein which produced in ribosome. It also works as the intra-carrier of lipid.
5) It deactivates penetrated toxic substances in the cell.
6) Lysosome and Golgi bodies are originated from ER.
 16

v) Plastid : Leucoplast, Chromoplast & Chloroplast

The largest cytoplasmic organelle which is enriched in matrix (stroma) & grana and covered by bi-layered lipoprotein made
membrane, is called ‘Plastid’. In 1883, W Schimper first observed the green plastid (chloroplast) and named it as ‘Chloroplast’.
They are clearly visible under compound light microscope. Plastid is absent in Bacteria, Cyanobacteria / Blue Green Algae (BGA),
Slime mold and Fungi. In BGA, plasma-membrane folds inward & forms thylakoid and these thylakoids contain chlorophyll.

Types: Plastid mainly 3 types – 1) Leucoplast, 2) Chromoplast and 3) Chloroplast.

1) Leucoplast (leucos = colourless & -plast = living): Colourless plastid, found in root, underground stem & the parts where light is
not reached. Leucoplast may convert into Chromoplast or Chloroplast (especially Chloroplast) when exposed to light. Leucoplast
may be semi-circular, tubular or raddish-shaped. It acts as ‘Food reservoir’, stores food and prepares starch from carbohydrates
are the main functions.

Based on the reserved food materials, Leucoplasts are 3 (three) types – Aminul Sir
Assistant Professor, CESC
a) Amyloplast : Stores starch or carbohydrate. e.g. Potato. 01912 - 85 33 95

b) Aleuroplast / Proteinoplast : Stores protein. e.g. Maize seed.

c) Elaioplast : Stores lipid i.e. Oil and Fat. e.g. Sunflower seed.

2) Chromoplast (chrome = colourful): Colourlful plastids especially yellow (xanthophyll) & orange-red (carotene) except green,
found in colourful parts e.g. coloured petals, leaves, fruits, seeds & root of carrot. The green fruits when they ripen their colours are
changed. This indicates that, chloroplast gradually changed into chromoplast. Main function is to attract the bees and other insects
for pollination.
 Yellow colour chromoplast is called ‘Xanthoplast’.
[ Slime Mold: Slime mold is not a plant or animal. It’s not a
 Orange colour chromoplast is called ‘Carotenoplast’. fungus, though it sometimes resembles one. Slime mold, in fact,
is a soil-dwelling Amoeba, a brainless, single-celled organism,
 Red colour chromoplast is called ‘Rodoplast’.
often containing multiple nuclei. ]
 Brown colour chromoplast is called ‘Phaeoplast’.

3) Chloroplast: Green colour plastid, is called ‘Chloroplast’. It is formed by the combination of Chlorophyll-a, Chlorophyll-b,
Xanthophyll & Carotene. Because of abundance of ‘Chlorophyll’ named green pigment, it is green in colour. In 1883, W Schimper
first observed this green plastid and named it as ‘Chloroplast’. As Chloroplast helps in food synthesis, it is called ‘Kitchen of cell’ or
‘Factory of synthesis of sugar’. It is an organelle of ‘Transformation of energy’. Usually, in higher plants they are 10-40 in number.

Size & Shape: Diameter of lens shape chloroplast is 3–5 μm. Chloroplast of higher plants is usually lens shape. In lower plants, it
is in different shapes, such as – spiral in Spirogyra, belt- / girdle- / ring-shaped in Ulothrix, cup-shaped in Chlamydomonas,
reticulate in Oedogonium, star-shaped / stellate in Zygnema, round in Pithophora etc. Plenty of diversity is seen in Algae regarding
chloroplast.

Origin: In lower group of plants new chloroplast formation takes place by the division of old chloroplast. In higher plants,
chloroplast originates from the Proplastid (i.e. Primitive plastid). Proplastid is a round organelle of 0.5 μm diameter covered by a
bilayered membrane. Vesicles are grown from the inner membrane and take parallel position in the stroma (matrix). These vesicles
together form a granum. Some of the lamellae connect the grana. In this way, in presence of sunlight, new chloroplast is formed
from the Proplastid. If chloroplast doesn’t get sunlight for a few days, it is converted to leucoplast, so the green part is seen
colourless.
 17

Structure of Chloroplast: A mature Chloroplast consists of the following parts –

1) Membrane: Entire Chloroplast is covered by bi-layered semi-permeable membrane. Chemically, it consists of Protein &
Glycosyl glyceride instead of phospho-lipid. It’s an exception.
2) Stroma: Hydrophilic colloidal matrix is covered by the membrane. This matrix is known as ‘Stroma’. 70S Ribosome, circular
DNA, RNA, different enzymes required for photosynthesis are found in Stroma. Light independent phase (C3 & C4 cycles) of
photosynthesis takes place in Stroma.
3) Thylakoid & Granum: Sac-like structure in the stroma, is called ‘Thylakoid’. There is a chamber inside the thylakoid which
is filled up by chlorophyll-a, chlorophyll-b, xanthophyll, carotene, lipid & enzymes. These are combinely called
‘Quantasome’. About 10–100 thylakoids stack piling upon one another and form a single ‘Granum’ (pl. Grana). 40–60 Grana
are found in each Chloroplast. Size of a granum is 0.3–1.7 μm.
4) Stroma lamelli: Some thylakoids of the two adjacent Grana are joined together by very fine tubules. These tubules are
known as ‘Stroma lamelli’ (sing. Lamellum). Chlorophyll is present here too.
5) Photosynthetic unit & ATP-synthases: Thylakoid membrane carries many round particles and they are Photosynthetic
unit & ATP synthases. Each Photosynthetic unit has 300-400 molecules of chlorophyll-a, chlorophyll-b, xanthophylls &
carotene. ATP synthases contain all the enzymes for making ATP. Besides, different enzymes, metal ions, phospholipid,
quinine, sulpholipid etc also present.
6) DNA & Ribosome: There are about 200 same shaped DNA located inside a chloroplast. Chloroplast has its own DNA and
Ribosome (70S). By using these, Chloroplast can reproduce. 120–160 kilobases are present in the genome of chloroplast.
Coding sequences are there in the genome to create 120 types of protein.

n
Fig: Different parts of Chloroplast

Chemical Structure: Chemically chloroplast is composed of carbohydrate, lipid, protein, chlorophyll, little amount carotenoids
(carotene & xanthophyll) and nucleic acids (DNA & RNA), some enzymes etc. Among all chlorophylls, 75% is chlorophyll-a & 25%
is chlorophyll-b.

Functions :
1) Manufactures ‘Carbohydrate’ by photosynthesis is the main function of Chloroplast.
2) Transforms light energy or solar energy to biological energy or chemical energy.
3) Photophosphorylation i.e.to change ADP to ATP with the help of light energy.
4) Fixes atmospheric CO2 with RuBP.
5) Performs ‘Photorespiration’.
6) Produces several proteins and nucleic acid for the use of its own.
Aminul Sir
Assistant Professor, CESC
01912 - 85 33 95
             
 18

vi) Mitochondria (sing. Mitochondrion) :

Grk. mitos = thread & chondrion = grain. The cytoplasmic organelle found in eukaryotic cell, covered by bi-layered membrane,
related with the production of energy, is called ‘Mitochondrion’ (pl. Mitochondria). Mitochondrion is an important organelle of
eukaryotic cell. It is called the ‘Power House’ of cell as it provides energy of all biological activities in cell. About 20% of total
volume of cell is Mitochondria. Generally, each cell contains 300–400 Mitochondria on average. In liver cell Hepatocyte, it is 1,000
or more. In Amoeba, it is more than this range.

Discovery & Naming: ln 1850, Albert Von Kolliker observed this organelle in the cytoplasm of muscle cell of insect and named
it ‘Sarcosome’. In 1882, Walter Fleming witnessed thread-shaped Mitochondria and named it ‘Fila’. In 1890, Altman named it
‘Bioplast’. In 1898, Carl Benda named this organelle as ‘Mitochondria’.
Aminul Sir
Assistant Professor, CESC
01912 - 85 33 95
Physical Structure :
1) Membrane: Each Mitochondrion is surrounded by a bi-layered lipo-protein made two membranes. The outer membrane is plane
& smooth, it mainly protects the internal substances. It has no enzymes for ATP synthesis. While the inner membrane has many
folds and these folds are known as ‘Cristae’ (sing. Crista). Distance between two membranes is 6–8 nm.

2) Chamber/Compartment: The empty space between two membranes, is known as ‘Outer chamber’ or ‘Inter-membranous
space’ and the matrix filled space is surrounded by inner membrane, is known as ‘Inner chamber’.

3) Cristae: Inner membrane creates finger-like projections on the inside. These projections are called ‘Cristae’ (sing. Crista).Space
between Cristie, is called ‘Intracristal space’ which is connected to Outer chamber.

4) ATP-Synthases & ETC: Some round substances known as ATP-Synthases are present on Cristae. ATP is synthesized here.
Besides, many Electron Transport Chain (ETC) are found throughout the Cristae. Formerly, they were called ‘Oxysome’.

5) Circular DNA & Ribosome: Mitochondria have its own circular DNA and Ribosome (70S). They are found in matrix. Without the
DNA, Mitochondria could not have performed cellular respiration.

Fig: Structure of a Mitochondrion

Chemical Structure: Dry weight of Mitochondria contains about 65% protein, 29% glycerides, 4% lecithin+cephalin and 2%
cholesterol. Besides, carotenoid, DNA, 0.5% RNA & vitamin-E also found in it. Almost 100 types of enzymes and co-enzymes are
found in Mitochondria. Inner membrane contains a special phospho-lipid named ‘Cardiolipin’.
 19

Functions :
1) Energy production and regulation of all necessary cellular activities. Also regulates the death process ‘Apoptosis’ of cell.
2) Stores necessary enzymes & co-enzymes for Respiration. Also stores different types of cation, such as - Ca2+, S2+, Fe2+,
Mn2+ etc.
3) Different steps of Respiration, such as - Krebs cycle, Electron Transport System (ETS) / Oxidative Phosphorylation,
Photorespiration occur in the Mitochondria.
4) Participates in sperm & ovum formation. Helps in protein synthesis and lipid metabolism.
5) Produces own DNA & RNA and thus plays role in heredity. Also helps to produce blood corpuscles and hormone.

Endosymbiont: Chloroplast and Mitochondria of eukaryotic cell, is considered as ‘Endosymbiont’. These organisms are thought
to have evolved from some bacteria that have been eaten by endo-phagocytosis by the eukaryotic cells.

             

vii) Centrosome & Centrioles (Diplosome) :

The cytoplasmic organelle found mainly in animal cell and some plant cell, made by 9 triplets (27 microtubules) along with
matrix ‘centrosphere’, lies near the nucleus, having self-replicable power, is called ‘Centrosome’ or ‘Centriole’. Centriole stays in
pair and each pair of centriole is called ‘Diplosome’. In 1887, Van Benden discovered it and in 1888, Theodor Bovery has
given the name & described it in detailed.

Distribution: Centriole is found in Algae, Fungi, Bryophytes, Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms and most of the animal cell. It is absent
in Prokaryotic cell, Diatom, Yeast and Angiosperms. They are generally found near the nucleus.

Physical structure: Each Centriole is tubular or cylindrical, two ends are open, around 0.15–0.25 μm in diameter. Each centriole
has 3 (three) main parts – i) Cylinder wall, ii) Triplets, consists of 3 microtubules and iii) Linkers.

Three similar microtubules attached parallelly to form a single ‘Triplet’. In 1968, scientist Threadgold named these
microtubules as A, B, C from inner to outer. 9 (nine) similar triplets connected by ‘Linkers’ in such way that a hollow space is made
among their centre and this structure is known as ‘Cylinder wall’ or a ‘Centriole’. 2 (two) Centrioles remain arranged at right-angles
to each other and suspended in a dense liquid ‘Centrosphere’. Two Centrioles along with Centrosphere, is called ‘Centrosome’.

Triplet

Fig: Structure of Centrosome & Centriole

Aminul Sir
Assistant Professor, CESC
Chemically, Centriole is formed by - Protein, Lipid and ATP. 01912 - 85 33 95
 20

Functions :
1) It constructs ‘Spindle apparatus’ during cell division and thus helps in cell division.
2) It creates ‘Cilia’ & ‘Flagella’ in ciliated and flagellated cells.
3) It forms the ‘Tail’ of sperm.
             

viii) Cytoskeleton : Microtubules, Microfilaments, Intermediate filaments

Some filaments combinely construct net-like structure among the spaces of cytoplasmic organelles in all eukaryotic cells,
called ‘Cytoskeleton’. In 1928, Koltzoff first used the term ‘Cytoskeleton’. Generally, 3 (three) types of protein made filaments
constructs the Cytoskeleton – 1) Microtubules, 2) Microfilaments & 3) Intermediate filaments. They take part in cellular
locomotion and formation of centriole, cilia & flagella.

1) Microtubules: This type of filaments is hollow tube-like, elongated and unbranched. They are 10–20 millimicron (mμ) in
diameter and several micron (μm) in length. Chemically, made by ‘Tubulin’ named dimer protein. In 1953, Ledbetter & Porter
observed first this filament in plant cell and Robert & Franchi discovered it in the neuron of animal cell in the same year.

Functions :
1) Constructs ‘Spindle apparatus’ during cell division and thus helps in cell division. Also helps to form cell wall.
2) Helps to move Cilia & Flagella.
3) Helps in transportation by connected with cell membrane, nuclear envelope & other organelles.
4) Provides mechanical support & rigidity.

2) Microfilaments: Actin & Myosin protein made ultra-fine contractile (ms‡KvPbkxj) filament or fibre, lies in the cytoplasm of
eukaryotic cell, participates in cellular movement, is called ‘Microfilaments’. They are also called ‘Actin filaments’. They are 30–60
Å in diameter. They lie just below the cell membrane like a ribbon. In 1974, Paleviz observed first this fibre in the cell.

Functions :
1) Provides proper shape of cell as well as mechanical support & rigidity.
2) Helps in cell division through cytokinesis.
3) Controls cytoplasmic movement, phagocytosis, pinocytosis etc.
4) Participates in change of position of cellular organelles.
5) Helps chromosomes to move towards the pole.

Fig: Cytoskeleton
3) Intermediate filaments: Structurally, this is an intermediate protein made filament or fibre in between microtubules and
microfilaments. They are 10 nm in diameter. 4 (four) types of Intermediate filaments are found in different cells – Keratin, Laminine,
Vimentin & Neurofilament. Intermediate filaments are the most permanent structure of cytoskeleton.

Functions :
1) Provides proper shape of cell as well as mechanical support & rigidity.
2) Helps to keep the other fibres or filaments in proper place. Aminul Sir
Assistant Professor, CESC
01912 - 85 33 95
             
 21

ix) Per-oxisome (Microsome) :

The single-layered cytoplasmic organelle, 0.2–17 μm in diameter, stored ‘Catalase’ enzyme which breaks Hydrogen per-oxide
(H2O2) into O2 & H2O, is known as ‘Per-oxisome’. It is also known as ‘Microsome’. Though Per-oxisome is available in almost all
cells, it is more abundant in the cells of liver and kidney of animal. It is originated through the out-pocketing of rough endoplasmic
reticulum. It stores different types of enzymes. ‘Catalase’ is the main enzyme among them. In 1967, Belgian cytologist Christian
de Duve discovered this organelle from cell cytoplasm.

Functions :
1) Catalase enzyme of Per-oxisome breaks down Hydrogen per-oxide (H2O2) into O2 & H2O. Hydrogen per-oxide (H2O2) is
toxic-like, therefore by breaking down it, Per-oxisome protects the cell from toxicity.
2) Controls the concentration of oxygen (O2) in cell.
Aminul Sir
3) Plays role to breakdown and recycle of N2-bases (A, G, C, T, U) of DNA & RNA. Assistant Professor, CESC
01912 - 85 33 95

ix) Gly-oxisome :
Single-layered membrane bounded, small, spherical or oval or hexagonal shaped cytoplasmic organelle present in certain
plant cell, contains lipid metabolizing enzymes, is called ‘Gly-oxisome’. In 1967, Scientist R W Briedenback discovered and
named it. Gly-oxisome is found in filamentous fungi, Yeast, Neurosporia and oilseed cells. They are also seen in lipid storing cells
of seed. They are originated from cisternae of endoplasmic reticulum.

Structure :
Single-layered membrane bounded, small, spherical or oval or hexagonal shaped lipid containing organelle. Diameter is 0.5–
1.5 μm. Different enzymes of β oxidation and glyoxalo cycle, like – isocitrate ligase, malate synthetase, glycol oxidase & catalase
are present.

Functions :
1) Mainly controls fat or lipid metabolism.
2) During germination of seed, Gly-oxisome breaks down ‘Lipid’ into absorbable ‘sugar’ so that growth of germinating seedling
can continue before producing its own food through photosynthesis process.
3) Gly-oxisome oxidizes the ‘Respiratory substance’ to produce energy through glyoxalate cycle.
4) Amino acid metabolism occurs with the help of this organelle.

ix) Cell Vacuole :

The single-layered membrane bounded structure lies in the cytoplasm, contains ‘cell sap’, present in all plant and animal
cells, is known as ‘Cell Vacuole’. They are so many and small in size in an immature cell but in plant cell, all small vacuoles unite
together to form a large Cell Vacuole. The thin single layer rubber-like covering which surrounds the Cell Vacuole, is called
‘Tonoplast’. Cell Vacuole stores ‘cell sap’.

Functions :
1) It stores ‘cell sap’ and cell sap contains - water, carbohydrate, protein, fat, organic acid, inorganic salts, different dyes etc.
2) Maintains internal pH of the cell.
3) Maintains hydrostatic pressure (i.e. pressure of water) within the cell.
4) Contains necessary waste substances.
5) Provides rigidity to plant cell.
 22

Topic - 4  Nucleus: Nuclear envelope, Nucleoplasm, Nucleolus, Nuclear reticulum or Chromatin fibre.

Introduction :
 The term ‘Nucleus’ is derived from Latin ‘nux’ means ‘Nut’.
 Other names - Center of cell, Brain of cell, Life of cell etc.
 In 1831, Robert Brown discovered it from the leaf of an Orchid plant named Rasna (Scientific name: Vanda sp.) and
named it.
Aminul Sir
Assistant Professor, CESC
01912 - 85 33 95
Definition :
The cytoplasmic organelle of eukaryotic cell having bi-layered two membrane which contains nuclear reticulum or chromatin
fibre and controls all biological activities of cell, is called ‘Nucleus’.

Number & Distribution :

 Generally, one Nucleus in each cell. Fig: Structure of Nuclear pore

 Some eukaryotic cells, such as - mature sieve cell of phloem, RBC of human etc devoid of Nucleus.
 Again in some cells, more than one Nucleus may present. e.g. Algae  Botrydium, Sphaeroplea, Vaucheria and Fungi 
Penicillium. Cell with many nuclei, is called ‘Coenocyte’.

Size, Shape & Volume :

 Round or circular; in some cases, ellipsoidal, fusiform (Radish-like),
coiled disc-like, branched shaped etc.
 Diameter = 1 micrometer (μm) / micron (μ).
 Usually, covers 10–15% space of overall volume of cell.
 In sperm cell, it covers 90% area of total volume of cell. Fig: Structure of a Typical Nucleus

Structure of a Typical Nucleus :

Following 4 parts construct the structure of Nucleus – 1) Nuclear envelope, 2) Nucleoplasm / Karyolymph, 3) Nucleolus & 4)
Nuclear reticulum / Chromatin fibre.

1) Nuclear Envelope: It is a bilayered two membrane, which is made by phospho-lipid (bi-layer). There are ‘Special pores’ all
over the surface of it. Its diameter is 9 nanometer (nm). These pores can contract & expand which is controlled by ‘Protein
network’. Each Protein network is made by - 8 protein granules, central ‘Transporter’ named protein, Anchor protein etc. 8 protein
granules make a circular hollow structure along with the pore and ‘Transporter’ named a large protein lies at the centre of 8 protein
granules. Transporter protein is connected with nuclear envelope by ‘Anchor protein’.

Functions :
1) Separates and conserves nucleoplasm, nucleolus & nuclear reticulum or chromatin fibre from cytoplasm.
2) Maintains connection & transports materials (e.g. RNA) from nucleoplasm to cytoplasm and vice versa through nuclear
pore.
3) Sometimes, being attached with endoplasmic reticulum, builds the position of nucleus strong.
 23

2) Nucleoplasm / Karyolymph: The granular, dense and transparent liquid substances enclosed by nuclear envelope, is called

‘Nucleoplasm / Karyolymph’. It carries the features of protoplasm.

Functions :
1) Nucleolus & nuclear reticulum or chromatin fibre remain suspended on it.
2) Acts as the main area for enzymatic functions.

3) Nucleolus: The small and more dense round non-membranous substance in the nucleus, is known as ‘Nucleolus’. Its main

chemical components are - Protein, RNA & little amount DNA. In 1781, Fontana first observed it inside the nucleus and in 1840,
Bowman named it.

Position / Location: Nucleolus is usually attached to a specific site of a specific chromosome. The site of chromosome where it is
attached, is called SAT or Satellite.

Number: Every Nucleus has one nucleolus. Generally nucleolus is absent in cells where protein synthesis doesn't occur and more
than one nucleolus may be present in the cells where more protein synthesis occur.

Functions :
Aminul Sir
1) Synthesizes different types of RNA. Assistant Professor, CESC
01912 - 85 33 95
2) Synthesizes and conserves protein.
3) Acts as store house or reservoir of nucleotides.

4) Nuclear reticulum / Chromatin fibre: Some fibres are seen within the nucleus during resting phase (i.e. when cell division

doesn’t occur) of cell, is known as ‘Nuclear reticulum / Chromatin fibre’. During interphase or karyokinesis, the portion of nucleus
which retains Feulgen stain, is called ‘Chromatin’. Actually, DNA and protein are called ‘Chromatin’. During cell division, Chromatin
fibres become shorter & thicker by gradual coiling and can be visualized in specific number & shape individually. At this stage, they
are called ‘Chromosomes’. In each Chromosome, there are one or more centromeres, two chromatids and occasionally satellite.
Genes are located in the Chromosome and they are responsible for expressing characteristics of species.

Chemical composition: Each chromosome has - DNA, RNA, Histone and Non-histone proteins; besides, little calcium and
magnesium are present.

Functions :
1) Acts as a carrier & container of hereditary characteristics.
2) Plays major role in creation of Mutation and Variation.

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Topic - 5  Chromosome :
i) Physical - and Chemical - structures, Functions
ii) Role of Chromosome in cell division .

Definition :
Grk. ‘Chroma’ means ‘Colour’ and ‘-soma’ means ‘Body’. Therefore, ‘Chromosome’ means ‘Coloured or stained body’ or
‘Stain containing body’ because it can retain some basic stain. A thread-like, stain absorbing, inheritable structure of nucleus of
eukaryotic cell, which is made up of DNA & protein, having replication property, plays role in mutation, variation etc, is called
‘Chromosome’.

Every nucleus has a specific number of chromosomes according to the characteristics of species. Generally, the number of
chromosome is same in different samples (i.e. varieties) of the same species. During cell division, Chromosome is observed by
using Feulgen stain.

Well-defined chromosome is absent due to absence of well-structured nucleus in prokaryotic cell. But DNA remains present in
the cytoplasm (in some Viruses, RNA is present. e.g. TMV). They are called ‘Prochromosome’.

Discovery :
 In 1842, Karl Nageli first observed the chromosome in the nucleus of plant cell. Aminul Sir
Assistant Professor, CESC
01912 - 85 33 95
 In 1875, Strasburger observed some thread-like structures during cell division.

 In 1888, Walter Flemming named these thread-like structures as ‘Chromatin’.

 In 1888, W Waldeyer has given their name as ‘Chromosome’.

 In 1902, Sutton & Boveri described the Chromosome as the ‘Carrier of hereditary characteristics’.

 In 1921, Theophilus Painter first published the number of chromosomes of human.

Number :
 Number of chromosomes varies from 2 to 1,600.
 In plants, maximum number of chromosomes is found in Ophioglossum reticulatum named Pteridophytes (Fern) under non-
flowering plants, 2n = 1200. In flowering plants, minimum number of chromosomes is Haplopappus gracilis, 2n = 4 and
maximum is Poa littarosa, 2n = 506–530.
 In animals, minimum number of chromosomes is found in a Round worm (Ascaris megalocephalus sub. sp. univalens), 2n =
2 and maximum is in a Radiolaria-type Protozoa named Aulacantha sp., 2n = 1600.

Name of Chromosome Name of Chromosome

Botanical Name Zoological Name
Plants number (2n) Animals number (2n)
Paddy Oryza sativa 24 Human Homo sapiens 46
Wheat Triticum aestivum 42 Gorilla Gorilla gorilla 48
Maize Zea mays 20 Hydra Hydra vulgaris 32
Jute Corchorus capsularis 14 Fruit Fly Drosophila melanogaster 8
Potato Solanum tuberosum 48 Guinea Pig Cavia porcellus 64
Onion Allium cepa 16 Cow Boss indica 60
Tobacco Nicotiana tabacum 28 Goat Capra hircus 60
 25

Size : Aminul Sir

Assistant Professor, CESC
 Usually, the length of chromosomes varies 3.5–30 μm and diameter 0.2–2.0 μm. 01912 - 85 33 95
 The average length of chromosomes of human is 4–6 μm.

Position / Location :
 Generally, chromosomes remain stay in the nucleus.

Types :
A) Based on the number of centromere, Chromosomes are 5 (five) types –
1) Monocentric: Chromosome having one centromere only. This type of Chromosome is seen in most of the species.

2) Dicentric: Chromosome having two centromeres. This type of Chromosome is seen in some species of Wheat.

3) Polycentric: Chromosome having more than two centromeres. This is seen in some species of Banana (Musa sp.).

4) Diffused: Chromosomes do not have centromere in any specific position.

5) Acentric: Chromosomes do not have centromere. They do not participate in cell division.

B) Based on the position or location of centromere, Chromosomes are 4 (four) types –

1) Metacentric: When centromere lies at the middle of chromosome, it is called ‘Metacentric chromosome’. It looks like
English letter ‘V’ during anaphase stage. It is a primitive characteristic. All the chromosomes of Solanum nigrum is
Metacentric. In human, X chromosome & 1, 3, 6, 7, 8, 11, 16, 19, 20 number chromosomes are metacentric.

2) Sub-metacentric: When centromere of a chromosome lies a bit aside from the middle, then it is called ‘Sub-metacentric
chromosome’. It looks like English letter ‘L’ during anaphase stage. In human, 2, 4, 5, 9, 10, 12, 17, 18 number
chromosomes are sub-metacentric.

3) Acrocentric: When centromere of a chromosome lies near to the end of a chromosome, then it is called ‘Acrocentric
chromosome’. It looks like English letter ‘J’ during anaphase stage. In Typhonium trilobatum, 11 metacentric, 4 sub-
metacentric and 2 acrocentric chromosomes are there. In human, Y chromosome & 13, 14, 15, 21, 22 number
chromosomes are acrocentric.

4) Telocentric: When centromere of a chromosome lies at the terminal end, then it is called ‘Telocentric chromosome’. It
looks like English letter ‘I’ during anaphase stage and it has only one arm. Generally, Telocentric chromosome is not
available in plants. Telocentric chromosome also absent in human.

C) Based on body formation and sex determination, Chromosomes are 2 (two) types –
1) Autosome: The chromosome which contains genes that control the physical characteristics of organisms, is called
‘Autosome’. The set of Autosome is denoted by A. In human, among 23 pairs of chromosome 22 pairs are Autosome.

2) Sex Chromosome: The chromosome which determines the gender or sex of organisms, is called ‘Sex chromosome’. Sex
Chromosomes are 2 types – X and Y. Human have 1 pair of Sex chromosome. In female, the two sex chromosomes are
same (XX) and in male, the two sex chromosomes are different (XY). In 1891, Henking noticed that, some elements of
the nucleus are related to production of sperm in insects. He named it (X-body; X for unknown). Later, this was approved
as X-chromosome in sex determination. Later, in male another sex chromosome was discovered. It was named as Y-
chromosome (Since it was discovered after X).
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i) Physical and Chemical structures of Chromosome, Functions of Chromosome

Aminul Sir
Assistant Professor, CESC Physical structure of Chromosome
01912 - 85 33 95

Generally, Chromosomes do not appear individually in the normal condition of cells. They are highly organized and appear
individually during metaphase stage of cell division. The following parts of the Chromosome are observed with the help of a
complex (compound) microscope –

1) Chromatin: This is the main element of Chromosome, which is actually a DNA and proteins compound. Primarily, DNA wrapped
the histone octacore and formed ‘Nucleosome’ which is 11 nm in breadth. Because of continuous coiling, nucleosome turns into 11
to 30 nm, 30 to 300 nm and finally, 300 to 700 nm width ‘Chromatin’.
In 1928, Heitz divided the Chromatin into 2 parts – Heterochromatin & Euchromatin. The more coiled part of Chromatin seen
during Interphase and Prophase stages, which have inactive DNA (i.e. do not synthesize mRNA), is called ‘Heterochromatin’. On
the other hand, the less coiled broad part of Chromatin having active DNA (i.e. synthesizes mRNA), is called ‘Euchromatin’.

2) Chromatid: Chromosome is first seen during prophase stage of mitosis cell division and chromosomes are seen to be vertically
divided into two parts during metaphase stage, each of which is called ‘Chromatid’. A pair of chromatids that are equal and parallel
to each other, are present in each Chromosome. They are commonly known as ‘Sister chromatids’. According to modern concept,
each chromatid is formed by a single DNA molecule. In 1921, scientist Vejdovsky named them ‘Chromonemata’ (sing.
Chromonema).

3) Centromere: Each chromosome has a non-pigmented region, is known as ‘Centromere’. Sister chromatids remain strongly
connected at centromere region. The position of the centromere creates a groove in the chromosome. This is called ‘Primary
constriction’. A single centromere is present in an ideal chromosome. In abnormal condition, a chromosome may contain two or
more centromeres or none.

4) Arm: The chromosomal part on both sides of a centromere, is called ‘Arm’. Each chromosome has two arms. The length of each
arm of chromosome is determined by the position of centromere.

5) Kinetochore: Every centromere has a small structural part, called ‘Kinetochore’. Microtubules remain attached with kinetochore.

6) Chromomere / Idiomere: At the starting of meiotic prophase, small cyst-like structures are seen on the chromosome, is known
as ‘Chromomere / Idiomere’. The number and position of chromomere is clearly visible at pachytene of prophase-I of meiosis.

7) Secondary constriction: Apart from centromere named primary constriction, there is one or more secondary constriction may
present in the arms of chromosome. Secondary constriction is also called ‘Nucleolar Organizer Region-NOR’. Human has five pairs
of NOR and they are 13, 14, 15, 21 & 22 number chromosomes.

8) Satellite: In some chromosomes, at one end a circular part attached by chromatin fiber is seen. This circular part at the end of
chromosome, is called ‘Satellite’ and this type of chromosome is called ‘SAT chromosome’. In other words, nucleolus carrying
chromosome is called SAT chromosome. In some chromosomes of Cotton, Chick Pea, Jute etc, SAT chromosome is present.
Satellite is present in 1 number chromosome of Chick Pea. Secondary constriction named SAT helps in the formation of nucleolus.
The word ‘SAT’ comes from Sine-Acido-Thymonucleico. It means DNA devoid of Thymonucleic acid.
 27

Fig: Structure of a Typical Chromosome

9) Telomere: The opposite side of Satellite (SAT) i.e. the terminal region of a chromosome, is called ‘Telomere’. According to H. J.

Muller, characterized region at the end of chromosome, is called Telomere. How many times a single cell will divide – that is

determined by telomere. It is thought that, Telomere helps to prevent aging of cells by Telomerase enzyme.

Repeated sequence of DNA at the ends of chromosome is telomere. Its function is to protect the coding region of DNA from

destruction during cell division. Telomere determines how many times a cell will divide. During every division, the length of

telomere decreases, so by measuring its length it can be said how many times more a cell will divide and how long the organism

will live. According to a calculation, during birth length of telomere is 8000 bp, at 35 years age it is 3000 bp. at 65 years it is 1500

bp.

10) Matrix: The layer of protein and RNA around the chromatin fibres, covered by Pelicle, is called ‘Matrix’. Through modern

research by electron microscope, the existence of Matrix cannot be proved.

11) Pelicle: It is assumed that, there is a thin layer with matrix outside the chromosome, is called ‘Pelicle’. Through modern

research by electron microscope, the existence of Pelicle cannot be proved.

Aminul Sir
Assistant Professor, CESC
01912 - 85 33 95
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Chemical structure of Chromosome

The main chemical components of Chromosome are – A) Nucleic acids and B) Proteins.

A) Nucleic acids: Chromosome has 2 (two) types of Nucleic acids - 1) DNA and 2) RNA.
1) DNA: DNA is the permanent component of chromosome. Among the various elements of chromosome, DNA's amount is about
45%. According to scientist Swift (1964) & Bonar (1968), the ratio of DNA and Histone protein in chromosome is 1:1. About 90%
of total DNA lies at chromosomes.

2) RNA: The amount of RNA in the chromosome is 0.2–1.4%. RNA is a temporary component of chromosome. Many Virus cells
contain RNA instead of DNA.

B) Proteins: Protein is a chemical element which constitutes the main structure of chromosome. Amount of Protein is 55% in the
chromosome. Chromosome contains 2 (two) types of protein 1) Low molecular weight protein and 2) High molecular weight
protein.

1) Low molecular weight protein: Either Protamine or Histone - any one of these two basic or alkaline proteins is found in
chromosome. Most chromosomes contain Histone protein. Protamine is available only in the chromosome of sperm. Amount of
Histone is almost as the same as the amount of DNA, i.e. DNA : Histone = 1:1.

2) High molecular weight protein: There are several types of acidic protein in the chromosome, such as – DNA polymerase, RNA
polymerase etc.

C) Others: In addition to that, Magnesium, Calcium, Iron, Lipid etc are present in chromosome in a very little amount.

Functions of Chromosome :
1) Chromosomes carry the genetic information from one generation to another.
2) Chromosome plays direct role in cell division by dividing itself.
3) Contains DNA as well as Gene.
Aminul Sir
4) According to the instruction of DNA, synthesizes protein by forming mRNA. Assistant Professor, CESC
01912 - 85 33 95
5) Autosome controls the physical characteristics of organism.
6) Sex chromosome plays role in determining the sex or gender of organism.
7) Chromosomal recombination plays a vital role in genetic diversity.

B - Chromosome :

Sometimes B-chromosome is present in plant, animal and fungi as extra chromosome of general karyotype. B-chromosome is

small and non-vital chromosome. They contain heterochromatin and contain few genes. They don’t follow Mendelian Law of

Inheritance. They are selfish hereditary materials. Maize & Ulotchondal plants have B-chromosome.
 29

ii) Role of Chromosome in cell division :

[ Try yourself ]

Aminul Sir
                Assistant Professor, CESC
01912 - 85 33 95

Cellular inclusions / Ergastic substances :

Many inert substances are deposited in the cell cytoplasm and cell vacuole due to metabolic activity. The cellular inclusions or

ergastic materials remain as solutions or crystals, droplets or granules. Cellular inclusions / Ergastic substances can be divided into

three categories - 1) Reserve materials, 2) Secretory products & 3) Excretory or waste products.

1) Reserve materials: The main reserve materials are - carbohydrate, protein and lipid. Among the soluble carbohydrates glucose,

sugar and inulin are present. Insoluble carbohydrates are starch grain, cellulose and glycogen. Generally, oil and fat are present in

cytoplasm as droplets. Protein i.e. nitrogenous reserve materials remain as both liquid and solid. Most of the reserve materials are

stored as reserve food.

2) Secretory products: Main secretory products are - pigments, enzymes, hormones and nectar. Mentionable pigments are

chlorophyll, anthocyanin, carotenoid etc. These substances are secreted from protoplasm as a result of cellular metabolism.

3) Excretory or waste products: Most of the waste products are produced as a ‘Byproduct’ in the metabolic activity of

protoplasm. Since there is no separate excretory pathway in plants, they are deposited inside the cell. Mentionable waste products

are tannin, resin, gum, latex, alkaloid, glycoside, organic acid, volatile oil and mineral crystal. Principle mineral crystal is Calcium

oxalate [CaC2O4 / Ca(COO)2]. Sometimes they are of needle shape, then it is called ‘Raphide’. Grape-like cluster of calcium

carbonate crystal is called ‘Cystolith’.

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