2 Matrix Algebra

Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
2.1 Define a Matrix
2.2 Identify the Different Types of Matrices
2.3 Perform Common Matrix Operations
2.4 Solve Simultaneous Equations Using the Gauss-Jordan
Elimination Method

Somerset Corporate Center Office Building, New Jersey, and its Analytical Model
(Photos courtesy of Ram International. Structural Engineer: The Cantor Seinuk Group, P.C.)
23

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24  Chapter 2   Matrix Algebra

In matrix methods of structural analysis, the fundamental relationships of equi-

librium, compatibility, and member force-displacement relations are expressed
in the form of matrix equations, and the analytical procedures are formulated
by applying various matrix operations. Therefore, familiarity with the basic
concepts of matrix algebra is a prerequisite to understanding matrix structural
analysis. The objective of this chapter is to concisely present the basic concepts
of matrix algebra necessary for formulating the methods of structural analysis
covered in the text. A general procedure for solving simultaneous linear equa-
tions, the Gauss-Jordan method, is also discussed.
We begin with the basic definition of a matrix in Section 2.1, followed by
brief descriptions of the various types of matrices in Section 2.2. The matrix
operations of equality, addition and subtraction, multiplication, transposition,
differentiation and integration, inversion, and partitioning are defined in Sec-
tion 2.3; we conclude the chapter with a discussion of the Gauss-Jordan elimi-
nation method for solving simultaneous equations (Section 2.4).

2.1 Definition of a Matrix

A matrix is defined as a rectangular array of quantities arranged in rows
and columns. A matrix with m rows and n columns can be expressed as follows.

3 4
A11 A12 A13 . . . ... A1n
A21 A22 A23 . . . ... A2n
A 5 [A] 5 A31 A32 A33 . . .
... A3n  (2.1)
. . . . . . . . . . . . Aij ... ith row
Am1 Am2 Am3 . . . ... Amn

jth column m3n

As shown in Eq. (2.1), matrices are denoted either by boldface letters (A) or by
italic letters enclosed within brackets ([A]). The quantities forming a matrix are
referred to as its elements. The elements of a matrix are usually numbers, but
they can be symbols, equations, or even other matrices (called submatrices).
Each element of a matrix is represented by a double-subscripted letter, with
the first subscript identifying the row and the second subscript identifying the
column in which the element is located. Thus, in Eq. (2.1), A23 represents the
element located in the second row and third column of matrix A. In general, Aij
refers to an element located in the ith row and jth column of matrix A.
The size of a matrix is measured by the number of its rows and columns
and is referred to as the order of the matrix. Thus, matrix A in Eq. (2.1), which
has m rows and n columns, is considered to be of order m 3 n (m by n). As an
example, consider a matrix D given by

3 4
3 5 37
8 26 0
D5
12 23 2
7 29 21

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 Section 2.2 Types of Matrices  25

The order of this matrix is 4 3 3, and its elements are symbolically denoted
by Dij with i 5 1 to 4 and j 5 1 to 3; for example, D13 5 37, D31 5 12,
D42 5 29, etc.

2.2 Types of Matrices

We describe some of the common types of matrices in the following para-
graphs.

Column Matrix (Vector)

If all the elements of a matrix are arranged in a single column (i.e., n 5 1), it
is called a column matrix. Column matrices are usually referred to as vectors,
and are sometimes denoted by italic letters enclosed within braces. An example
of a column matrix or vector is given by

34
35
9
B 5 {B} 5 12
3
26

Row Matrix
A matrix with all of its elements arranged in a single row (i.e., m 5 1) is re-
ferred to as a row matrix. For example,

C 5 [9 35 212 7 22]

Square Matrix
If a matrix has the same number of rows and columns (i.e., m 5 n), it is called
a square matrix. An example of a 4 3 4 square matrix is given by

3 4
6 12 0 20
15 29 237 3
A5  (2.2)
224 13 8 1
40 0 11 25
main diagonal
As shown in Eq. (2.2), the main diagonal of a square matrix extends from the
upper left corner to the lower right corner, and it contains elements with match-
ing subscripts—that is, A11, A22, A33, . . . , Ann. The elements forming the main
diagonal are referred to as the diagonal elements; the remaining elements of a
square matrix are called the off-diagonal elements.

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26  Chapter 2   Matrix Algebra

Symmetric Matrix
When the elements of a square matrix are symmetric about its main diagonal
(i.e., Aij 5 Aji), it is termed a symmetric matrix. For example,

3 4
6 15 224 40
15 29 13 0
A5
224 13 8 11
40 0 11 25

Lower Triangular Matrix

If all the elements of a square matrix above its main diagonal are zero,
(i.e., Aij 5 0 for j . i), it is referred to as a lower triangular matrix. An exam-
ple of a 4 3 4 lower triangular matrix is given by

3 4
8 0 0 0
12 29 0 0
A5
33 17 6 0
22 5 15 3

Upper Triangular Matrix

When all the elements of a square matrix below its main diagonal are zero
(i.e., Aij 5 0 for j , i), it is called an upper triangular matrix. An example of a
3 3 3 upper triangular matrix is given by

3 4
27 6 17
A5 0 12 11
0 0 20

Diagonal Matrix
A square matrix with all of its off-diagonal elements equal to zero (i.e.,
Aij 5 0 for i ? j), is called a diagonal matrix. For example,

3 4
6 0 0 0
0 23 0 0
A5
0 0 11 0
0 0 0 27

Unit or Identity Matrix

If all the diagonal elements of a diagonal matrix are equal to 1 (i.e., Iij 5 1
and Iij 5 0 for i ? j), it is referred to as a unit (or identity) matrix. Unit

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 Section 2.3 Matrix Operations  27

­ atrices are commonly denoted by I or [I]. An example of a 3 3 3 unit

m
matrix is given by

3 4
1 0 0
I5 0 1 0
0 0 1

Null Matrix
If all the elements of a matrix are zero (i.e., Oij 5 0), it is termed a null matrix.
Null matrices are usually denoted by O or [O]. An example of a 3 3 4 null
matrix is given by

3 4
0 0 0 0
O5 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0

2.3 Matrix Operations

Equality
Matrices A and B are considered to be equal if they are of the same order
and if their corresponding elements are identical (i.e., Aij 5 Bij). Consider, for
example, matrices

3 4 3 4
6 2 6 2
A 5 27 8   and  B 5 27 8
3 29 3 29

Since both A and B are of order 3 3 2, and since each element of A is equal to
the corresponding element of B, the matrices A and B are equal to each other;
that is, A 5 B.

Addition and Subtraction

Matrices can be added (or subtracted) only if they are of the same order. The
addition (or subtraction) of two matrices A and B is carried out by adding
(or subtracting) the corresponding elements of the two matrices. Thus, if
A 1 B 5 C, then Cij 5 Aij 1 Bij; and if A 2 B 5 D, then Dij 5 Aij 2 Bij . The
matrices C and D have the same order as matrices A and B.

E x ample 2.1 Calculate the matrices C 5 A 1 B and D 5 A 2 B if

3 4 3 4
6 0 2 3
A 5 22 9   and  B 5 7 5
5 1 212 21

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28  Chapter 2   Matrix Algebra

S olutio n

3 4 3 4
(6 1 2) (0 1 3) 8 3
C 5 A 1 B 5 (22 1 7) (9 1 5) 5 5 14  Ans
(5 2 12) (1 2 1) 27 0

3 4 3 4
(6 2 2) (0 2 3) 4 23
D 5 A 2 B 5 (22 2 7) (9 2 5) 5 29 4  Ans
(5 1 12) (1 1 1) 17 2

Multiplication by a Scalar
The product of a scalar c and a matrix A is obtained by multiplying each ele-
ment of the matrix A by the scalar c. Thus, if cA 5 B, then Bij 5 cAij.

E x ample 2.2 Calculate the matrix B 5 cA if c 5 26 and

3 4
3 7 22
A5 0 8 1
12 24 10

S olutio n

3 4 3 4
26(3) 26(7) 26(22) 218 242 12
B 5 cA 5 26(0) 26(8) 26(1) 5 0 248 26  Ans
26(12) 26(24) 26(10) 272 24 260

Multiplication of Matrices
Two matrices can be multiplied only if the number of columns of the first matrix
equals the number of rows of the second matrix. Such matrices are said to be
conformable for multiplication. Consider, for example, the matrices

3 4
1 8
3 4
6 27
A5 4 22   and  B 5 (2.3)
21 2
25 3
(3 3 2) (2 3 2)
The product AB of these matrices is defined because the first matrix, A, of the
sequence AB has two columns and the second matrix, B, has two rows. How-
ever, if the sequence of the matrices is reversed, then the product BA does not
exist, because now the first matrix, B, has two columns and the second matrix,
A, has three rows. The product AB is referred to either as A postmultiplied by
B, or as B premultiplied by A. Conversely, the product BA is referred to either
as B postmultiplied by A, or as A premultiplied by B.
When two conformable matrices are multiplied, the product matrix thus ob-
tained has the number of rows of the first matrix and the number of columns of the

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 Section 2.3 Matrix Operations  29

second matrix. Thus, if a matrix A of order l 3 m is postmultiplied by a matrix B of

order m 3 n, then the product matrix C 5 AB has the order l 3 n; that is,

A B 5 C
(l 3 m) (m 3 n) (l 3 n)
equal

(2.4)

3 33 3 3 3
B1 j
i th row Ai1 Ai2 Aim B2 j Ci j i th row
..

..
.
..
.
. 5
..
.
Bm j

j th column
j th column

Any element Cij of the product matrix C can be determined by multiplying
each element of the ith row of A by the corresponding element of the jth col-
umn o f B (see Eq. 2.4), and by algebraically summing the products; that is,

Cij 5 Ai1B1j 1 Ai2B2j 1 . . . 1 AimBmj (2.5)

Eq. (2.5) can be expressed as

m 
Cij 5 oA B
k51
ik kj
(2.6)

in which m represents the number of columns of A, or the number of rows of B.

Equation (2.6) can be used to determine all elements of the product matrix C 5 AB.

E x ample 2.3 Calculate the product C 5 AB of the matrices A and B given in Eq. (2.3).

S olutio n

3 43 3 4
1 8 22 9
C 5 AB 5 4
25
22
3
6
21
27
2
5 4 26
233
232 
41
Ans

(3 3 2) (2 3 2) (3 3 2)

The element C11 of the product matrix C is determined by multiplying each element of
the first row of A by the corresponding element of the first column of B and summing
the resulting products; that is,

C11 5 1(6) 1 8(21) 5 22

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30  Chapter 2   Matrix Algebra

Similarly, the element C12 is obtained by multiplying the elements of the first row of
A by the corresponding elements of the second column of B and adding the resulting
products; that is,

C12 5 1(27) 1 8(2) 5 9

The remaining elements of C are computed in a similar manner:

C21 5 4(6) 1 (22)(21) 5 26

C22 5 4(27) 22(2) 5 232
C31 5 25(6) 1 3(21) 5 233
C32 5 25(27) 1 3(2) 5 41

A flowchart for programming the matrix multiplication procedure on

a computer is given in Fig. 2.1. Any programming language (such as FOR-
TRAN, BASIC, or C, among others) can be used for this purpose. The reader
is encouraged to write this program in a general form (e.g., as a subroutine),
so that it can be included in the structural analysis computer programs to be
developed in later chapters.
An important application of matrix multiplication is to express simultane-
ous equations in compact matrix form. Consider the following system of linear
simultaneous equations:

A11x1 1 A12x2 1 A13x3 1 A14x4 5 P1

A21x1 1 A22x2 1 A23x3 1 A24x4 5 P2
(2.7)
A31x1 1 A32x2 1 A33x3 1 A34x4 5 P3
A41x1 1 A42x2 1 A43x3 1 A44x4 5 P4

in which xs are the unknowns and As and Ps represent the coefficients and
constants, respectively. By using the definition of multiplication of matrices,
this system of equations can be expressed in matrix form as

3 43 4 3 4
A11 A12 A13 A14 x1 P1
A21 A22 A23 A24 x2 P2
5  (2.8)
A31 A32 A33 A34 x3 P3
A41 A42 A43 A44 x4 P4

or, symbolically, as
Ax 5 P (2.9)
Matrix multiplication is generally not commutative; that is,


AB ? BA (2.10)

Even when the orders of two matrices A and B are such that both products AB
and BA are defined and are of the same order, the two products, in general, will

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 Section 2.3 Matrix Operations  31

Start

Input A(L, M), B(M, N)

Dimension C(L, N)

I51

no
I # L?

yes
J51

no
J # N?

yes

C(I, J) 5 0.0

K51

no
K # M?

yes
C(I, J) 5 C(I, J) 1 A(I, K)*B(K, J)

K5K11

J5J11

I5I11

Output C

Stop

Fig. 2.1 Flowchart for Matrix Multiplication

not be equal. It is essential, therefore, to maintain the proper sequential order
of matrices when evaluating matrix products.

E x ample 2.4 Calculate the product AB and BA if

A5 3271 28
2 4
  and  B 5
6
4 3 23
25 4
Are the products AB and BA equal?

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32  Chapter 2   Matrix Algebra

S olutio n

AB 5 3271 28
2 4 364 23
25
5 4 3
226
234
37
11
4 Ans

BA 5 364 23
25 4 3271 28
2
5 4 3
27
39
254
242
 4 Ans

Comparing products AB and BA, we can see that AB ? BA. Ans

Matrix multiplication is associative and distributive, provided that the se-

quential order in which the matrices are to be multiplied is maintained. Thus,
ABC 5 (AB)C 5 A(BC) (2.11)
and
A(B 1 C) 5 AB 1 AC (2.12)
The product of any matrix A and a conformable null matrix O equals a
null matrix; that is,

AO 5 O          and          OA 5 O (2.13)
For example,

3262 4 300 004 5 300 004

24
8

The product of any matrix A and a conformable unit matrix I equals the
original matrix A; thus,
AI 5 A   and   IA 5 A (2.14)
For example,

3262 4 310 014 5 3262 4

24 24
8 8

and

310 014 3262 4 3 4

24 2 24
5
8 26 8

We can see from Eqs. (2.13) and (2.14) that the null and unit matrices serve
purposes in matrix algebra that are similar to those of the numbers 0 and 1,
respectively, in scalar algebra.

Transpose of a Matrix
The transpose of a matrix is obtained by interchanging its corresponding rows and
columns. The transposed matrix is commonly identified by placing a superscript T
on the symbol of the original matrix. Consider, for example, a 3 3 2 matrix

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 Section 2.3 Matrix Operations  33

3 4
2 24
B 5 25 8
1 3
332
The transpose of B is given by

3242 4
25 1
BT 5
8 3
233
Note that the first row of B becomes the first column of BT. Similarly, the sec-
ond and third rows of B become, respectively, the second and third columns of
BT. The order of BT thus obtained is 2 3 3.
As another example, consider the matrix

3 4
2 21 6
C 5 21 7 29
6 29 5

Because the elements of C are symmetric about its main diagonal (i.e., Cij 5 Cji
for i ? j), interchanging the rows and columns of this matrix produces a matrix
CT that is identical to C itself; that is, CT 5 C. Thus, the transpose of a sym-
metric matrix equals the original matrix.
Another useful property of matrix transposition is that the transpose of a
product of matrices equals the product of the transposed matrices in reverse
order. Thus,

(AB)T 5 BTAT (2.15)

Similarly,
(ABC)T 5 CT BTAT (2.16)

E x ample 2.5 Show that (AB)T 5 BTAT if

3 4
9 25
3 4
6 21 10
A5 2 1   and  B 5
22 7 5
23 4

S olutio n

3 43 3 4
9 25 64 244 65
AB 5 2
23
1
4
6
22
21
7
10
5
5 4 10
226
5
31
25 
210

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34  Chapter 2   Matrix Algebra

3 4
64 10 226
(AB) 5 244
T
5 31  (1)
65 25 210

3 43 3 4
6 22 64 10 226
4
9 2 23
BT AT 5 21 7 5 244 5 31  (2)
25 1 4
10 5 65 25 210

By comparing Eqs. (1) and (2), we can see that (AB)T 5 BTAT. Ans

Differentiation and Integration

A matrix can be differentiated (or integrated) by differentiating (or integrating)
each of its elements.

E x ample 2.6 Determine the derivative dA/dx if

3 4
x2 3 sin x 2x4
A5 3 sin x 2x cos2 x
2x4 cos2 x 7x3

S olutio n By differentiating the elements of A, we obtain

d A11
A11 5 x2 5 2x
dx
d A21 d A12
A21 5 A12 5 3 sin x 5 5 3 cos x
dx dx
d A31 d A13
A31 5 A13 5 2x4 5 5 24x3
dx dx
d A22
A22 5 2x 5 21
dx
d A32 d A23
A32 5 A23 5 cos2 x 5 5 22 cos x sin x
dx dx
d A33
A33 5 7x3 5 21x2
dx
Thus, the derivative dA/dx is given by

3 4
2x 3 cos x 24x3
dA
5 3 cos x 21 22 cos x sin x  Ans
dx
24x3 22 cos x sin x 21x2

E x ample 2.7 Determine the partial derivative −B/−y if

3 4
2y3 2yz 22xz
B 5 3xy2 yz 2z2
2x2 22xz 3xy2

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 Section 2.3 Matrix Operations  35

S olutio n We determine the partial derivative, −Bij  /−y, of each element of B to obtain

3 4
6y2 2z 0
−B
5 6xy z 0  Ans
−y
0 0 6xy

E x ample 2.8 Calculate the integral eL0 AAT dx if

3 4
x
12
L
A5
x
L
S olutio n First, we calculate the matrix product AAT as

3 4 31 1 2
3 1 2 L 11 2 L 2
4
x x 2 x x
12 12
B 5 AAT 5
L
12
x x
5 2 4 L

1 2 L
x L L x x x 2
12
L L L 2

Next, we integrate the elements of B to obtain

L L L

# 11 2 L2 dx 5 # 11 2 L 1 L 2dx
x 2x x2
#B
2

11
dx 5 2
0 0 0

2 531
x2 x3 L
L
5 x2 1 2
L 3L 0
L L L L

# B dx 5 # B dx 5 # L11 2 L2dx 5 # 1L 2 L 2dx

x x x x 2

21 12 2
0 0 0 0

51 2
2L 3L 2
x x L L L 2 3 L
5 2 5
2 3 6 2
0
L L

# 1L 2dx 5 13L 2
x x3 L
#B
2 L
dx 5 5
0
22
0
2 2
0
3
Thus,

3 4
L L
L
3 6
3 124
L 2
# AA dx 5
0
T
L L
5
6 1
Ans

6 3

Inverse of a Square Matrix

The inverse of a square matrix A is defined as a matrix A21 with elements of
such magnitudes that the product of the original matrix A and its inverse A21
equals a unit matrix I; that is,


AA21 5 A21A 5 I (2.17)

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36  Chapter 2   Matrix Algebra

The operation of inversion is defined only for square matrices, with the inverse
of such a matrix also being a square matrix of the same order as the original
matrix. A procedure for determining inverses of matrices will be presented in
the next section.

E x ample 2.9 Check whether or not matrix B is the inverse of matrix A, if

A5 324 2
23 14   and  B 5 3
0.5
1.5
21
22 4
S olutio n

323 14 31.5 4 3 4 3 14
24 2 0.5 21 (22 1 3) (4 2 4) 1 0
AB 5 5 5
22 (21.5 1 1.5) (3 2 2) 0
Also,

31.5 4 323 14 5 3(26 1 6) 4 3 14

0.5 21 24 2 (22 1 3) (1 2 1) 1 0
BA 5 5
22 (3 2 2) 0

Since AB 5 BA 5 I, B is the inverse of A; that is,

B 5 A21 Ans

The operation of matrix inversion serves a purpose analogous to the

o­ peration of division in scalar algebra. Consider a system of simultaneous lin-
ear equations expressed in matrix form as
Ax 5 P
in which A is the square matrix of known coefficients, x is the vector of the
unknowns, and P is the vector of the constants. As the operation of division is
not defined in matrix algebra, the equation cannot be solved for x by dividing
P by A (i.e., x 5 P/A). However, we can determine x by premultiplying both
sides of the equation by A21, to obtain
A21Ax 5 A21P
As A21A 5 I and Ix 5 x, we can write
x 5 A21P
which shows that a system of simultaneous linear equations can be solved
by premultiplying the vector of constants by the inverse of the coefficient matrix.
An important property of matrix inversion is that the inverse of a symmet-
ric matrix is also a symmetric matrix.

Orthogonal Matrix
If the inverse of a matrix is equal to its transpose, the matrix is referred to as an
orthogonal matrix. In other words, a matrix A is orthogonal if

A21 5 AT

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 Section 2.3 Matrix Operations  37

E x ample 2.10 Determine whether matrix A given below is an orthogonal matrix.

3 4
0.8 0.6 0 0
20.6 0.8 0 0
A5
0 0 0.8 0.6
0 0 20.6 0.8
S olutio n

3 43 4
0.8 0.6 0 0 0.8 20.6 0 0
20.6 0.8 0 0 0.6 0.8 0 0
AAT 5
0 0 0.8 0.6 0 0 0.8 20.6
0 0 20.6 0.8 0 0 0.6 0.8

3 4
(0.64 1 0.36) (20.48 1 0.48) 0 0
(20.48 1 0.48) (0.36 1 0.64) 0 0
5
0 0 (0.64 1 0.36) (20.48 1 0.48)
0 0 (20.48 1 0.48) (0.36 1 0.64)

3 4
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
5
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
which shows that AAT 5 I. Thus,
A21 5 AT
Therefore, matrix A is orthogonal. Ans

Partitioning of Matrices
In many applications, it becomes necessary to subdivide a matrix into a num-
ber of smaller matrices called submatrices. The process of subdividing a ma-
trix into submatrices is referred to as partitioning. For example, a 4 3 3 ma-
trix B is partitioned into four submatrices by drawing horizontal and vertical
dashed partition lines:

3 4
2 24 21

3BB 4
25 7 3 B12
B5 5 11
 (2.18)
8 29 6 21
B22
1 3 8
in which the submatrices are

3 4 3 4
2 24 21
B11 5 25 7 B12 5 3
8 29 6

B21 5 [1 3]    B22 5 [8]

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38  Chapter 2   Matrix Algebra

Matrix operations (such as addition, subtraction, and multiplication) can

be performed on partitioned matrices in the same manner as discussed pre-
viously by treating the submatrices as elements—provided that the ­matrices
are partitioned in such a way that their submatrices are conformable for
the particular operation. For example, suppose that the 4 3 3 matrix B of
Eq. (2.18) is to be postmultiplied by a 3 3 2 matrix C, which is partitioned into
two submatrices:

3 4
9 26
3 4
C
C5 4 2 5 11  (2.19)
C21
23 1

The product BC is expressed in terms of submatrices as

3BB 4 3CC 4 3BB CC 4

B12 1 B12C21
BC 5 11 11 11 11
(2.20)
21
B22 21 21 11
1 B22C21

It is important to realize that matrices B and C have been partitioned in such a

way that their corresponding submatrices are conformable for multiplication;
that is, the orders of the submatrices are such that the products B11C11, B12C21,
B21C11, and B22C21 are defined. It can be seen from Eqs. (2.18) and (2.19) that
this is achieved by partitioning the rows of the second matrix C of the product
BC in the same way that the columns of the first matrix B are partitioned. The
products of the submatrices are:

3 43 3 4
2 24 2 220
4
9 26
B11C11 5 25 7 5 217 44
4 2
8 29 36 266

3 4 3 4
21 3 21
B12C21 5 3 [23 1] 5 29 3
6 218 6

394 4
26
B21C11 5 [1 3] 5 5 [21 0]
2

B22C21 5 [8][23 1] 5 [224 8]

By substituting the numerical values of the products of submatrices into Eq. (2.20),
we obtain

33 4 3 44 3 4
2 220 3 21 5 221
BC 5 217 44 1 29 3 5 226 47
36 266 218 6 18 260
[21 0] 1 [224    8] 23 8

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 Section 2.4 Gauss-Jordan Elimination Method  39

2.4 Gauss-Jordan Elimination Method

The Gauss-Jordan elimination method is one of the most commonly used
procedures for solving simultaneous linear equations, and for determining in-
verses of matrices.

Solution of Simultaneous Equations

To illustrate the Gauss-Jordan method for solving simultaneous equations,
consider the following system of three linear algebraic equations:
5x1 1 6x2 2 3x3 5 66
9x1 2 x2 1 2x3 5 8 (2.21a)
8x1 2 7x2 1 4x3 5 239

To determine the unknowns x1, x2, and x3, we begin by dividing the first equa-
tion by the coefficient of its x1 term to obtain

  x1 1 1.2x2 2 0.6x3 5 13.2

9x1 2   x2 1 2x3 5 8 (2.21b)
8x1 2 7x2 1 4x3 5 239

Next, we eliminate the unknown x1 from the second and third equations by suc-
cessively subtracting from each equation the product of the coefficient of its x1
term and the first equation. Thus, to eliminate x1 from the second equation, we
multiply the first equation by 9 and subtract it from the second equation. Simi-
larly, we eliminate x1 from the third equation by multiplying the first equation by
8 and subtracting it from the third equation. This yields the system of equations
x1 1 1.2x2 2 0.6x3 5 13.2
211.8x2 1 7.4x3 5 2110.8 (2.21c)
216.6x2 1 8.8x3 5 2144.6

With x1 eliminated from all but the first equation, we now divide the second
equation by the coefficient of its x2 term to obtain
x1 1 1.2x2 2 0.6 x3 5    13.2
   x2 2 0.6271x3   5    9.39 (2.21d)
216.6x2 1 8.8     x3 5 2144.6

Next, the unknown x2 is eliminated from the first and the third equations, suc-
cessively, by multiplying the second equation by 1.2 and subtracting it from
the first equation, and then by multiplying the second equation by 216.6 and
subtracting it from the third equation. The system of equations thus obtained is

x1 1 0.1525x3 5    1.932
     x2 2 0.6271x3 5 9.39 (2.21e)
   2 1.61 x3 5 11.27

Focusing our attention now on the unknown x3, we divide the third equation by
the coefficient of its x3 term (which is 21.61) to obtain

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40  Chapter 2   Matrix Algebra

x1 1 0.1525x3 5 1.932
   x2 2 0.6271x3 5 9.39 (2.21f)
x3 5 27

Finally, we eliminate x3 from the first and the second equations, successively,
by multiplying the third equation by 0.1525 and subtracting it from the first
equation, and then by multiplying the third equation by 20.6271 and subtract-
ing it from the second equation. This yields the solution of the given system
of equations:

x1 53
  x2 5 5 (2.21g)
x3 5 27

or, equivalently,

x1 5 3;   x2 5 5;   x3 5 27 (2.21h)

To check that this solution is correct, we substitute the numerical values of

x1, x2, and x3 back into the original equations (Eq. 2.21(a)):

5(3) 1 6(5) 2 3(27) 5 66 Checks

9(3) 2 5   1 2(27) 5    8 Checks

8(3) 2 7(5) 1 4(27) 5 239 Checks

As the foregoing example illustrates, the Gauss-Jordan method basically

involves eliminating, in order, each unknown from all but one of the equations
of the system by applying the following operations: dividing an equation by
a scalar, and multiplying an equation by a scalar and subtracting the resulting
equation from another equation. These operations (called the elementary op-
erations) when applied to a system of equations yield another system of equa-
tions that has the same solution as the original system. In the Gauss-Jordan
method, the elementary operations are performed repeatedly until a system
with each equation containing only one unknown is obtained.
The Gauss-Jordan elimination method can be performed more conve-
niently by using the matrix form of the simultaneous equations (Ax 5 P). In
this approach, the coefficient matrix A and the vector of constants P are treated
as submatrices of a partitioned augmented matrix,

G 5 [A Á P]
n 3 (n 1 1)   n 3 n  n 3 1 (2.22)

where n represents the number of equations. The elementary operations are

then applied to the rows of the augmented matrix, until the coefficient matrix is
reduced to a unit matrix. The elements of the vector, which initially contained
the constant terms of the original equations, now represent the solution of the
original system of equations; that is,

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 Section 2.4 Gauss-Jordan Elimination Method  41

G5 5[A[I P]
x]
[elementary operations (2.23)

This procedure is illustrated by the following example.

E x ample 2.11 Solve the system of simultaneous equations given in Eq. 2.21(a) by the Gauss-Jordan
method.

S olutio n The given system of equations can be written in matrix form as

Ax 5 P
x1

3 43 4 3 4
5 6 23 66
9 21 2 x2 5 8  (1)
8 27 4 x3 239

from which we form the augmented matrix

3 4
5 6 23 66
G 5 [A Á P] 5 9 21 2 8  (2)
8 27 4 239

We begin Gauss-Jordan elimination by dividing row 1 of the augmented matrix by

G11 5 5 to obtain

3 4
1 1.2 20.6 13.2
G5 9 21 2 8  (3)
8 27 4 239

Next, we multiply row 1 by G21 5 9 and subtract it from row 2; then multiply row 1
by G31 5 8 and subtract it from row 3. This yields

3 4
1 1.2 20.6 13.2
G5 0 211.8 7.4 2110.8  (4)
0 216.6 8.8 2144.6

We now divide row 2 by G22 5 211.8 to obtain

3 4
1 1.2 20.6 13.2
G5 0 1 20.6271 9.39  (5)
0 216.6 8.8 2144.6

Next, we multiply row 2 by G12 5 1.2 and subtract it from row 1, and then multiply
row 2 by G32 5 216.6 and subtract it from row 3. Thus,

3 4
1 0 0.1525 1.932
G5 0 1 20.6271 9.39  (6)
0 0 21.61 11.27

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42  Chapter 2   Matrix Algebra

By dividing row 3 by G33 5 21.61, we obtain

3 4
1 0 0.1525 1.932
G5 0 1 20.6271 9.39  (7)
0 0 1 27
Finally, we multiply row 3 by G13 5 0.1525 and subtract it from row 1; then multiply
row 3 by G23 5 20.6271 and subtract it from row 2 to obtain

3 4
1 0 0 3
G5 0 1 0 5 (8)
0 0 1 27
Thus, the solution of the given system of equations is

3 4
3
x5 5  Ans
27
To check our solution, we substitute the numerical value of x back into Eq. (1). This yields

3 43 4 3 4
5 6 23 3 15 1 30 1 21 5 66
9 21 2 5 5 27 2 5 2 14 5 8  Checks
8 27 4 27 24 2 35 2 28 5 239

The solution of large systems of simultaneous equations by the Gauss-­

Jordan method is usually carried out by computer, and a flowchart for program-
ming this procedure is given in Fig. 2.2. The reader should write this program
in a general form (e.g., as a subroutine), so that it can be conveniently included
in the structural analysis computer programs to be developed in later chapters.
It should be noted that the Gauss-Jordan method as described in the preced-
ing paragraphs breaks down if a diagonal element of the coefficient matrix A
becomes zero during the elimination process. This situation can be remedied
by interchanging the row of the augmented matrix containing the zero diago-
nal element with another row, to place a nonzero element on the diagonal; the
elimination process is then continued. However, when solving the systems of
equations encountered in structural analysis, the condition of a zero diagonal
element should not arise; the occurrence of such a condition would indicate
that the structure being analyzed is unstable [2]*.

Matrix Inversion
The procedure for determining inverses of matrices by the Gauss-Jordan method
is similar to that described previously for solving simultaneous equations. The
procedure involves forming an augmented matrix G composed of the matrix A
that is to be inverted and a unit matrix I of the same order as A; that is,

*Numbers in brackets refer to items listed in the bibliography.

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 Section 2.4 Gauss-Jordan Elimination Method  43
Start

Input G(N, N 1 1) 5 [A P]

I51

no
I # N?

yes
C 5 G(I, I)

J51

no
J # N 1 1?

yes
G(I, J) 5 G(I, J) / C

J5J11

K51

no
K # N?

yes
yes
K 5 I?

no
D 5 G(K, I )

M5I

no
M # N 1 1?

yes
G(K, M) 5 G(K, M) 2 G(I, M)*D

M5M11

K5K11

I5I11

Output G

Stop

Fig. 2.2 Flowchart for Solution of Simultaneous Equations

by the Gauss-Jordan Method
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44  Chapter 2   Matrix Algebra

G 5 [A Á I]

n 3 2n   n 3 n   n 3 n (2.24)

Elementary operations are then applied to the rows of the augmented matrix
to reduce A to a unit matrix. Matrix I, which was initially the unit matrix, now
represents the inverse matrix A21; thus,

G5 5[A[I I]
A ] 21
[elementary operations (2.25)

E x ample 2.12 Determine the inverse of the matrix shown using the Gauss-Jordan method.

3 4
13 26 6
A 5 26 12 21
6 21 9

S olutio n The augmented matrix is given by

3 4
13 26 6 1 0 0
G 5 [A Á I] 5 26 12 21 0 1 0  (1)
6 21 9 0 0 1

We begin the Gauss-Jordan elimination process by dividing row 1 of the augmented

matrix by G11 5 13:

3 4
1 20.4615 0.4615 0.07692 0 0
G 5 26 12 21 0 1 0  (2)
6 21 9 0 0 1

Next, we multiply row 1 by G21 5 26 and subtract it from row 2, and then multiply
row 1 by G31 5 6 and subtract it from row 3. This yields

3 4
1 20.4615 0.4615 0.07692 0 0
G5 0 9.231 1.769 0.4615 1 0  (3)
0 1.769 6.231 20.4615 0 1

Dividing row 2 by G22 5 9.231, we obtain

3 4
1 20.4615 0.4615 0.07692 0 0
G5 0 1 0.1916 0.04999 0.1083 0  (4)
0 1.769 6.231 20.4615 0 1

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 Summary  45

Next, we multiply row 2 by G12 5 20.4615 and subtract it from row 1; then multiply
row 2 by G32 5 1.769 and subtract it from row 3. This yields

3 4
1 0 0.5499 0.09999 0.04998 0
G5 0 1 0.1916 0.04999 0.1083 0  (5)
0 0 5.892 20.5499 20.1916 1

Divide row 3 by G33 5 5.892:

3 4
1 0 0.5499 0.09999 0.04998 0
G5 0 1 0.1916 0.04999 0.1083 0  (6)
0 0 1 20.09333 20.03252 0.1697

Multiply row 3 by G13 5 0.5499 and subtract it from row 1; then multiply row 3 by
G23 5 0.1916 and subtract it from row 2 to obtain

3 4
1 0 0 0.1513 0.06787 20.09333
G5 0 1 0 0.06787 0.1145 20.03252  (7)
0 0 1 20.09333 20.03252 0.1697

Thus, the inverse of the given matrix A is

3 4
0.1513 0.06787 20.09333
A21 5 0.06787 0.1145 20.03252  Ans
20.09333 20.03252 0.1697

Finally, we check our computations by using the relationship AA21 5 I:

3 43 4
13 26 6 0.1513 0.06787 20.09333
AA 21
5 26 12 21 0.06787 0.1145 20.03252 
6 21 9 20.09333 20.03252 0.1697

3
0.9997 0.0002 0
5 0
0
0.9993
0
0
0.9998 4 < I Checks

Summary
In this chapter, we discussed the basic concepts of matrix algebra that are nec-
essary for formulating the matrix methods of structural analysis:
1. A matrix is defined as a rectangular array of quantities (elements) ar-
ranged in rows and columns. The size of a matrix is measured by its number of
rows and columns, and is referred to as its order.
2. Two matrices are considered to be equal if they are of the same order,
and if their corresponding elements are identical.
3. Two matrices of the same order can be added (or subtracted) by adding
(or subtracting) their corresponding elements.

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46  Chapter 2   Matrix Algebra

4. The matrix multiplication AB 5 C is defined only if the number

of columns of the first matrix A equals the number of rows of the second
matrix B. Any element Cij of the product matrix C can be evaluated by using
the relationship
m
Cij 5 oA B
k51
ik kj
(2.6)

where m is the number of columns of A, or the number of rows of B. Matrix

multiplication is generally not commutative; that is, AB ? BA.
5. The transpose of a matrix is obtained by interchanging its correspond-
ing rows and columns. If C is a symmetric matrix, then CT 5 C. Another useful
property of matrix transposition is that
(AB)T 5 BTAT (2.15)

6. A matrix can be differentiated (or integrated) by differentiating (or in-

tegrating) each of its elements.
7. The inverse of a square matrix A is defined as a matrix A21, which
satisfies the relationship:
AA21 5 A21A 5 I (2.17)

8. If the inverse of a matrix equals its transpose, the matrix is called an

orthogonal matrix.
9. The Gauss-Jordan method of solving simultaneous equations essen-
tially involves successively eliminating each unknown from all but one of the
equations of the system by performing the following operations: dividing an
equation by a scalar; and multiplying an equation by a scalar and subtracting
the resulting equation from another equation. These elementary operations are
applied repeatedly until a system with each equation containing only one un-
known is obtained.

P r o b lems

Section 2.3 2.3 Determine the products C 5 AB and D 5 BA if

34
2.1 Determine the matrices C 5 A 1 B and D 5 A 2 B if 25
2
A5   B 5 [3 27 1 26]

3 4 3 4
9 23 2 8 27 21 28
A5 3 25 4 B 5 27 9 0 4
22 24 6 21 0 26
2.4 Determine the products C 5 AB and D 5 BA if
2.2 Determine the matrices C 5 2A 1 B and D 5 A 2 3B if

3 4
2 210

3 4
3 4 3 4
6 21 28 24 5 22 4 1 1 210 22 26 6 21
A5   B 5
A 5 28 24 3 6 B5 4 5 26 7 3 28 212 8 22 10
25 22 23 7 21 2 8 25 5 9

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 Problems  47

2.5 Determine the products C 5 AB and D 5 BA if 2.13 Determine the derivative dA/dx if

3 4 3 4
5 7 22 2 28 1

3
sin2 x

4
23x3 26x
A5 7 9 0 B 5 28 3 5 A 5 26x2 cos2 x 5
22 0 8 1 5 6 7 3 sin x tan x
2.6 Determine the products C 5 AB if
2.14 Determine the derivative d(A 1 B)/dx if

3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4
3 4 2 8 1 6 22 23x 5 2x2 2x
A5 2 3 28 B5 6 22 5 8 4x 2x3
2
212x 8
A5 B5
23 0 6 3 0 21 0 27 5x 2x3 23x2
2x3 2x2 21 6x
2.7 Develop a computer program to determine the matrix product
C 5 AB of two conformable matrices A and B of any order. Check 2.15 Determine the derivative d(AB)/dx if
the program by solving Problems 2.4–2.6 and comparing the com-
puter-generated results to those determined by hand calculations.

3 4 3 4
4x 2 25x2 25x3 2x
2.8 Show that (AB)T 5 BTAT by using the following matrices A5 2 23x3 2x B5 6 23x2
25x2 2x 7 2x2 4x

3 4
12 27 6 0
   A 5 3 14
23
25
18
11
29 4 B5 2
10
9
24
15
25
213
8
2.16 Determine the partial derivatives −A/−x, −A/−y, and
−A/−z, if

3
x2

4
2.9 Show that (ABC)T 5 CTBTAT by using the following ma- 2y2 22z2
trices A 5 2y2 3xy 2yz
2z2 2yz 4xz

3 4
29 0

A5
13
8
20
23
B5 3156 21
16
24
9 4 2.17 Calculate the integral e0L A dx if

211 25

3 4
6x2 2x3 9
A 5 2x3 2x4 4x

3 4
27 10 6 0
C 5 21 2 28 22 9 4x 5x3
16 12 2 8 2.18 Calculate the integral e0L A dx if

2.10 Determine the matrix triple product C 5 BTAB if

3
2x 2sin x 2 cos2 x
A 5 2sin x 5 24x3
4
3 4 3 4
40 210 225 5 7 23
2 cos2 x 24x3 (1 2 x2)
A 5 210 15 12 B 5 27 8 4
225 12 30 23 24 9 2.19 Calculate the integral e0L AB dx if

2.11 Determine the matrix triple product C 5 BTAB if

3 4
22x x2
A5
2x3
2x 3 2x2 3
2x3 4 B5 5 22x

3 4
300 2100 2x2
A5 3x3 23
2100 200
2.20 Determine whether the matrices A and B given below are
B53 4
0.6 0.8 20.6 20.8
orthogonal matrices.
20.8 0.6 0.8 20.6

3 4
20.28 20.96 0 0
2.12 Develop a computer program to determine the matrix tri-
ple product C 5 BTAB, where A is a square matrix of any order. 0.96 20.28 0 0
A5
Check the program by solving Problems 2.10 and 2.11 and com- 0 0 20.28 20.96
paring the results to those determined by hand calculations. 0 0 0.96 20.28

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48  Chapter 2   Matrix Algebra

3 4
20.28 0.96 0 0 2.25 2x1 2 5x2 1 8x3 1 11x4 5 39
0.96 2 0.28 0 0 10x1 1 7x2 1 4x3 2 x4 5 127
B5
0 0 2 0.28 0.96 2 3x1 1 9x2 1 5x3 2 6x4 5 58
0 0 0.96 2 0.28 x1 2 4x2 2 2x3 1 9x4 5 214
2.26 Develop a computer program to solve a system of simulta-
Section 2.4 neous equations of any size by the Gauss-Jordan method. Check
the program by solving Problems 2.21 through 2.25 and com-
2.21 through 2.25 Solve the following systems of simultane- paring the computer-generated results to those determined by
ous equations by the Gauss-Jordan method. hand calculations.
2.27 through 2.30 Determine the inverse of the matrices shown
2.21 2x1 2 3x2 1 x3 5 218 by the Gauss-Jordan method.
29x1 1 5x2 1 3x3 5 18

3 4
4x1 1 7x2 2 8x3 5 53 5 3 24
2.27 A5 3 8 22
2.22 20x1 2 9x2 1 15x3 5 354 24 22 7
29x1 1 16x2 2 5x3 5 2275

3 4
15x1 2 5x2 1 18x3 5 307 6 24 1
2.28 A 5 21 9 3
2.23 4x1 2 2x2 1 3x3 5 37.2 4 2 5
3x1 1 5x2 2 x3 5 27.2

3 4
7 26 3 22
x1 2 4x2 1 2x3 5 30.3
26 4 21 5
2.29 A5
2.24 6x1 1 15x2 2 24x3 1 40x4 5 190.9 3 21 8 9
15x1 1 9x2 2 13x3 5 69.8 22 5 9 2

3 4
224x1 2 13x2 1 8x3 2 11x4 5 296.3 5 27 23 11
40x1 2 11x3 1 5x4 5 119.35 10 26 213 2
2.30 
A5
21 12 8 24
29 7 25 6

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