LEARNING OBJECTIVES

• To know the the concise definition of Ethics

ETHICS • To elaborate the study of Ethics and its Key Concepts

AN INTRODUCTION
Kris Hanley M. Dalan, PhD, RPsy, LPT

ETHICS AND MORALITY

• Ethics is the branch of philosophy that studies morality or the rightness or

ETHICS IS THE PRACTICAL wrongness of human conduct. Ethics studies standards of right and wrong,
the act of making a decision, the nature of the agent who makes the
SCIENCE OF THE MORALITY OF decision.
• Morality speaks of a code or a system of behavior in regard to the
HUMAN CONDUCT. standards of right and wrong behavior. Morality pertains to standards of
right and wrong, usually inherited from a community.

ETHICS I. THE IMPORTANCE OF RULES TO SOCIAL BEINGS

• As a branch of philosophy, ethics stands to queries about what there is • Rules refer to explicit or understood regulations or principles governing
reason to do. Dealing with human actions and reasons for action, ethics is conduct within a specific activity or sphere.
also concerned with character. In fact, the word 'ethics' is derived from • a. Rules protect social beings by regulating behavior.
the Greek ethos, which means 'character', or in plural, 'manners.
• b. Rules help to guarantee each person certain rights and freedom.
• Also called moral philosophy, ethics evaluates moral concepts, values,
• c. Rules produce a sense of justice among social beings.
principles, and standards. Because it is concerned with norms of human
conduct, ethics is considered a normative study of human actions. • d. Rules are essential for a healthy economic system.

II. MORAL VS. NON-MORAL STANDARDS MORAL STANDARDS

• Morality may refer to the standards that a person or a group has about • Moral standards involve the rules people have about the kinds of actions
what is right and wrong, or good and evil. Accordingly, moral standards are they believe are morally right and wrong, as well as the values they place
those concerned with or relating to human behavior, especially the on the kinds of objects they believe are morally good and morally bad.
distinction between good and bad (or right and wrong) behavior. Some ethicists equate moral standards with moral values and moral
principles.
NON-MORAL STANDARDS SIX CHARACTERISTICS OF MORAL STANDARD-
MAÑEBOG (2013)
• Non-moral standards refer to rules that are unrelated to moral or ethical • a. Moral standards involve serious wrongs or significant benefits.
considerations. Either these standards are not necessarily linked to • b. Moral standards ought to be preferred to other values.
morality or by nature lack ethical sense.
• c. Moral standards are not established by authority figures.
• Basic examples of non-moral standards include rules of etiquette, fashion • d. Moral standards have the trait of universalizability.
standards, rules in games, and various house rules. Technically, religious
• e. Moral standards are based on impartial considerations.
rules, some traditions, and legal statutes (i.e. laws and ordinances) are
nonmoral principles, though they can be ethically relevant depending on • f. Moral standards are associated with special emotions and vocabulary.
some factors and contexts.

3. DILEMMA AND MORAL DILEMMA 3. DILEMMA AND MORAL DILEMMA

• The term 'dilemma' refers to a situation in which a tough choice has to be • What is common to moral dilemmas is conflict. In each ethical dilemma, an
made between two or more options, especially more or less equally agent regards himself as having moral reasons to do each of two actions,
undesirable ones. Not all dilemmas are moral dilemmas. but doing. both actions seems to be ethically not possible.
• Also called ethical dilemmas; moral dilemmas are situations in which a
difficult choice has to be made between two courses of action, either of
which entails transgressing a moral principle. At the very least, a moral
dilemma involves conflicts between moral requirements.

KEY FEATURES OF A MORAL DILEMMA 4. THREE LEVELS OF MORAL DILEMMAS

• a. the agent is required to do each of two (or more) actions; • a. Personal Dilemmas. Personal dilemmas are those experienced and
resolved on the personal level. Since many ethical decisions are personally
• b. the agent can do each of the actions; but the agent cannot do both (or
made, many, if not most of moral dilemmas fall under or boil down to this
all) of the actions; and
level.
• c. neither of the conflicting moral requirements is overridden. • b. Organizational Dilemmas. Organizational moral dilemmas refer to
ethical cases encountered and resolved by social organizations. This
category includes moral dilemmas in business, medical field, and public
sector.

4. THREE LEVELS OF MORAL DILEMMAS 5. REASONS WHY “ONLY HUMAN BEINGS CAN BE
ETHICAL”
• c. Structural Dilemmas. Structural moral dilemmas refer to cases involving • a. Only human beings are rational, autonomous, and self-conscious
a network of institutions and operative theoretical paradigms. As they • b. Only human beings can act morally or immorally
usually encompass multi-sectoral institutions and organizations, they may
• c. Only human beings are part of the moral community
be larger in scope and extent than organizational dilemmas.
 6. FREEDOM AS A FOUNDATION OF MORALITY 7. MINIMUM REQUIREMENT FOR MORALITY:
REASON AND IMPARTIALITY
• Morality is fundamentally tied to freedom and choice. Animals and robots, • Reason as a requirement for morality entails that human feelings may be
lacking autonomy, cannot be considered moral. Humans, on the other important in ethical decisions, but they ought to be guided by reason.
hand, possess the ability to make choices and therefore can act morally. Sound reasoning helps us to evaluate whether our feelings and intuitions
• Morality involves selecting ethical codes, values, or standards to guide about moral cases are correct and defensible.
behavior. This freedom of choice allows for individual variation in moral
practices. Coercion, whether through government or culture, undermines
morality. Ultimately, the sum of individual choices defines a person's
unique morality.

7. MINIMUM REQUIREMENT FOR MORALITY:

REASON AND IMPARTIALITY
• Impartiality, on the other hand, involves the idea that each individual's
interests and point of view are equally important. Also called
evenhandedness or fair-mindedness, impartiality is a principle of justice
holding that decisions ought to be based on objective criteria, rather than
on the basis of bias, prejudice, or preferring the benefit to one person
over another for improper reasons.
Part 1: The Moral Agent
Lesson 1: Culture in Moral Behavior
K R I S H A N L E Y M . D A L A N , P H D , R P S Y, L P T

• The term culture is so complex that it is not Definition of Culture

easy to define. In one sense, culture is used to
denote that which is related to the arts and
humanities. But in a broader sense, culture
Culture encompasses the collective reservoir of acquired wisdom.
denotes the practices, beliefs, and

1. Culture: perceptions of a given society. It is in this Culture encompasses intricate patterns, both explicit and implicit, which govern and transmit behavior
through symbolic means.
sense that culture is often opposed with
Culture encompasses the collective body of acquired knowledge and behaviors exhibited by a particular
'savagery,' that is, being 'cultured' is seen as a group of people which are commonly recognized as the traditions of that community.
product of a certain evolvement from a
Culture, when understood expansively, can be sees as the cultivation of behavior.
natural state.

Culture is an embodiment of symbolic communication.

2. Culture’s Role in Moral Behavior Social Learning

Cultures transmit shared values and beliefs about what is right and wrong, good and bad. These values can
influence individuals' moral judgments and decision-making.
• Social learning is the process by which individuals acquire knowledge

Cultures establish social norms that dictate appropriate behavior in different situations. These norms can
from others in the groups to which they belong, as a normal part of
shape individuals' moral choices and the consequences of those choices.
childhood. The process by which infants and children socially learn
the culture, including morality, of those around them is called
Cultures provide individuals with scripts or guidelines for how to behave in various social situations. These
scripts can influence moral judgments and actions.
enculturation or socialization.

While cultures may differ in their moral beliefs and practices, it is important to recognize that these
differences do not necessarily imply that one culture's morality is superior to another.
 Two Reasons of Lewis for Saying that Morality belongs to
Moral standards can be understood as socially agreed-upon the Same Class as Mathematics
rules or guidelines that govern behavior and define what is
considered right or wrong. These standards often emerge
3. Moral Standards from cultural traditions, religious beliefs, and societal
as Social Convention norms.

and the Social

Conditioning Theory Social conditioning theory posits that individuals' behaviors, 1. “Although there are differences
attitudes, and beliefs are shaped by their interactions with 2. “We affirm that the morality of
others and their environment. This theory suggests that between the moral ideas of one
one people is better or worse than
moral standards are learned and internalized through time or country and those of
that of another, which means that
socialization processes, such as family, education, and peer another, the differences are not
there is a moral standard or rule by
groups. really very great. Nations or cultures
which we measure both moralities
only have slightly different moralities
and that standard is real.”
but not quite different ones.”

4. Cultural Relativism in Ethics 4. Cultural Relativism in Ethics

Cultural relativism is perhaps

the most famous form of moral Moral relativism fundamentally
Cultural relativists base their believes that no act is good or bad
relativism, a theory in ethics Moral relativists view all moral
moral theory on the observation objectively, and there is no single
which holds that ethical objective universal standard
norms as equally true, and morals
that societies fundamentally as mere preferences.
judgments have their origins through which we can evaluate the
disagree about ethical issues.
either in individual or cultural truth of moral judgments.
standards.

• 5.2. The Theory’s Ethical Faults

5. Cultural Relativism: An Analysis • If taken to its extreme, ethical relativism can

lead to moral nihilism, the belief that there
are no objective moral truths.

5.1. Valuable lessons from Ethical Relativism • Ethical relativism can promote a form of moral
5. Cultural relativism, where individuals can justify any
Relativism: An behavior based on their cultural beliefs.
Ethical relativism highlights the diversity of moral beliefs and Analysis • While ethical relativism aims to avoid cultural
practices across different cultures. imperialism, it can sometimes be used to
justify the imposition of Western values on
Ethical relativism suggests that there may be multiple valid moral other cultures.
perspectives, rather than a single, universal moral truth.

• Ethical relativism can make it difficult to

• 5.3 Rachel’s Evaluation of Cultural Relativism
criticize or challenge harmful cultural
practices. This can hinder moral progress • 1. The Greeks believed it was wrong to eat the
dead, whereas the Callatians (an Indian tribe)
and the development of more just and
believed it was right to eat the dead.
5. Cultural equitable societies. 5. Cultural Therefore, eating the dead is neither
Relativism: An • Ethical relativism can make it difficult to Relativism: An objectively right nor objectively wrong. It is

Analysis resolve moral dilemmas that involve

Analysis merely a matter of opinion, which varies from
conflicting cultural values. In such cases, it culture to culture.
may be necessary to consider other
ethical principles or frameworks.
 • 5.3 Rachel’s Evaluation of Cultural Relativism • 5.4 The Bad Consequences of Cultural

• 2. The Eskimos see nothing wrong with Relativism

infanticide, whereas we believe infanticide is • 1. We could no longer say that the customs of
immoral. Therefore, infanticide is neither other societies are morally inferior to our
5. Cultural objectively right nor objectively wrong. It is
5. Cultural own.
Relativism: An merely a matter of opinion, which varies from Relativism: An • 2. We could decide whether actions are right
Analysis culture to culture. Analysis and wrong just by consulting the standards of
our society.

• 3. The idea of moral progress is called into

doubt.

• A. Pakikisama is having and maintaining good public relations.

• B. Hiya is described as a feeling of lowliness, shame or embarrassment,

6. Asian Moral Understanding and inhibition or shyness which is experienced as somewhat distressing.

• C. Amor Propio is derived from the concept of face. It is characterized as

7. Filipino the high degree of sensitivity that makes a person intolerant to criticism
and causes him to have an easy wounded pride.
Western Ethics Eastern Ethics Moral • D. Utang na loob is likewise a fundamental aspect of upholding group
Focus Finding Truth Protocol and Respect Character: harmony and relationships that demand the balancing of obligations and
debts.
Basis Rational Thought Religious Teachings Strengths and • E. Filipino hospitality refers to the innate ability and trait of Filipinos to
Emphasis Logic, Cause and Effect Respect Towards Family
Roots in Athens, Rome and Judeo Hinduism, Buddhism,
Weaknesses be courteous and entertaining to their guests.

• F. Respect to elders have unique ways of expressing this respect to

Christianity Confucianism and Taoism
elders.
Approach Rational Holistic and Cultural
Conflict and Harmony Good must triumph over Evil Good and Bad, Light and Dark all
exists in equilibrium

8. Universal Values

• Universal values are those values generally

shared by cultures. The existence of the so-
called universal values is a strong proof that THE MORAL AGENT
cultural relativism is wrong. DEVELOPING
VIRTUE
AS HABIT
 Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics The Good for Man = Eudaimonia

◼ The good = what all things ◼ complete, sufficient

aim at ◼ a fulfilling human life
◼ We study Ethics, not merely ◼ human ergon = think on/lead a good life
to know, but to attain the good ◼ = a teleological ethics

& to live good lives ◼ Definition = “rational activity with virtue”

– focused on the goal = how to make my life
good/fulfilling?

Major Claims The Doctrine of the Mean

◼ Ethics = quest for the ◼ Virtue (of character) involves
good striking a mean between
extremes of action and passion.
◼ The good = happiness-in- ◼ Excess: having too much of
something
rational activity
◼ Deficiency: having too little of
◼ Possible to attain in a life something.
of virtuous activities ◼ The mean is not mediocrity, but
harmony and balance.
together with friends

Deficiency VIRTUE Excess

“The individual makes a clear effort to define moral values and principles
Cowardice COURAGE Rashness that have validity and application apart from the authority of the groups of
persons holding them and apart from the individual's own identification
Self-indulgent TEMPERANCE Anhedonic with the group”
(drunken, glutton, promiscuous) (healthy moderation) (incapable of enjoying pleasure)

Cheapness GENEROSITY Wastefulness

Lawrence
Self-Shame, Servility PROPER PRIDE Arrogance, Vanity Kohlberg
(low self-esteem) (& high ambition) (bloated self-esteem)
 
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1927-1987 http://relong.myweb.uga.edu/

Exploitative JUSTICE (Altruistic) ce/article/kohlberg-lawrence-1927-

1987/

(covetous, dominator) (fair-mindedness)

Method Method
The Heinz Dilemma. A woman was near death from a special
▪ Kohlberg presented children
▪ Kohlberg presented The Heinz Dilemma. A woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one drug that the doctors thought
kind of cancer. There was one drug that the doctors thought of varying ages ten might save her. The drug was recently discovered and
children of varying might save her. The drug was recently discovered and expensive to make, but the druggist was charging 10 times
hypothetical moral
expensive to make, but the druggist was charging 10 times what what the drug cost him to make. The sick woman's husband,
ages ten hypothetical the drug cost him to make. The sick woman's husband, Heinz, dilemmas Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but
went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could he could only get together half of what it cost. He told the
moral dilemmas
only get together half of what it cost. He told the druggist that ▪ Subjects: 72 boys from druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it
his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said, "No, I
▪ Subjects: 72 boys Chicago (ages 10,13, and discovered the drug and I'm going to make money from it."
pay later. But the druggist said, "No, I discovered the drug and
I'm going to make money from it." So Heinz got desperate and 16) So Heinz got desperate and broke into the man's store to
from Chicago (ages broke into the man's store to steal the drug for his wife. Should steal the drug for his wife. Should the husband have done
the husband have done this? this?
10,13, and 16)
Level One: Preconventional Morality
Stage one: Obedience and Punishment Stage two: Individualism and
Orientation Exchange ▪ Isolated - individual way of thinking
▪ Knowledge of set rules
▪ Start to realize that there is more
▪ Recognize and follow
than one “right way” of doing things
authority
▪ Minimally appreciate different
▪ Concerned with
viewpoints
consequences and
punishment ▪ Only does something to get
something
▪ Preconventional thinking
▪ “If you scratch my back, I’ll scratch
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rule.jpg yours.”
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development.html http://static.photaki.com/isolated--kid--hands-up-458489.jpg

Level two: Conventional Morality Stage four: Maintaining the Social

Stage three: Good Interpersonal Order
Relationships
▪ Makes moral decisions
▪ Expectations of one’s family &
based on society
community are extremely
▪ Maintaining social order
important
▪ Obeying laws because it’s
▪ What society expects as what makes society

“good” behavior function properly

▪ Need for approval of peers

http://www.ehow.co.uk/how_4732368_reward-good-behavior-children-food.html

Level three: Post conventional Morality

Stage five: Social Contract and Individual
Stage six: Universal
Rights Principles ▪ Make decisions based on their
▪ Think about society in a theoretical way
conscience
▪ Rights and values of societies are more
important than self
▪ Self-ethics – what’s right for all

▪ See changes can be made to rules to benefit ▪ Believe in fairness and justice
their society
▪ Make sure everyone benefits,
▪ Right actions can be a matter of personal
and no one is left out or hurt
values and opinions

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content/uploads/2011/06/animatedthinkingcap.gif&bc=Website%20contains%20prohibited%20Friendship%20content.

 

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mages/areas/143/NCRCR%20Equali
ty%20Logo%20wLtrsCROPPED.gif
Moral reasoning is delimited by “...two moral perspectives that organize
thinking in different ways.”
Gilligan’s Perspective
Males = typically a justice/rights
orientation
Females = care response
Women: less in terms orientation
Men: define morality in Orientations arise from rational
of rights and more in experiences of inequality and
terms of justice.
terms of standards of attachment
responsibility and care. Girls attached to and identify
with mothers
Boys attached to mothers and
identify with fathers

The two perspectives are not opposite ends of a

Believes that: continuum, “...with justice uncaring and caring
unjust...”, but rather, “...a different method of
▪ That response orientation
is of a higher order than organizing the basic elements of moral judgment:
justice rights orientation self, others, and the relationship between them.”
▪ Because Kohlberg’s theory
(Gilligan, 1987, p.22)
is hierarchical with
justice /rights the basis--
women would necessarily
show a less reasoned
perspective on his scales.
▪ First studies of Kohlberg
only conducted with men

Gilligan’s Theory Gilligan’s Research:

“shift[s] the focus of attention from
▪ Based on two ways people reason about
observational studies. hypothetical dilemmas to ways
people construct moral conflicts and
▪ Study One: 25 college choice in their lives...and [makes] it
students possible to see what experiences
people define in moral terms, and to
▪ Study Two: 29 women
explore the relationship between the
considering abortion understanding of moral problems
and the reasoning strategies used
and the actions taken in attempting
to solve them.” Gilligan, 1987, p.21

Alternative Stage Sequence: Level Two

▪ Three levels with ▪ Level Two: Primary interest
in the care of others (to
transitional phases gain their acceptance)
between each: (Self sacrifice and Social
conformity).
▪ Level One: Complete
concern for self ▪ Transitional Phase:
awareness of self relative to
(Individual Survival). developing relationships with
others: responsibility toward
▪ Transitional Phase: their care and needs.
From self to care and
concern for others.
 Level Three
Good Points:
▪ Level Three: Nonviolence and universal Concept of care giving
and nurturing
caring.

▪ “articulates an ethic of responsibility Relationship of self to

that focuses on the actual consequences others, responsibility
of choice, the criterion of adequacy or
moral principles changes from objective Empathy
truth to ‘best fit', and can only be
established within the context of the
dilemma itself.” Effect on environment

▪ Murphy and Gilligan, 1980, p.83

The Heinz Dilemma

The Heinz Dilemma. A woman was near death

from a special kind of cancer. There was one
drug that doctors thought might save her. The
drug was recently discovered and expensive to
make, but the druggist was charging 10 times
what the drug cost him to make. The sick
woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he
knew to borrow the money, but he could only
get together half of what it cost. He told the
druggist that his wife was dying and asked him
to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the
druggist said, "No, I discovered the drug and
I'm going to make money from it." So, Heinz
got desperate and broke into the man's store
to steal the drug for his wife. Should the
husband have done this?

Feelings and Moral

Decision Making
GEC-ETHICS CLASSICAL LITERATURE

RATIONAL THINKING INDUBITABLY

1. FEELINGS AS INSTINCTIVE
PLAYS A MAJOR ROLE IN HOW PEOPLE
RESPONSE TO MORAL DILEMMAS
MAKE ETHICAL DECISIONS. HOWEVER,
OUR MORAL COMPASSES ARE ALSO
STRONGLY INFLUENCED BY THE
FLEETING FORCES OF FONDNESS, •Some ethicists believe that ethics is
DISGUST, OR FEAR. also a matter of emotion. They hold
that moral judgments at their best
should also be emotional. Feelings
THERE ARE AT LEAST TWO THEORIES IN
are seen as also necessary in ethical
ETHICS THAT FOCUS ON THE ROLE OF judgment as they are even deemed
FEELINGS ON MORALITY.
GEC-ETHICS- LESSON4

GEC-ETHICS- LESSON4

by some as instinctive and trained

(1) ETHICAL SUBJECTIVISM responses to moral dilemmas.
(2) EMOTIVISM
3 4
 •Bini Maloi, a college student, In this situation, Bino Maloi experiences a mix
of emotions:
faces a moral dilemma at home. • Hiya (shame): She feels a sense of hiya
Her family expects her to pursue a because choosing a path different from her
family's wishes may be seen as disrespectful
career in medicine, a tradition or ungrateful, especially given the sacrifices
they made for her education.
upheld for generations. However, • Guilt: She experiences guilt as an instinctive
Malois's true passion lies in the reaction, knowing her parents have invested
so much in her future with the hope she will
arts, where she feels a calling to follow a prestigious career. The thought of
disappointing them causes internal conflict.
express herself creatively. She • Desire for Authenticity: Despite her guilt,
struggles between fulfilling her there is an instinctive pull toward self-
expression and authenticity. She feels that

GEC-ETHICS- LESSON4

GEC-ETHICS- LESSON4
family's expectations and choosing her passion would be a way to
honor her true self and live a more fulfilling
following her own dreams. life.
5 6

2. FEELINGS AS OBSTACLES
TO MAKING THE RIGHT
DECISIONS 2.1 ETHICAL SUBJECTIVISM.
•Feelings and emotions, however, can This theory basically utterly runs contrary to
become obstacles or impediments to the principle that there is objectivity in
becoming ethical. This is the case especially
when feelings' roles in ethics are
morality. Fundamentally a meta-ethical
misinterpreted or exaggerated. So as a way theory, ethical subjectivism is not about
of proving this, let us discuss the two what things are good and what things are
famous (but erroneous) feeling-based bad. It also does not tell how we should live
theories in ethics.
GEC-ETHICS- LESSON4

GEC-ETHICS- LESSON4
or what moral norms we should practice.
Instead, it is a theory about the nature of
moral judgements.
7 8

Situation: Lester is a college student who believes

that morality is a matter of personal opinion. He
thinks that what is "right" or "wrong" varies from
person to person. One day, his friend invites him to a In this situation, ETHICAL
party where underage drinking will be involved. SUBJECTIVISM is illustrated by the idea
Lester is hesitant, as he personally disapproves of
underage drinking, believing it's irresponsible. that moral judgments are based on
individual opinions, and there is no
However, his friend argues, "there's nothing wrong
with it as long as you're having fun and not hurting objective truth about what is right or
anyone." Lester's friend sees no moral issue with it wrong. Both Lester and his friend have
because, for him, drinking underage is just part of
enjoying youth. Lester acknowledges his friend’s
different views on underage drinking, and
viewpoint, thinking, "well, if that’s how he feels, then each considers their perspective to be
GEC-ETHICS- LESSON4

GEC-ETHICS- LESSON4

it’s right for him, even though it’s not right for me.“ valid based on personal feelings.
9 10

PROBLEMS OF ETHICAL
PROBLEMS OF ETHICAL
SUBJECTIVISM
SUBJECTIVISM
1. It indicates that the mere fact that 3. Ethical subjectivism also implies that
we like something would make it good. each of us is infallible so long as we are
honestly expressing our respective
2. Ethical subjectivism also has feelings about moral issues.
implications that are, contrary to what 4. Subjectivism cannot account for the
we believe about the nature of moral fact of disagreement in ethics.
judgments. 5. The theory could also have
GEC-ETHICS- LESSON4

GEC-ETHICS- LESSON4

dangerous implications in moral

education.
11 12
 Doesn’t tell what’s good or bad
but, tells us that it is merely an
expression of personal opinion.

People have different opinions,

but where morality
is concerned, there are no
‘facts,’ and no one is ‘right

People just feel differently, and

CLASSICAL LITERATURE

GEC-ETHICS- LESSON4
that’s all there is to it.
13 14

EMOTIVISM
The theory basically states that moral
judgments express positive or negative
feelings. "X is right" merely means "hooray
for X!" And "X is immoral" just means "boo
on X!" Since ethical judgments are
essentially commands and exclamations,
they are not true or false; so there cannot
CLASSICAL LITERATURE

be moral truths and moral knowledge.

15

ETHICAL SUBJECTIVISM SUGGESTS THAT WE ARE TO IDENTIFY OUR MORAL

PRINCIPLES BY SIMPLY FOLLOWING OUR FEELINGS. ON A POSITIVE NOTE, IT
ALLOWS US TO THINK FOR OURSELVES BECAUSE IT IMPLIES THAT WE NEED
Emotivism is actually the most popular NOT AGREE WITH CULTURE OR SOCIETY. ETHICALLY, IT MAKES SENSE FOR A
THEORY NOT TO ULTIMATELY BASE MORALITY ON WHAT SOCIETY FEELS OR
form of non-cognitivism, the meta- DICTATES.
ethical theory that claims that ethical
sentences do not convey authentic BUT SUBJECTIVISM HAS PLENTY OF PROBLEMS.

propositions. Moral judgments,

according to emotivism, are not
statements of fact but are mere
expressions of the emotions of the
speaker, especially since they are usually CLASSICAL LITERATURE

feelings-based.

18

Situation: Lena and Rigor are arguing In this example, EMOTIVISM is shown
about the ethics of eating meat. Lena is a through Lena's expression of her moral
vegetarian because she believes that killing judgment as an emotional reaction
animals for food is morally wrong, while her ("disgusting and cruel") rather than a
Rigor enjoys eating meat and sees no statement of fact. According to emotivism,
moral statements do not convey objective
problem with it.
truths but are expressions of approval or
disapproval.
During the argument, Lena exclaims,
"eating meat is disgusting and cruel! How When Lena says eating meat is "disgusting,"
could anyone do that?" Rigor responds, she is expressing her emotional response to
CLASSICAL LITERATURE

CLASSICAL LITERATURE

"that's ridiculous! Eating meat is natural and the act, and her Rigor's reaction does the
perfectly fine!“ same from the opposite stance.
19 20
 EVALUATING EMOTIVISM
EVALUATING EMOTIVISM
Emotivism suggests that in ethical disputes, we cannot
appeal to reason but only to emotion. Without a doubt, this
Emotivism provides morality with could bring about anarchy.
insufficient explanations. In denying moral
truths and moral knowledge, it seems to Emotivism also fails to distinguish moral judgments from
dilute what morality is instead of mere expressions of personal preference. For an utterance
to become a genuine moral or value judgment, it must be
elucidating it. It is also unclear how the
supported by pertinent reasons. That is, if someone tells
ethical 'good' can be reasonably reducible us that a certain action is immoral, we may ask why it is
to mere exclamation. so, and if there is no reasonable answer, we may discard
the proposition as absurd.

EVALUATING EMOTIVISM
Feelings Can
Having a logical positivist background, emotivism
discards moral truths. Maintaining that moral claims Help in Making
are not testable by empirical observation and
experimentation, the theory reduced morality to mere the Right
matters of feelings. Emativism, however, fails to
notice that humans have not only feelings but also Decisions
reason, and reason plays a vital role in ethics. In fact,
moral truths are truths of reason; that is, a moral
judgment is true if it is espoused by better reasons
than the alternatives.

Our discussions on ethical subjectivism Our moral compasses are also

and emotivism should not be construed, strongly influenced by the fleeting
however, as completely removing people's forces of disgust, fondness, or fear.
feelings, taste, emotion, liking, and the Indeed, subjective feelings
like in the sphere of morality.
sometimes matter when deciding
Feelings Can Admittedly, there are situations in Feelings Can right and wrong. Emotions, like our
Help in which our feelings and likings are Help in love for our friends and family, are a
relevant to the rightness of our crucial part of what give life
Making the decisions and actions. In selecting a
course to take, a job to assume, and Making the meaning, and ought to play a
guiding role in morality. Sometimes,
Right especially a person to marry, we wonder
how one's decision can be really right Right cold, impartial, rational thinking is
Decisions without at least considering our feelings, Decisions not the only proper way to make an
taste, and preference. ethical decision.

THEORETICAL FOUNDATION MORALITY

OF MORALITY AND LEGALITY

PA 503
MANDANE, JOHN MARIEL P.
 MORAL FOUNDATION

MORAL THEORIES
Moral foundation theory argues that there are five basic
moral foundations:
(1) harm/care,
(2) fairness/reciprocity,
(3) ingroup/loyalty,
(4) authority/respect, and
(5) purity/sanctity.

These five foundations comprise the building blocks of

morality, regardless of the culture.

In other words, while every society constructs its own

morality, it is the varying weights that each society
allots to these five universal foundations that create the
variety.

Moral Subjectivism Cultural Relativism Ethical Egoism Utilitarianism Kantian Theory Rights-based
Theories
We are to act in accordance with a
Right and wrong is determined
Right and wrong is determined Right and wrong is determined Right and wrong is determined Right and wrong is determined set of moral rights, which we
by what is in your self-interest.
by what you -- the subject -- by the particular set of by the overall goodness (utility) by rationality, giving universal possess simply by being human. if
Or, it is immoral to act contrary
just happens to think (or 'feel') principles or rules the relevant of the consequences of action. duties. someone has a right, then others
to your self-interest.
is right or wrong. culture just happens to hold at have a corresponding duty to
the time. provide what the right requires.

Divine Command Virtue Ethics Feminist Ethics Contractarianism

Theory
without religion (in particular, Right and wrong are Right and wrong is to be found The principles of right and
without God or gods) there is characterized in terms of acting in womens' responses to the wrong (or Justice) are those
no morality, i.e., no right and in accordance with the relationship of caring. which everyone in society
wrong behaviour traditional virtues -- making the would agree upon in forming a
good person. social contract.

NATURAL LAW THEORY

Natural law theory believes that there is a

higher law created by nature and applies to all
LEGAL THEORIES human beings. This legal theory was first
proposed by the Greek philosopher Aristotle.

The key idea behind natural law is an objective

morality, moral obligation, moral principles, or a
moral force independent of human opinion.
This objective morality can be discovered
through reason and is the foundation of all
human laws and not through legal rules.

Marxist Law Theory

Legal Positivism Theory
legal positivism believes that there is no higher law than the law created by humans . This
Marx believed that the law is a tool used by the ruling class to oppress the working class. He argued
legal theory was first proposed by the English philosopher Jeremy Bentham.
that the law is not objective or neutral but is biased in favor of the ruling class . Marx believed that
the only way to achieve justice is to overthrow the ruling class and create a classless society.
Bentham believed that all laws are made by humans and are not based on any objective
morality. He also argued that the law's only purpose is to maintain order and social stability. The legal theory assumes that people can achieve perfect equality when communism is
reached. This has not been proven yet, as evidenced by the failed attempts in countries like
Some people think that positive law is a good theory because it is simple, and it does not the former United Soviet Socialist Russia (U.S.S.R.). However, this theory is challenged, and
require you to use morality to figure out if a law is good or bad. Critics of this theory argue private property theory is gaining ground.
that it is too simple and does not consider the fact that laws can be unjust concrete
dimensions of legal reasoning. Some people think Marxist law is a good theory because it explains why some laws are unfair
and provides a way to change them. Critics of Marxist law argue that it is too radical and does
not consider the fact that some laws are necessary to maintain order in society.
 Feminist Jurisprudence:
Realist Law Theory How the Law Impacts Women's Rights and Equality?
The realist law theory is interested in how the law works rather than its traditional definitions.
Under this law theory, the law is based on judicial decisions in the court. The theory holds that
rules that are not used to solve practical cases are not laws but merely exist as words on paper.
These dead words of law only become alive when used to solve a dispute between two parties.
Feminist legal theory is interested in how the law affects women. This
theory says that the law is not neutral. It isn't very objective against
Realists believe that the law is constantly changing and evolving. They argue that today's law women
may not be the law tomorrow. This is because new cases are constantly being decided by a
judicial decision in court, which can change the law and legal practice.

Introduction
The case of R v. Dudley and Stephens (1884) is a landmark English criminal case that set a
precedent across the common law world by ruling that necessity is not a defense to a charge of
murder. The trial centered on survival cannibalism after the crew of the yacht was stranded at sea.
The legal decision marked the culmination of efforts to outlaw the ancient custom of cannibalism,
generating significant public debate in late 19th-century Britain, especially among mariners. The Facts of the Case
defendants, Tom Dudley and Edwin Stephens, were found guilty and sentenced to the statutory The narrative revolves around the morally challenging act of cannibalism and the legal question of
death penalty, with a recommendation of mercy. whether necessity could be considered a defense. The scenario unfolds with four men from the
English ship facing a severe storm, leaving them stranded in a boat thousands of miles at sea
without adequate food or water. After exhausting their meager provisions and with no land in sight,
Captain Thomas Dudley proposes a grim solution – drawing lots to determine which one of the four,
including Edward Stephens and Ned Brooks, would be sacrificed to sustain the others.

The cabin boy, Richard Parker, is not consulted. Subsequently, Dudley and Stephens decide to kill
the boy for sustenance. Following their rescue, the two men are tried at Falmouth, released on bail, Legal Issues
and later stand trial at Exeter, where a special verdict is sought, leaving the determination of guilt Necessity as a Defence: Can necessity be invoked as a legitimate defence for the act of murder, and
to the court. does it render the action permissible under the circumstances?
The case reaches a bench of five judges in London, who find Dudley and Stephens guilty of murder. Act of Self-Defence: In the context of the killing of the boy to preserve one’s own life in this case,
Although initially sentenced to death, their punishment is later commuted to life imprisonment. The can it be characterised as an act of self-defence, justifying the taking of another life for survival?
landmark ruling firmly establishes that necessity cannot serve as a defence for committing a crime.

Judgement of the Case

In unequivocal terms, it was determined that the actions of Stephens and Dudley in the case at
hand constitute murder, warranting the imposition of the death penalty. The defense of necessity,
rooted in hunger, is outrightly dismissed as insufficient to justify the commission of larceny, let
Developing Will
alone the gravest crime of murder.
The deliberate choice of the weakest and youngest, Richard Parker, as the victim reveals a
calculated decision that goes beyond the mere imperative of survival. The notion that killing Parker
and Moral Courage
was more necessary than any of the other grown men is firmly rejected. The temptation faced by Understanding the Role of Self-
Stephens and Dudley, while understandable in the context of their dire circumstances, is
emphatically declared as no excuse for the act of murdering Parker.
Discipline and Courage in Ethics
Consequently, the unfortunate predicament they found themselves in does not afford leniency
within the legal framework’s definition of murder. The judgment unequivocally upholds the gravity
of their actions and prescribes the appropriate penalty for such a heinous offence.
 "You witness a close friend shoplifting a
small item from a store. Reporting them
could get them into serious trouble, but
Is reason enough to
staying silent feels like condoning
dishonesty. What do you do?" make moral decisions?

The Problem of Over-Reliance on

Emotions alone can be misleading in moral Emotions
dilemmas; reason helps guide decisions, but •Emotions are often reactive and can overshadow ethical
it cannot always overcome our fears or reasoning, leading to actions that satisfy immediate
temptations. This is where moral courage and desires but are harmful in the long term. To act morally,
the strength of will come into play, allowing us emotions must be tempered by reason.
to act on our values even when it is difficult.
Moral Dilemma: Should you confront a friend who upset
you, even if you feel like ignoring them?

•Moral courage is the ability to act on one's values

The Role of Reason in Moral Decisions despite the risk of negative consequences such as criticism,
social backlash, or personal loss.
•Reason helps us deliberate on the potential •It requires overcoming fear and remaining steadfast in the
outcomes of our actions and choose the most ethical pursuit of ethical actions. The cost of not displaying moral
path. However, knowing what is right does not courage can be the erosion of one's character and personal
guarantee that one will do it. integrity.

Example: Making a decision to tell the truth, even if it Example: A person who risks their reputation to stand up
may hurt someone's feelings, because honesty is against workplace harassment.
valued as a higher good.
 Scenario:
As the owner of a popular local restaurant, you have built your business on the
values of quality, integrity, and community support. Over the years, your
restaurant has become a beloved fixture in the neighborhood, known for its fresh
ingredients and commitment to ethical sourcing.
Recently, you have been facing increasing pressure due to rising food costs and
labor expenses. To remain profitable, you’ve been approached by a supplier who
offers you significantly lower prices for ingredients that are not sourced ethically.
These cheaper options would improve your bottom line but would also
compromise the quality and ethical standards you’ve maintained.
Simultaneously, a new competitor has opened nearby, offering lower prices and
promotions that threaten your customer base. You feel the pressure to cut costs,
but doing so could undermine the core values that have defined your restaurant.

•Courage to Do: Should you accept the

cheaper, lower-quality ingredients from the •The Will is the mental faculty that allows one to choose
unethical supplier to keep your restaurant between competing desires and act upon the decision. It is
financially viable? This decision might allow
you to stay in business and pay your staff, but
crucial in resisting temptations and overcoming obstacles in
it conflicts with the ethical principles you have pursuing ethical actions.
upheld.
•Courage to Be: Alternatively, should you •A strong will is often the deciding factor in whether a
refuse the unethical supplier and choose to
maintain your standards, even if it means
person can maintain their moral principles under
raising prices or cutting back on staff hours? pressure.
This choice reflects your commitment to quality
and ethics, but it could risk your restaurant's Examples: Choosing to study for an exam instead of going out with
survival in a competitive market. friends despite peer pressure.

Arthur Schopenhauer’s
The Importance of Will and Moral Courage View on Will
Moral courage involves doing the right thing
•Schopenhauer believed the will is the core
despite risks such as ridicule or loss. of our being, driving all actions and
Will refers to the ability to choose actions based desires. It is present not only in human
on desires and the capacity to act deliberately. choices but in nature's forces as well. He
argued that the will often operates beyond our
Both will and moral courage are essential for conscious control, influencing behavior and
executing moral decisions effectively. actions more than reason does.

Arthur Schopenhauer’s Willpower and Self-Discipline

•Willpower involves the inner strength to maintain
View on Will commitments and reach goals despite challenges.
•Developing willpower requires consistent practice
“WILL is the innermost essence, in overcoming short-term desires in favor of long-
the kernel, of every particular term benefits. Self-discipline plays a key role in
thing and also of the whole. It building the habit of ethical behavior.
appears in every blindly acting
force of nature, and also in the •Examples: Resisting the urge to overspend during 11.11 Sale
deliberate conduct of man"
 The Conscience and Moral Integrity Real-Life Moral Courage Statements
Conscience serves as an internal guide that •"I’ll stand with you in this protest because it’s the right thing to do."
helps us discern right from wrong. Acting •"I made a mistake, and I am taking responsibility.“
against one's conscience can lead to Such statements illustrate everyday instances where
feelings of guilt and a loss of self-respect. individuals show moral courage by taking
Maintaining moral integrity involves responsibility for their actions, advocating for
consistently listening to this inner voice. justice, or admitting faults.

Lack of Moral Courage Statements Developing Self-Discipline

•“It’s not worth the trouble.” Self-discipline involves rejecting instant gratification
•“Why should I care? It doesn’t affect me.”
for higher moral goals.
Statements reflecting a lack of moral courage It requires the rejection of harmful desires in favor of
often involve avoiding responsibility, moral improvement.
downplaying ethical concerns, or conforming Developing self-control aids in moral decision
to unethical behaviors to avoid conflict. making and perseverance toward goals.

Mental Strength Training Mental Strength Training

Mental strength training helps resist unnecessary •Practice saying no to small temptations, like an extra dessert.
cravings and temptations. •Spend a day without checking social media to build focus.
Practicing refusal to act on minor urges builds inner
strength. Regularly resisting minor impulses strengthens one's
will, making it easier to face larger ethical challenges
Examples include abstaining from internet use or resisting
when they arise.
harmful habits.
•Examples: Avoiding gossip even if it's entertaining or
popular among peers.

Drawing Inspiration from

Courageous Figures
Historically, many figures exemplified moral courage
such as Martin Luther King, Jr., Mahatma Gandhi,
Aung San Suu Kyi, and especially Jesus Christ and His
apostles. .
Their actions serve as powerful examples for
fostering moral courage and will.
 Avoiding Deeds that Show Lack of
Practicing Acts of Moral Courage Moral Courage
Engaging in small acts of moral courage
Recognize behaviors that display irresponsibility,
reinforces one's capacity for ethical behavior.
cowardice, or apathy.
Examples include helping others in need and
Avoid actions like walking away from someone in
refusing to participate in gossip.
need or making excuses for inaction.

Conclusion
Moral courage and will are crucial for ethical living, Developing Will through Small
guiding individuals to act responsibly and thoughtfully
Actions
in the face of challenges. Developing self-discipline and -Incremental steps build willpower over time. Small victories in
drawing from examples of courage can enhance one's resisting temptation contribute to stronger ethical decision-making
ability to make moral decisions. abilities.

You work as an environmental scientist for a government agency that monitors land
development. During an inspection, you find out that a local politician is involved in
corrupt practices. He is taking bribes from a construction company to ignore
environmental laws that protect a wetland area. If the project goes ahead, it will
harm the environment and threaten the community’s water supply.
You know that if you report this corruption, you could face serious consequences.
•Moral courage requires a combination of The politician is powerful in the community, and people say that anyone who
challenges him could lose their job and reputation. Some of your colleagues are
reason, will, and action. also aware of the violations but choose to ignore them to keep their positions.

•It is important to practice small acts of courage

Despite your fears, you feel a strong moral duty to protect the environment and the
community. You think about your options: you could stay silent and keep your job,
to prepare for larger ethical challenges. letting the corruption continue, or you could gather proof and report it, risking
everything you've worked for.
•Ethical behavior is cultivated over time through
What would you do in this situation? Would you choose to report the corruption,
consistent choices. demonstrating moral courage, or would you prioritize your safety and career by
remaining silent? Explain your reasoning and the factors that influenced your
decision.