DEPARTMENT OF HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

FACULTY OF BASIC MEDICAL SCIENCES

BAYERO UNIVERSITY KANO

STUDENTS INDUSTRIAL WORK EXPERIENCE SCHEME (SIWES)

REPORT

BY

HAFSAT SADISU SANI

(BMS/18/PYS/00274)

SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY IN

PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIRMENTS FOR THE DEGREE

OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

JUNE, 2021

SUPERVISED BY:

MALAM MUSBAHU MUSA AHMAD

 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that this report was carried out by HAFSAT SADISU SANI with
registration number BMS/18/PYS/00274.

This technical report has been examined and certified by

MALAM MUSBAHU MUSA AHMAD

_______________________ __________
Departmental Supervisor Date

Dr. ISYAKU MUKHTAR GWARZO

________________________ __________
Departmental SIWES Coordinator Date
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

My sincere thanks are due to the Almighty Allah (S.W.T), Most gracious, Most

Merciful for giving me the opportunity to experience the Student Industrial Work

Experience Scheme.

Also to my humble and dedicated supervisor, Malam musbahu musa Ahmad,

whom despite his tight schedule found time to guide and correct me.

I also thank my friends and family for their love and support throughout the
Student Industrial Work Experience Scheme.

And also my very dedicated lecturers who through thick and thin made sure we
understood physiology.

And I thank the doctors, matrons, nurses, and technicians in Aminu Kano Teaching
Hospital for their help and support.

And lastly, to other students I got acquainted with during my SIWES who helped
me through some cumbersome tasks.

THANK YOU ALL.

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CERTIFICATION...................................................................................................I
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.....................................................................................II
TABLE OF CONTENTS.....................................................................................III
0.1 PREAMBLE OF INDUSTRIAL TRAINING FUND....................................1
0.1.1 ESTABLISHMENT............................................................................................1
0.1.2 FUNCTION(S)..................................................................................................2
0.2 STUDENTS INDUSTRIAL WORK EXPERIENCE SCHEME (SIWES)......................2
0.2.1 OBJECTIVES....................................................................................................3
0.2.2 IMPORTANCE..................................................................................................3
1.0 CHAPTER ONE................................................................................................5
1.1 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND AND ESTABLISHMENT OF AMINU KANO
TEACHING HOSPITAL..............................................................................................5
1.2 FUNCTIONAL UNITS/DEPARTMENTS OF AKTH KANO..................................10
1.3 SERVICES OFFERED.........................................................................................12
1.4 DEPARTMENTS WHERE POSTING WAS UNDERTAKEN....................................16
1.5 DAILY ROUTINES OF DEPARTMENTS POSTED.................................................16
1.6 INDUSTRIAL REGULATIONS OF UNITS/DEPARTMENTS POSTED......................21
1.7 RELEVANCE OF PHYSIOLOGY IN AREAS OF POSTING.....................................24
2.0 CHAPTER TWO.............................................................................................36
DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENTS AND REAGENTS USED DURING
POSTING IN:........................................................................................................36

2.1 ECG………………………………………………………………………………………36

2.2 Echocardiography unit…………………………………………………. …..38

2.3 SPIROMETRY UNIT...........................................................................................40

2.4 OPTHALMOLOGY DEPARTMENT......................................................................41
2.5 EAR, NOSE, AND THROAT (E.N.T) DEPARTMENT..........................................43
2.6 FAMILY PLANNING AND CHILD SPACING CLINIC...........................................46
2.7 IMMUNIZATION UNIT......................................................................................48
 2.8 ANESTHESIA DEPARTMENT.............................................................................50
2.9 HEMODIALYSIS UNIT……………………………………………………...........................51

3.0 CHAPTER THREE.........................................................................................53

METHODOLOGY................................................................................................53
3.1 ECG................................................................................................................55
3.2 PATHOPHYSIOLOGY:.......................................................................................56
3.3 ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY.....................................................................................56
3.4 PATHOPHYSIOLOGY:.......................................................................................57
3.5 SPIROMETRY...................................................................................................57
3.6 NORMAL PHYSIOLOGICAL RANGES:................................................................58
3.7 PATHOPHYSIOLOGY:.......................................................................................58
3.8 OPHTHALMOLOGY..........................................................................................59
3.9 NORMAL PHYSIOLOGICAL RANGES:................................................................60
4.0 REGULATION OF THESE PHYSIOLOGICAL VARIABLES:....................................60
4.1 EAR, NOSE, AND THROAT (E.N.T).................................................................61
4.2 NORMAL PHYSIOLOGICAL RANGES:................................................................61
4.3 PATHOPHYSIOLOGY:.......................................................................................62
4.4 FAMILY PLANNING AND CHILD SPACING.......................................................62
4.5 PATHOPHYSIOLOGY:.......................................................................................63
4.6 IMMUNIZATION...............................................................................................63
4.7 PATHOPHYSIOLOGY:.......................................................................................64
4.8 ANESTHESIA....................................................................................................65
4.9 NORMAL PHYSIOLOGICAL RANGES.................................................................66
5.0 PATHOPHYSIOLOGY:.......................................................................................66
5.1HEMODIALYSIS................................................................................................66
5.2PATHOPHYSIOLOGY:........................................................................................67
5.3 CHAPTER FOUR............................................................................................68
5.4 SCOPE OF EXPERIENCE............................................................................68
5.5 SUMMARY.......................................................................................................68
5.6 CONCLUSION...................................................................................................69
5.7 RECOMMENDATIONS.......................................................................................69
BIBLIOGRAPHY......................................................................................................70
 0.1 PREAMBLE OF INDUSTRIAL TRAINING FUND

The Industrial Training Fund (ITF) is Nigeria's premier human capital

development agency, established with the mandate of promoting and encouraging

the acquisition of skills in industry and commerce. With the aim of making sure

that adequate man power is been enhanced in the society and objective of finding

the best way to make a better nation.

0.1.1 Establishment

The Industrial Training Fund (ITF) was established in 1971, it has operated

consistently within the context of its enabling laws under Decree 47 of 1971 as

amended in the 2011 ITF ACT.

The objective for which the fund was established has been pursued. In the four

decades of its existence, the ITF has not only raised training consciousness in the

economy, but has also helped in generating a corps of skilled indigenous

manpower which has been managing various sectors of the national economy.

The Industrial Training Fund is a grade ‘A’ parastatal, operating under the Federal

Ministry of Industry, Trade and Investment. It has been operating for 42 years as a

specialist agency that promotes and encourages the acquisition of industrial and

commercial skills required for national economic development.

1
0.1.2 Function(s)

The ITF provides direct training, vocational and apprentice training, research and

consultancy service, reimbursement of up to 50% Levy paid by employers of

labour registered with it.

It administers the Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES).

It also provides human resource development information and training technology

service to industry and commerce to enhance their manpower capacity and in-

house training delivery effort.

The main thrust of ITF programs and services is to stimulate human performance,

improve productivity, and induce value-added production in industry and

commerce.

The fund helps in building capacity for graduates and youth self-employment, in

the context of Small-Scale industrialization in the economy through SIWES and

vocational and apprentice training program.

0.2 Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES)

The Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) is an accepted skill

training program which forms part of the approved minimum academic standards

in the various degree programs for all the Nigerian universities.

2
0.2.1 Objectives

 SIWES helps provide an avenue for students in the Nigerian universities to

acquire industrial skills and experience in their course of study.

 It helps expose students to work methods and techniques in handling

equipment and machinery that may not be available in the universities.

 It helps provide students with an opportunity to apply their theoretical

knowledge in real work situation.

 It helps strengthen employer’s involvement in the entire educational process

of preparing university graduates for employment in industry

 It prepares students for the work situation they are likely to face after

university.

0.2.2 Importance

 It provides students with an opportunity to apply their theoretical knowledge

in their various organizations.

 It exposes students to more practical work methods and techniques.

 It strengthens the links between the employers, universities and Industrial

Training Fund.

 It prepares the students for the future after university.

 It helps students gain a lot of experience in not just their area of work i.e

societal value.
3
4
 1.0 CHAPTER ONE

1.1 Historical Background and Establishment of Aminu Kano Teaching

Hospital

Aminu Kano Hospital was a State Government Hospital offered to the Federal

Government to serve as a Teaching Hospital for the training of medical students by

Kano State Government graciously after intensive consultation. It is located at

Zaria Road, Tarauni Local Government, Kano State.

The legal documents for the take over where signed on August 24th 1988 by

Professor O. Ransome-Kuti the then Honorable Minister of Health on behalf of the

Federal Government and Hajiya Zahara Na no no, the then Honorable

Commissioner of Health Kano State on behalf of Kano State Government.

Immediately after, the President and Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces,

General Ibrahim Badamasi Babangida appointed Dr. Sadiq S. Wali, his Chief

physician as the first Chief Medical Director to organize and coordinate the

activities of the hospital.

In August 1990, the Federal Government instituted a Presidential Task Force under

the chairmanship of Major General Doctor Amadi Rimi (Rtd) with a mandate to

construct and provide a teaching Hospital facility on the Aminu Kano Hospital site.

5
The Honorable Federal Minister of Health inaugurated the first Board for the

Teaching Hospital on 11th January 1991 with members as listed below:

Name Position

Dr. Abubakar Imam Chairman

Dr. Sadiq S. Wali CMD AKTH Member

Alh. Muhammadu Adamu Rep. Community Interest. Member

Mr. M. O. Imana Rep. Community Interest Member

Dr. A. A. Ibiama Member

Dr. A. Nasidi Rep. FMOH Member

Dr. Moses Ilo Rep. Nigerian Medical Association Member

Mrs. M.P.I. Shenjabi Rep. Institute of Health Administrators Member

Dr. M. M. Borodo Dean Faculty of Medicine BUK Member

Dr. Musa Abdullahi Rep. Senate BUK Member

Dr. M. T. Rep. Vice chancellor BUK Member

Dr. Dayyabu Mohammed Rep. Kano State Government Member.

6
With the inauguration of the Board, the Management commenced the recruitment

of clinical, administrative and other professional staff including Resident Doctors

who were seconded to approve centers for post graduate training. Two principle

officers, Dr. Abdulhamid I. Dutse and Mallam Abubakar S. Adamu were appointed

as Chairman Medical Advisory Committee and Director of Administration

respectively and they subsequently took their place on the Board as Member and

Secretary respectively.

However, as the new hospital was under construction and the need to start the

clinical training of medical students in Kano became imperative, the Board in

conjunction with the Kano State Government and the Bayero University, Kano

decided that Murtala Muhammad Specialist Hospital should serve as a temporary

teaching Hospital pending the completion of Aminu Kano Teaching Hospital at its

permanent site on Zaria Road. This was in consonance with an earlier agreement

with the Federal Ministry of Health in August 1989.

Thus, a Joint Supervisory Committee (JSC) was inaugurated in November 1993 to

conduct and supervise the activities of Murtala Muhammad Hospital in liaison with

the hospital management to ensure that services would be provided and delivered

in accordance with the standards of a teaching hospital. The committee had the

following membership:

7
Name Position

Dr.Sadiq S.Wali CMDAKTH Chairman

Later replaced by Mallam Salisu Abdullahi

Dr. Suleiman W. Sani DG Kano State MOH Member

Later replaced by Dr. Sanda Mohammed DG Kano State MOH

Dr. Musa M. Borodo Dean Faculty of Med. BUK Member

Later replaced by Dr. Mohammed Kabir

Dr. Habibu M. Sadauki Ex. Sec. HMB Member

Later replaced to the DG Ministry of Health Kano

Mallam Abubakar S.Adamu DA AKTH Secretary.

Dr. Musa M. Borodo, HOD Medicine was retained as member of the JSC when he

completed his term as Dean of Faculty of Medicine.

With this in place, commencement of clinical teaching started at Mutala

Muhammed Hospital in March 1994.

8
When the Kano State Hospital's Management Board was reconstituted, Dr. H. M

Sadauki, the Executive Secretary replaced the Director General Ministry of Health

as a member of the Joint Supervisory Committee.

From November 1993, the three bodies namely AKTH, BUK, and Kano State

Government continued to work relentlessly to provide the necessary requirements

in Murtala Muhammad Specialist Hospital and to manage it as a temporary

teaching Hospital.

In September 1994, a Ministerial Committee was constituted by the Federal

Ministry of Health with the mandate to take over the buildings and facilities at the

new site from the Presidential Task Force Committee.

Membership of the Ministerial Committee include:

Name Position

Col. D. S. Abubakar (Rtd) Chairman

Dr. S. S. Wali CMD AKTH Member

Director General Kano State MOH Member

Representative of Federal MOH Member

Mallam A. S. Adamu DA AKTH Secretary

9
The Committee was also mandated to the recommend modalities for the utilization

of the completed Wing of the hospital.

The Hospital Management in consultation with the Ministerial Committee took

over the completed Wing (phase I) and immediately initiated action to provide the

necessary facilities for utilization of the hospital. With this, a programme of

movement from Murtala Muhammad Specialist Hospital was drawn beginning

from January 1996.

The programme was successful and the Teaching Hospital completed its

movement into the completed wing of its permanent site in July, 1997 while work

continued on the provision of more facilities. With the completion of Phase I and

movement to the new site, the Hospital has a bed compliment of 217 with a total of

65 clinical students at various levels of training. It is hoped that the bed

compliment will increase to 500 by the time phase II of the building project is

completed. The current staff strength of the hospital is over 1500.

1.2 Functional Units/departments of AKTH KANO

The functional departments of Aminu Kano teaching Hospital (AKTH) are

classified into clinical and non-clinical departments.

CLINICAL DEPARTMENTS

 Anesthesiology and Intensive care unit

10
  Internal Medicine
 Chemical pathology and Immunology
 Community Medicine
 Dental and maxillofacial surgery
 Family medicine
 Hematology and blood Transfusion
 Health records
 Histopathology
 Medical microbiology and parasitology
 Nursing services
 Obstetrics and gynaecology
 Ophthalmology
 Otorhinolaryngology (ENT)
 Paediatrics
 Pharmacy
 Physiotherapy
 Psychiatry
 Radiology
 Surgery

NON-CLINICAL DEPARTMENTS

 Accounts and finance

 Administration
 Catering services
 Horticulture and environmental health
 Laundry and linen
11
  Store and issue
 Works and services

1.3 Services Offered

1. General Out Patient Department (GOPD)

The GOPD Service of Aminu Kano Teaching Hospital is in charge of filing in new

patients and the first consultation is carried out in GOPD. There are 12 consultants

in the GOPD and about 20 active Nurses. Its services are opened from 8:00AM to

2:00PM.

2. Accident and Emergency (A&E)

Emergency cases are admitted into this unit, new files are opened for new patients

with emergency cases such as car accidents, home accidents, severe illness like

malaria, typhoid, asthma, pneumonia, and others. The files are opened there and

then. A&E is opened all day, every week i.e it never closes.

3. Administration office

The Admin's office is the main office for filling and documentation. It has different

offices including the MAC office, and information office. Certification of students

is also carried out there.

4. Information Technology
12
Every information about Aminu Kano Teaching Hospital is found in this unit

including the origin, establishment and historical background. This unit is

distributed all around the hospital for patients gain when trying to locate a part of

the hospital or when trying to find particular information about a particular part of

the hospital.

5. Diagnostic center

This center contains:

 EEG which is carried out Thursdays, 8:00AM to 4:00PM.

 ECG carried out from Mondays to Fridays, 8:00AM to 4:00PM.

 EMG carried out Wednesdays, 8:00AM to 4:00PM.

 Echo cardiography is carried out Mondays and Fridays for Pediatric

Echocardiography, Wednesdays and Thursdays for Adults, from 8:00AM to

2:00PM.

 Spirometry is carried out only on Tuesdays, 8:00AM to 2:00PM

 Endoscopy is carried out Mondays to Thursdays, 8:00AM to 4:00PM.

6. Obstetrics and Gynecology

This contains health centers for women such as the Antenatal Clinic, the Post Natal

Clinic, and Labour Wards for pregnant women.

13
7. Immunization

This unit provides vaccines for babies and consultation for the children. It is active

from 8:00AM to 2:00PM.

8. Life Support Center

This center constitutes of Anesthesia department, Intensive Care Unit (ICU),

Hemodialysis center for life support.

9. Family Planning and Child Spacing Clinic

This service is mainly for women interested in child spacing and also consultation

for any problem as well as how family planning and child spacing is done.

10.Radiology

This center is well equipped with machines for X-ray, scanning and other

radiology technology.

11.Pharmacy

Every unit has its own pharmacy which is well equipped with all relevant drugs for

patients.

12.Laboratory

The laboratory unit is well equipped with necessary equipments for blood test,

urine microscopy, PCV, blood count and other laboratory tests.

14
13.Physiotherapy

This is a rehabilitation center for patients who had undergone an accident or had an

illness that crippled him/her, this service is 8:00AM to 9:00PM.

14.Catering

The hospital has its main kitchen where food is available for patients from 8:00AM

to 6:00PM especially patients on special diets due to a particular illness.

15.Laundry

Laundry services are available from morning by 8:00AM where all bed sheets and

other hospital wears are taken for proper cleaning.

16.Security

The hospital has a tight security personnel in each unit and ward as well as the

main entrance of every building.

17.Morgue

The Hospital also has a mortuary where dead bodies are kept before their proper

burial or cremation.

1.4 Departments Where Posting Was Undertaken

15
  Diagnostic center (ECG, EEG, Echocardiography, and Spirometry) under

Medicine Department

 Opthalmology Department

 Ear, Nose, and Throat (E.N.T) Department

 Family Planning and Child Spacing Clinic under Community Medicine

Department

 Immunization under Community Medicine Department

 Anesthesia Department

 Intensive care unit under Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive care

unit.

 Hemodialysis center under Nephrology Department.

1.5 Daily Routines of Departments Posted

ECG Center;

- This center opens at 8:00AM to 4:00PM (Mondays to Fridays).

- Patients only perform ECG as an investigation, check up or follow up or

referral from other hospitals.

- The nurses are expected to sanitize their hands before and after performing

ECG on a patient.

- The result for ECG is immediate i.e patients are given their results

immediately after ECG is done.

16
 - Male patients are attended to by male nurses and female patients by female

nurses.

Echocardiography;

- Pediatric Echocardiography is carried out Mondays and Fridays only from

8:00AM to 2:00PM.

- Adult Echocardiography is carried out Wednesdays and Thursdays, from

8:00AM to 2:00PM.

- Patients must come with their ECG results and chest x-ray.

- The result for Echocardiography is also immediate.

Spirometry;

- This is carried out only on Tuesdays from 8:00AM to 2:00PM.

- This test is also carried out on doctor's demand i.e investigation or referral.

- NB:

- All results from diagnostic center are not confirmed till doctors reinterpret

and confirm it.

Ophthalmology Department;

17
 - The unit opens at 8:00AM and closes 2:00PM (Mondays to Fridays).* New

patients collect new card when visiting for the first time.* Returning patients

use their old cards.

- Patient’s visual acuity is checked before patients can see an ophthalmologist.

- Patients with risk of glaucoma are referred for Intra Ocular Pressure (IOP)

test and/or Central Visual Field (CVF) test.

Ear, Nose, and Throat (E.N.T) Department;

- The ENT department opens exactly at 8:00AM and closes 2:00PM from

Mondays to Fridays.

- Presentations are carried out every Friday morning before clinic services.

- All ear test are carried out in the audiology room.

- Patients with hearing problem(s) are referred to the audiology room where

they undergo different test.

- Patients with other problems are consulted by an ENT doctor.

Family Planning and Child Spacing Clinic;

- This clinic is opened from 8:00AM to 2:00PM, Mondays to Fridays.

- New clients are filed in Mondays to Thursdays.

18
 - Clients are counseled each time they come for family planning and child

spacing.

- The client makes a choice after counseling and her choice is carried out.

- Fridays are for checkups and/or follow ups.

- Women are orientated every Friday morning from 8:00AM before checkup.

Immunization Unit;

- The clinic opens at 08:00AM and closes at 2:00PM (Mondays to Fridays)

- New patients collect new immunization card after weighing of child/children

- New babies are immunized with BCG, HBV, and OPV

- PENTA I, OPV I, and PCV I are given to babies of 6 weeks

- PENTA II, OPV II, and PCV II are given to babies of 10 weeks

- PENTA III, OPV III, and PCV III are given to babies of 14 weeks

- Vaccines for Measles and Yellow Fever are injected to babies of 9 months

(Fridays only)

- Vitamin A is given to babies of 6 months at intervals till 5 years.

Anesthesia Department;

- This department opens at 8:00AM but hardly closes due to emergency

surgeries (Mondays to Fridays).

19
 - Doctors, nurses and any other health personnel going into the theater room

must wear clean disinfected scrubs and shoes as well as face mask.

- Hands must be sanitized before entering the theater room.

- Fridays are for presentations and emergency surgeries.

Hemodialysis center;

- Hemodialysis center operates every day including weekends and public

holidays.
- Cleaning of the unit is the first thing that takes place
- Handing over of duty (morning duty)
- Machine check up
- Making of bed
- PCV of the patient are determined
- Taking the weight of the patient is also determined
- Setting up patient for dialysis
- Cleaning of the unit again by 2pm
- Handing over of duty (night duty)

Intensive care unit (I.C.U);

- Intensive care unit operates everyday including weekends and public

holidays
- Doctors and qualified nurses perform ward rounds starting from 7:30am till
they’ve attended to every patient in the I.C.U.
- The I.C.U nurses regularly check the medical monitors and other medical
equipments in the I.C.U in order to monitor the state of the patients.

20
 - The I.C.U nurses perform FAST HUGS BID (Feeding, Analgesia, Sedation,
Thromboembolic prophylaxis, Head-of-bed elevation, Stress Ulcer
prevention, Glycemic control, Spontaneous Breathing Trial, Bowel
Regimen, Indwelling Catheter Removal and De-escalation of Antibiotics) on
critically ill patients in the I.C.U.

1.6 Industrial Regulations of Units/Departments Posted

Rules and regulations of Diagnostic center (ECG, EEG, Echocardiography,

and Spirometry)

 Dress smartly always and be cheerful to patients

 Talk respectfully and calmly to patients

 When placing the electrodes, ensure you apply the ECG gel

 Ensure each electrode is properly placed

 When you don't understand how to use any of the machines or when you have a

problem understanding anything related to this unit, ask any of the nurses,

doctors or technician for help.

Rules and regulations of Ophthalmology Department

 Always wear a lab coat

 Make sure the patient undergoes visual acuity before anything else

 When cleaning a patient's eye make sure a clean cotton is used

21
  Do not touch the patient's eye or look at it directly to avoid contacting any

contagious disease

 Do not use bright light directly in the patient's eyes.

Rules and regulations of Ear, Nose, and Throat (E.N.T) Department;

 Always be punctual

 Do not make noise in the audiology room

 Always put your phone on silence

 Always put on your facemask when a physician is closely examining a

patient.

Rules and regulations of Family Planning and Child Spacing Clinic;

 Respect the patient's choice

 Counsel the patient as taught

 Always disinfect patient before checking the Intra Uterine Contraceptive

Device (IUCD)

 When checking for implant or IUCD, if you don't feel it, inform the health

workers of the unit

 Ask the patient if she is facing any problems, if any and you can't handle it,

inform the health workers of the unit.

22
Rules and regulations of Immunization Unit;

 Do not use expired vaccines.

 Do not touch the tip of a used or unused syringe

 Discard all syringe properly

 Do not use a broken or a leaking vial

 Pay attention at how each vaccine is administered.

 Do not administer frozen liquid vaccines.

Rules and regulations of Anesthesia Department;

 Never wear your normal outfit to the theater

 Bring a set of clean disinfected scrubs to wear and a clean disinfected flops,

otherwise the hospital provided boots

 Avoid wearing jewelry especially dangly earrings, bracelet, bangles and

wristwatches.

 Always wear a face mask before going into the operation theater

 Always disinfect your hand before entering the surgery room and when

going out.

23
Rules and regulations of Hemodialysis center;

 Always wear your lab coat

 Remove your shoes at the entrance and wear the hospital provided flops

 Avoid the room for patients with diseases like Hepatitis B, HIV and AIDS,

and others.

 Monitor your patient till end of dialysis

 If patient complains about fever or shows signs, give him/her PCM

intravenously.

Rules and regulations of Intensive Care Unit (I.C.U);

 Everyone including medical and non-medical staffs must wear clean and
disinfected scrubs or protective gowns before entering into the I.C.U
ward.
 Everyone must remove their shoes and change into disinfected flops
(available within the unit) which can only be worn within the I.C.U ward.

1.7 Relevance of Physiology in Areas of Posting

* ECG Unit.

Electrocardiogram is the record of graphical registration of electrical activities of

the heart, which occurs prior to the onset of mechanical activities. It is the

24
summed electrical activity of all cardiac muscle fibers recorded from surface of the

body.

The heart's conduction system is made of specialized neurogenic tissue which is

capable of producing and distributing electrical impulses that prompt the heart to

beat at a set rate. The ability to independently set the heart rate is known as

autorhythmicity. Any disturbances in conduction or damage to other structures of

the heart can adversely affect the blood and oxygen supply to the rest of the body.

ECG is a representation of the electrical events of the cardiac cycle and each event

has a distinctive waveform. The study of the waveform can lead to greater insight

into the patient's cardiac pathophysiology.

Electrocardiogram is useful in determining and diagnosing the following:

 Heart rate

 Heart rhythm

 Abnormal electrical conduction

 Poor blood flow to heart muscle (ischemia)

 Heart attack

 Coronary artery disease

 Hypertrophy of heart chambers.

25
Understanding the basis of a normal ECG requires appreciation of four

phenomena: the electrophysiology of a single cell, how the wave of electrical

current propagates through myocardium, the physiology of the specific structures

of the heart through which the electrical wave travels, and lastly, how it leads to a

measurable signal on the surface of the body, producing the normal ECG.

* Echocardiography Unit.

An echocardiogram is a non-invasive, safe and effective test to study the anatomy

and physiology of the heart. The purpose of the test is to assess the structure and

function of the heart by visualizing the heart and blood flow, utilizing high

frequency sound waves i.e Ultrasound waves.

Echocardiography is one of the most widely used diagnostic test in cardiology. It

uses sound to build a moving picture of the heart. It provides helpful information,

including the size and shape of the heart (internal chambers), pumping capacity

and the location and extent of any tissue damage.

An echocardiogram can also give estimates of heart function such as a calculation

of the cardiac output, ejection fraction, and diastolic function i.e. how well the

heart relaxes. Not only can an echocardiogram create ultrasound images of heart

structures, but it can also produce accurate assessment of the blood flowing
26
through the heart by Doppler echocardiography, using pulsed or continuous wave

Doppler ultra sound, this allows assessment of both normal and abnormal blood

flow through the heart. Color Doppler as well as spectral Doppler is used to

visualize any abnormal communication between the left and right side of the heart,

any leaking of blood through the valves (valvular regurgitation) and to estimate

how well the valves open or do not open in the case of valvilar stenosis. The

Doppler technique can also be used for tissue motion and velocity measurement by

tissue Doppler echocardiography.

* Spirometry Unit.

Spirometry is the method to measure lung volumes and capacities. Simple

instrument used for this purpose is called spirometer. Spirometry is used in

measuring vital capacity. The subject is asked to take a deep inspiration and expire

forcefully. Vital capacity is decreased in the following respiratory diseases:

1. Asthma

2. Emphysema

3. Weakness or paralysis of respiratory muscle

4. Pulmonary congestion

5. Pneumonia

6. Pneumothorax

27
 7. Hemothorax

8. Pyothorax

9. Hydrothorax

10.Pulmonary edema

11.Pulmonary tuberculosis.

* Opthalmology Department.

The cornea is a transparent structure found in front of the eye that helps to focus

incoming light. The cornea focuses light onto a light-sensitive membrane called the

retina.

Behind the cornea is a colored, ring shaped membrane called the iris, the iris has an

adjustable circular opening called the pupil, which can expand or contract to

control the amount of light entering the eye, behind the pupil is a colorless,

transparent structure called the crystalline lens. A clear fluid called the aqueous

humor fills the space between the cornea and the iris.

Cilliary muscles surround the lens. The muscles hold the lens in place but they

also play an important role in vision, when the muscles relax, they pull on and

flatten the lens, allowing the eye to see objects that are far away and to see closer

objects clearly, the cilliary muscles must contract in order to thicken the lens.

28
The interior chamber of the eyeball is fitted with a jelly like tissue called the

vitreous humor. Light must travel through this humor before striking the sensitive

layer of cells called the retina after passing through the lens.

The retina is the innermost of three tissue layers that make up the eye.

The outermost layer called the sclera, it gives most of the eyeball its white color,

the cornea is also a part of outer layer.

The middle layer between the retina and sclera is called the choroid and it contains

blood vessels that supply the retina with nutrients and oxygen and remove its waste

products.

The retina has millions of light sensitive cells; Rods and Cones.

Rods are used for monochrome vision in poor light.

Cones are used for color and are packed directly behind the retina called the fovea,

which is responsible for sharp contrast vision.

When light strikes either the rods or cones of the retina, its converted into an

electrical signals into the images a person sees.

* Ear, Nose, and Throat (E.N.T) Department

29
These three organs are all related in function but the ESR is the main organ among

these three.

Sound waves travel through external auditory meatus and produce vibrations in the

tympanic membrane. Vibrations from tympanic membrane travel through malleus

and incus and reach the stapes resulting in the movement of stapes. Movements of

stapes produce vibrations in the fluids of cochlea. These vibrations stimulate the

hair cells in organ of Corti. This, in turn, causes generation of action potential

(auditory impulses) in the auditory nerve fibers. When auditory impulses reach the

cerebral cortex, the perception of hearing occurs.

Thus, during the process of hearing, ear converts energy of sound waves into

action potentials in auditory nerve fibers. This process is called sound transduction.

* Family Planning and Child Spacing Clinic

Family planning requires counseling due to factors like menstrual period and

ovulation.

Ovulation is the process in which a mature egg is released from the ovary.after it is

released ,the egg moves down the fallopian tube where it is fertilized by a mature

sperm. This proccess is influenced by Lutenizing Hormone.

Abnormalities of Family Planning;

30
  Amenorrhea: Absence of menstrual phase.

 Menorrhagia: Increased volume of menses (mensturation).

 Hypomenorrhea: Small volume of menses (mensturation).

Ovarian cycle is the changes in the ovary during each menstrual cycle. It occurs in

two phases:* Follicular phase extend from the 5th day of the cycle until the time of

ovulation, which takes place on 14th day. Maturation of ovum with development

of a ovarian follicles takes place.* Luteal phase extend between 15th to 28th day of

menstrual cycle. During these days corpus luteum is developed.

* Immunization Unit.

Immunization is the process by which an individual is exposed to a material that is

designed to prime their immune system against certain diseases. Immunity is the

capacity of the body to resist pathogenic agents.

To understand the physiology of immunization, it helps to first look at how the

body fights illness. When germs, such as bacteria or viruses, invade the body, they

attack and multiply. This invasion, called an infection, is what causes illness. The

immune system uses several tools to fight infection. Blood contains red blood

cells, for carrying oxygen to tissues and organs, and white or immune cells, for

fighting infection. These white cells consist primarily of;

31
 Macrophages

 B-lymphocytes

 T-lymphocytes:

 Macrophages are white blood cells that swallow up and digest germs, plus dead

or dying cells. The macrophages leave behind parts of the invading germs

called antigens. The body identifies antigens as dangerous and stimulates

antibodies to attack them.

 B-lymphocytes are defensive white blood cells. They produce antibodies that

attack the antigens left behind by the macrophages.

 T-lymphocytes are another type of defensive white blood cell. They attack cells

in the body that have already been infected. The first time the body encounters a

germ, it can take several days to make and use all the germ-fighting tools

needed to get over the infection. After the infection, the immune system

remembers what it learned about how to protect the body against that disease.

The body keeps a few T-lymphocytes, called memory cells, that go into action

quickly if the body encounters the same germ again. When the familiar antigens

are detected, B-lymphocytes produce antibodies to attack them.

32
* Anesthesia Department

Anesthesia is a method of preventing the body from pain and sensory perception as

well as motor responses. This is achieved using certain analgesics and muscle

relaxants.

Physiological knowledge of respiratory system improves patient's safety during

anaesthesia. It also optimises patient's ventilatory condition and airway patency.

Such knowledge has influence on airway management, lung isolation during

anaesthesia, management of cases with respiratory disorders, respiratory

endoluminal procedures and optimising ventilator strategies in the perioperative

period. Understanding of ventilation, perfusion and their relation with each other is

important for understanding respiratory physiology. Ventilation to perfusion ratio

alters with anaesthesia, body position and with one-lung anaesthesia. Hypoxic

pulmonary vasoconstriction, an important safety mechanism, is inhibited by

majority of the anaesthetic drugs. Ventilation perfusion mismatch leads to reduced

arterial oxygen concentration mainly because of early closure of airway, thus

leading to decreased ventilation and atelectasis during anaesthesia. Various

anaesthetic drugs alter neuronal control of the breathing and bronchomotor tone.

* Hemodialysis center

33
Dialysis is the procedure used in removing waste and toxic materials substances

and to restore normal volume and composition of body fluid in acute or severe

renal failure.

Artificial kidney is the machine that is used to carry out dialysis during renal

failure. It is used to treat the patients suffering from: 1. Acute renal failure 2.

Chronic or permanent renal failure.

Mechanism of Function: The term dialysis refers to diffusion of solutes from an

area of higher concentration to the area of lower concentration, through a semi

permeable membrane. This forms the principle of artificial kidney.

Patient’s arterial blood is passed continuously or intermittently through the

artificial kidney and then back to the body through the vein. Heparin is used as an

anticoagulant while passing the blood through the machine.

Inside the artificial kidney, the blood passes through a dialyzer called hemofilter,

which contains minute channels interposed between two cellophane membranes.

The cellophane membranes are porous in nature. The outer surface of these

membranes is bathed in the dialyzing fluid called dialysate. The used dialysate in

the artificial kidney is constantly replaced by fresh dialysate. Urea, creatinine,

phosphate and other unwanted substances from the blood pass into the dialysate by

concentration gradient. The essential substances required by the body diffuse from
34
dialysate into blood. Almost all the substances, except plasma proteins are

exchanged between the blood and dialysate through the cellophane membranes. In

addition to the dialyzer, the dialysis machine has several blood pumps with

pressure monitors, which enable easy flow of blood from the patient to the

machine and back to the patient. It also has pumps for flow of fresh dialysate and

for drainage of used dialysate. Total amount of blood in the dialysis machine at a

time is about 500 mL. The rate of blood flow through the dialysis machine is about

200 to 300 mL/minute. The rate of dialysate flow is about 500 mL/minute.

2.0 CHAPTER TWO

DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENTS AND REAGENTS USED DURING

POSTING IN:

2.1 ECG unit

35
Electrocardiograph;

It contains 9 electrodes; six chest leads connected to six different parts of the chest

closely and three limb leads connected to the two arms and one foot. It is used for

checking the heart rhythm.

ECG paper;

It contains the recording of the result from the ECG machine.

Gel;

It helps facilitates conductivity and also helps the electrodes stick where they are

needed.

Electrocardiograph
36
2.2 Echocardiography unit

Echocardiograph;

It consists of a monitor, keyboard, controls, probes of different frequency, and a

printer.

Gel;

37
It helps facilitates conductivity and also helps the electrodes stick where they are

needed.

Sphygmomanometer;

It is used for checking the patient's blood pressure.

Stethoscope;

For listening to heart beat and sound.

Ultra sound gel

38
Echocardiograph

2.3 Spirometry unit

Spirometer;

This machine is used for checking the vital capacity of the lungs. It computes the

patient's name, age, nationality, smoking habit, height, sex, unit number, doctor's

remark and diagnose.

39
Spirometer

2.4 Opthalmology Department

Snellen's Chart;

This chart is divided into three;

- The alphabet chart; mainly used for literate patients who can read.

- The E chart is used for illiterates.

- The Pictorial Chart is used for children especially those that cannot read.

Ishihara's test;

40
This is used for color vision test, to check if a patient is able to identify and

differentiate colors.

Tonometry and Pachymetry;

This is used to measure the intraocular pressure of the eye.

Central Visual Field Analyzer;

This machine is used for checking patients with risk of getting glaucoma.

Jaegar's Chart;

This is for near vision test. It looks like a book with different sizes of writing for

near vision.

Pinhole;

It is used to determine whether reduced vision is caused by refractive error.

Flashlight;

- It is used on patients that do not respond to hand wave movement and cannot

see, to check if their eyes are sensitive to light.

- It is also used to test pupillary light reflexes.

41
 Snellen's Charts

2.5 Ear, Nose, and Throat (E.N.T)

Department

Head Transducer;

This is used to test a patient's hearing by switching on different frequency of

sounds in the patient's ear.

42
Tymphanometer;

This is used to measure the acuity of the middle ear.

Audiometer;

This is used to measure the acuity of hearing.

Hearing Aid;

This is used to assist in hearing. It has different frequencies for different level of

deafness.

Bone vibrator

43
 Head transducer

Audiometer

Tymphanometer

2.6 Family Planning and Child Spacing Clinic

Speculum;

This instrument is used in raising the cervix of the client during insertion of Intra

Uterine Contraceptive Device (IUCD).

44
Vulsellum;

This is used for holding the cervix in place while trying to insert the IUCD.

Intra Uterine Contraceptive Device;

This is a contraceptive used for family planning and child spacing and it takes 10

years before it expires.

Implanon;

This is an implant that takes 5 years before it expires. It is also used for child

spacing and family planning. There are three types of implants used in this

hospital: Implanon NXT, Implanon Classic and Jadelle.

Uterine Sound;

This is used in measuring the length of the cervix for the insertion of IUCD.

Kidney Dish;

This is used for keeping antiseptics and cotton wool for use.

Sponge holding Forcep;

This is used to hold the cotton so as not to infect it with the hands.

45
Scissors;

This is used for cutting of the extra thread of the IUCD.

Head lamp;

It is used for illumination.

Cotton wool;

It is used for cleaning and application of disinfectant.

Speculum

46
Head lamp

Kidney dish and scissors (inside)

2.7 Immunization Unit

Syringe;

This is used for injection. There are two types of syringes used in immunization

unit, BCG syringe which measures 0.05ml and a 0.5ml syringe for all other

children's injection.

Vial;

This contains 10 doses of every fluid injected to a child such as BCG, PCV,

PENTA, HBV e.t.c.

Dropper;

47
It is used for OPV administration.

Vitamin A;

This is given to children of one year to five and mothers.

Weighing Scale;

This is used for checking baby's weight.

Immunization Card;

This card is given to a mother on her first visit after checking the baby's weight and

it contains all the information a doctor might need about the child.

Weighing scale

48
Immunization Card

2.8 Anesthesia Department

Anesthetic Machine;

This is a medical device used to generate and mix a fresh gas flow of medical

gases and inhalational anesthetic agents for the purpose of including and

maintaining anesthesia. Components of an Anesthetic Machine includes; oxygen

source, oxygen flow-meter, vaporizer, patient breathing circuit, scavenging system

and a monitor.

2.9 Hemodialysis center

Hemodialysis Machine;

This machine is used for the filtering of blood for patients with renal failure. It

contains parts and acts the role of filtration of the kidney where the dialyzer is the

49
main filter. It contains the central axis and the two tubes that exchanges arterial

blood and venous blood.

Hemodialysis Machine

50
 3.0 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 ECG

Procedures:

- Firstly, ensure the ECG machine is fully charged or at least charged enough for

use

- Ensure the ECG paper is in the machine and there is enough for use

- Prepare the room for activities such as preparation of the bed

- Ensure the ECG gel and tissues are available

- The patient must lie down in a supine position

- The electrodes are placed in the following position after applying the ECG gel on

them;

a. aVR : The right arm

b. aVL : The left arm

c. aVF : The left foot

d. V1 : Over 4th intercostal space near right sternal margin

e. V2 : Over 4th intercostal space near left sternal margin

f. V3: In between V2 and V4

51
 g. V4 : Over left 5th intercostal space on the mid clavicular line

h. V5 : Over left 5th intercostal space on the anterior axillary line

i. V6: Over left 5th intercostal space on the mid axillary line.

- Ensure the patient is well relaxed then start the ECG machine

- Remove the electrodes from the patient after the results comes out

- Help the patient clean the gel from his/her body

- Ensure you write the name, sex, and age of the patient and the date.

52
3.1.1 Normal physiological ranges:

Wave/segment Cause(s) Duration(secs) Amplitude(mV)

P wave Atrial depolarization 0.1 0.1 to 0.12

QRS complex Ventricular 0.08 to 0.10 Q= 0.1 to 0.2

depolarization and R= 1

atrial repolarization S= 0.4

T wave Ventricular 0.2 0.3

repolarization

P-R interval Atrial depolarization 0.18(0.12 to -

and conduction 0.2)

through AV node

Q-T interval Ventricular 0.4 to 0.42 -

depolarization and

ventricular

repolarization

S-T segment Isoelectric 0.08 -

3.2 Pathophysiology:

1. Atrioventricular conduction defect (blocks)

53
 2. Bundle branch block

3. Wolf-parkinson syndrome.

4. Increase in wall thickness or size of the atria and ventricles, atria

enlargement (hypertrophy), ventricular enlargement (hypertrophy).

5. Myocardial ischemia and infarction

6. Drug effect such as digitalis and quinidine

7. Electrolyte imbalance like potassium and calcium

8. Sinus tachycardia

9. Arrhythmia, super ventricular arrhythmia and ventricular arrhythmia

10.Intraventricular conduction block (IUVD)

11.Premature ventricular contraction (PVC)

3.3 Echocardiography

Procedures:

- The Echo room is fully stocked with necessary equipments with the bed readily

made

- The machine is switched on and allowed to boot for some time before use

54
- The patient is asked to remove his shirt or her blouse before lying down on the

bed

- The echo cardiologist rubs the gel on the appropriate probe before putting the

probe on the patient's chest/abdomen, depending on where he/she wants to

examine.

- After the examination, the result is printed and the patient's body is cleaned

using tissue paper.

3.4 Pathophysiology:

1. Branch block

2. Coronary stenosis

3. Ventricular septal defect

4. Atrial septal defect

5. Pericardial effusion

6. Rheumatic valvular disease

7. Diluted cardiomyopathy

8. Endocardial cushion defect.

3.5 Spirometry

Procedures:

55
- First of all, the spirometer is switched on

- The patient's details are recorded into the spirometer, details such as; name, age,

nationality, smoking habit, height, sex, unit number, doctor's remark and

diagnose.

- The patient is taught how to put the disposable breathing tube into the

spirometer and how to inhale and exhale properly for the machine to record it.

- Then the disposable spirometry cup is connected to the spirometer by the

patient.

- The patient then inhales and exhales as he/she saw the technician do it

- The result is printed if the recording is as expected i.e if the patient inhaled and

exhaled properly.

3.6 Normal physiological ranges:

 Vital Capacity = 4,800mL

 Inspiratory Reserve Volume = 3,300mL

 Tidal Volume = 500mL

 Expiratory Reserve Volume = 1,000mL

3.7 Pathophysiology:

1. Asthma
56
2. Emphysema

3. Weakness or paralysis of respiratory muscle

4. Pulmonary congestion

5. Pneumonia

6. Pneumothorax

7. Hemothorax

8. Pyothorax

9. Hydrothorax

10.Pulmonary edema

11.Pulmonary tuberculosis.

3.8 Ophthalmology

Procedures:

For Visual Acuity

- Every patient both new and old are recommended to take their Visual Acuity

(VA)

- The patient is asked to sit 6m away from the chart

- He/she is asked to close his/her left eye with his/her palm then the patient is

asked to read the Snellen's chart

57
- The same process is repeated for the other eye.

- A pin hole is used after assessing the naked eye

- The patient's near vision is also tested using Jaegar's chart

- If the patient has color vision problem, then an Ishihara test is conducted

For Intra Ocular Pressure (IOP)

- After the patient's Visual Acuity is taken, the doctor might ask the patient to

check his/her IOP if the patient has a history or has a risk of getting glaucoma.

- The patient is asked to put his/her forehead and chin on the machine

- The patient's IOP is measured using the tonometry or/and the pachymetry

machine.

3.9 Normal physiological ranges:

According to the World Health Organization (WHO) the normal visual acuity is

6/18 but some experts consider 6/5 or 6/4 as the only normal visual acuity.

Normal range for Intra Ocular Pressure is 10mmHg to 20mmHg.

4.0 Regulation of these physiological variables:

- For Myopia; Concave lens.

- For Hypermetropia; Convex lens.

58
 - For Astigmatism; Cylindrical lens.

- For Presbyopia; Biconvex lens.

Regulation of glaucoma is through eye drops, medicines, laser treatment and

surgery if the case is severe.

3.5.3 Pathophysiology:

1. Myopia
2. Hypermetropia
3. Astigmatism
4. Presbyopia
5. Glaucoma
6. Cataract.

4.1 Ear, Nose, and Throat (E.N.T)

Procedures:

- New patients open a new file and old ones use their old file

- A head transducer is placed on the ear and each is tested at different frequency.

- After the head transducer, the bone vibrator is also tested on the mastoid bone at

different frequency.

4.2 Normal physiological ranges:

59
Patients that are able to hear at lower frequencies of 125Hz, 250Hz, and 500Hz,

while others that hear at only high frequencies such as 1000Hz, 2000Hz, 4000Hz,

6000Hz and 8000Hz are considered as having partial deafness.

Regulation of these physiological variables:

 A patient is advised to avoid loud noise.

 Ear drops and medications are also used.

 Those with severe hearing problem are advised to use hearing aid.

4.3 Pathophysiology:

1. Presbycusis

2. Deafness

3. Poor localization of sound

4. Diminished hearing.

4.4 Family Planning and Child Spacing

Procedures:

- Clients with old files are seen immediately while new clients have to open a

new file.

- Clients are counseled so as to select their choice of family planning or/and

child spacing.

60
 - After the client makes her choice, the nurse then inserts the implant or

contraceptive and if it is a drug, then it is prescribed and if it is an injection

then it is injected into the client.

- The client is expected to come back for check up weekly or if there is a

problem.

4.5 Pathophysiology:

1. Cervical cancer

2. Vaginal Infection

3. Dysmenorrhea

4. Amenorrhea.

5. Menorrhagia

6. Oligomenorrhea

7. Metrorrhagia.

4.6 Immunization

Procedures:

Types of Against what Age Dosage How Where and how

vaccine disease given many its given
times
Bacillus Tuberculosis 2 weeks 0.05ml Once Intradermal
Calmette after Upper left arm
Guerin birth
(BCG)
61
Pnemoccocal Pnemoccocal 6th week 0.5ml 3 times Intramuscular
Conjugate disease 10th Upper right
Vaccine week thigh
(PCV) 14th
week
Pentavalent Diphtheria, 6th week 0.5ml 3 times Intramuscular
Vaccine pertussis, 10th Upper left
tetanus, week thigh
hepatitis B, 14th
hemophilus week
influenza
type B.

Oral Polio Polio 6th week 2 drops 3 times Oral

Vaccine myelitis 10th Mouth
week
14th
week
Measles Measles 9 month 0.5ml Once Subcutaneous
after Upper left arm
Yellow fever Yellow fever birth 0.5ml Once in Subcutaneous
ten years Upper right
arm
Vitamin A To boost 6th 100,000IU Twice a Oral
immunity month at 6 year Mouth
month,
200,000IU
at 12
months
and above

4.7 Pathophysiology:

1. Tuberculosis

2. Diphtheria

62
 3. Hepatitis A

4. Hepatitis B

5. Hemophilus Influenza

6. Measles

7. Yellow fever

8. Mumps

9. Pertussis (whooping cough)

10.Pneumococcal disease

11.Poliomyelitis

12.Tetanus

13.Chicken pox

14.Small pox

4.8 Anesthesia

Procedures:

- After pre medication, the patient is induced with anesthetic agent either

inhalational or intravenously.

- Then the patient is intubated if it is a general anesthesia.

63
 - Then the patient is connected to the machine through the breathing circuit

which provides oxygen, nitrogen, and isoflourine halotene which help

sustain the patient under anesthesia.

- After the surgery, the anesthetic technicians are responsible for bringing the

patient back to consciousness.

4.9 Normal physiological ranges

The independent variables includes sex, age, ASA physical status, drugs given as a

premedication, induction agents, neuromuscular blockers, use of opioids, urgency

of surgery, and the category of surgical procedure.

5.0 Pathophysiology:

Aspiration.

5.1 Hemodialysis

Procedures:

- The Hemodialysis machine is cleansed with normal saline.

- New patients are reffered to doctors for insertion of catheter

- While old patient's catheter are sterilized and disinfected.

- The tubes will be connected to the machine and patient.

- The heparin and saline are kept close by for emergencies like increase in blood

pressure.
64
- The nurse in charge of the patient observes the patient for any changes and

regular recording.

- PCM is given intravenously if the patient complains of fever.

- After the dialysis, normal saline is inserted to move the rest of the blood into the

patient.

5.2 Pathophysiology:

1. Oliguria

2. Anuria

3. Proteinuria

4. Hematuria

5. Acidosis

6. Edema

7. Anemia

8. Hyperparathyroidism

9. Uremia.

65
 5.3 CHAPTER FOUR

5.4 Scope of Experience

After my 12 weeks of the Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme, I can

proudly say I understand physiology better than before. I can now relate the

practical and theoretical aspects of physiology and I am sure that whenever I find

myself in a medical setting, I can sufficiently practice the knowledge I have

gained.

I did not only gain more knowledge and understanding of physiology but I also

learned good conducts like how to be patient and understanding with patients as

well as co-workers in the hospital and any other environment alike.

5.5 Summary

I performed my Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme in Aminu Kano

Teaching Hospital for 12 weeks from 12 december 2022 to 3 rd march, 2023 under

the following departments:

 Diagnostic center (ECG, Echocardiography, and Spirometry) under

Medicine Department

 Opthalmology Department

 Ear, Nose, and Throat (E.N.T) Department

66
  Family Planning and Child Spacing Clinic under Community Medicine

Department

 Immunization under Community Medicine Department

 Anesthesia Department

 Hemodialysis center under Nephrology Department.

 Intensive care unit under the department of Anesthesiology and Intensive

Care Unit.

This Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) technical report

contains an extract on the practical application of the knowledge of human
physiology in the clinics. It also demonstrates important equipment that are related
to the tests and diagnosis of so many physiological abnormalities, their principle of
operation, the samples of results output, variations, regulations, and some aspects
of pathophysiology.

5.6 Conclusion

This training has helped improve my knowledge of physiology and I can now

relate the theoretical aspects of human physiology in real life situations. The

experience has also helped me improve my interaction with people (co-workers) in

an organization.

5.7 Recommendations

 There should be an official SIWES ID card which is recognized by major

medical institutions and which allows students to enter into any posting
67
 without being questioned about why they’re there and what they’re doing

there.

 Apart from the general SIWES orientation, there should be an orientation

about the different departments we’re meant to be posted.

 The department/faculty should provide buses to transport students living

within the school campus to their various places of SIWES in order to

improve their security and also to assist students with financial issues.

68
 Bibliography

K Sembulingam PhD and Prema Sembulingam PhD, Essentials of Medical, Sixth

Edition.

Madha Medical College & Research Institute Kundrathur Main Road, Kovur,

Thandalam (Near Porur) Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India.

National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Understanding Vaccines

https://www.niaid.nih.gov/research/how-vaccines-work

National Programme on Immunization and Nigerian National Immunization

Schedule for Children.

Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, Twenty-Third Edition.New York

Chicago San Francisco Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City.

Milan New Delhi San Juan Seoul Singapore Sydney Toronto.

Kim E. Barrett, PhD, Susan M. Barman, PhD, Scott Boitano, PhD, Heddwen L.

Brooks, PhD.

69