Resource Booklet - Atomic & Nuclear Physics

Key Concept- Relationships

Related Concepts- Consequences, Evidence

Global Context- Scientific and Technical innovation

Statement of Inquiry- The consequences of using nuclear energy provide evidence of

how the relationship between humans and nature can be affected by scientific and
technological advancements.

Atomic Model
Dalton's Atomic model
John Dalton published his ideas about atoms in 1803. He thought that all matter is made of atoms,
which he imagined as tiny solid balls. Dalton's model included these ideas:
atoms cannot be broken down into anything simpler
the atoms of a given element are identical to each other
the atoms of different elements are different from one another
The Dalton model has changed over time because of the work of other scientists.

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J J Thomson Atomic Model
In the 100 years after Dalton's model of the atom, a number of chemists tried to work out the
structure of the atom. In 1904, J J Thomson proposed a new model for the atom. This model
showed a positively charged sphere, with negative electronsembedded - like currants in a
Christmas pudding. This was called the plum pudding model.

The plum pudding model

Rutherford’s, Geiger–Marsden Experiment

In 1909 a group of scientists were investigating the Plum Pudding model
Physicist, Ernest Rutherford was instructing two of his students, Hans Geiger and Ernest
Marsden to carry out the experiment
This involved the scattering of alpha (α) particles by a sheet of thin metal supports the nuclear
model of the atom
A beam of alpha particles (He2+ ions) were directed at a thin gold foil
They expected the alpha particles to travel through the gold foil, and maybe change direction a
small amount
Instead, they discovered that :
Most of the alpha particles passed straight through the foil
Some of the alpha particles changed direction but continued through the foil
A few of the alpha particles bounced back off the gold foil
The bouncing back could not be explained by the Plum Pudding model, so a new model had to
be created
This was the first evidence of the structure of the atom

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 When α-particles are fired at thin gold foil, most of them go straight through but a very small
number bounce straight back
When α-particles are fired at thin pieces of gold foil:
The majority of them go straight through (A)
This happens because the atom is mainly empty space
Some are deflected through small angles (B)
This happens because the positive α-particles are repelled by the positive nucleus which
contains most of its mass
A very small number are deflected straight back (C)
This is because the nucleus is extremely small

Rutherford Scatterin
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What Are The Different Atomic Models? Dalton, Rutherford, Bohr and Heisenberg
Atomic Models: Centuries ago, people didn’t know exactly what was inside an atom, but they had some “ideas”. Ar
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Rutherford Scattering and Size of Nucleus - JavaLab

Discovery of nuclear At the beginning of the 20th century, there was little known about the structure of atoms exc
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Rutherford Scattering - JavaLab

Discovery of nuclei At the beginning of the 20th century, little was known about atoms’ structure, except that ato
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Atomic Structure

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 Structure of an Atom - JavaLab
The discovery process of the atom Democritus (Ancient Greece) – Predict the presence of an atom Dalton (UK, 18
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Build an Ato
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Atoms are the building blocks of all matter

They are incredibly small, with a radius of only 1 × 10-10 m
This means that about one hundred million atoms could fit side by side across your thumbnail
Atoms have a tiny, dense nucleus at their centre, with electrons orbiting around the nucleus
The radius of the nucleus is over 10,000 times smaller than the whole atom, but it contains almost
all of the mass of the atom
They consist of small dense positively charged nuclei, surrounded by negatively charged
electrons

An atom: a small positive nucleus, surrounded by negative electrons

(Note: the atom is around 100,000 times larger than the nucleus!)

Atoms & Ions

Build an Ato
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An ion is an electrically charged atom or group of atoms formed by the loss or gain of electrons
An atom will lose or gain electrons to become more stable
A stable atom is normally electrically neutral

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 This means it has the same number of protons (positive charge) and electrons (negative
charge)
Positive ions are therefore formed when atoms lose electrons
There will be more protons than electrons
Negative ions are therefore formed when atoms gain electrons
There will be more electrons than protons
The difference between positive and negative ions

Exam Tip
You may hear the term 'net charge'. This just means the 'overall' charge of the atom. If an atom has 5
protons, 5 neutrons and 6 electrons, it has a net negative charge because it's a negative ion (more
electrons than protons).
Remember which way around the charges are by proton being positive.

Isotopes
Isotopes and Atomic Mas
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Although the number of protons in a particular element is always the same, the number of
neutrons can be different
Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have an equal number of protons but a different
number of neutrons
This means that each element can have more than one isotope
Isotopes tend to be more unstable due to their imbalance of protons and neutrons
This means they're more likely to decay
In the diagram below are three isotopes of Hydrogen:

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Hydrogen has three isotopes, each with a different number of neutrons
Isotopes occur naturally, but some are more rare than others
For example, about 2 in every 10,000 Hydrogen atoms is Deuterium
Tritium is even more rare (about 1 in every billion billion hydrogen atoms)

Describing the Nucleus

Build a Nucleu
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Define the terms proton number (atomic number) Z and nucleon number (mass number) A and be able
to calculate the number of neutrons in a nucleus

Proton Number, Z
The number of protons in an atom is called its proton number (it can also be called the atomic
number)
Elements in the periodic table are ordered by their atomic number
Therefore, the number of protons determines which element an atom is
The atomic number of a particular element is always the same
For example:
Hydrogen has an atomic number of 1. It always has just one proton
Sodium has an atomic number of 11. It has 11 protons
Uranium has an atomic number of 92. It has 92 protons
The atomic number is also equal to the number of electrons in an atom
This is because atoms have the same number of electrons and protons in order to have no
overall charge

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Nucleon Number, A
The total number of particles in the nucleus of an atom is called its nucleon number
(or massnumber)
The mass number is the number of protons and neutrons in the atom
The number of neutrons can be found by subtracting the atomic number from the mass number
Number of Neutrons = Nucleon Number - Proton Number
For example, if a sodium atom has a mass number of 23 and an atomic number of 11, then the
number of neutrons would be 23 – 11 = 12

Exam Tip
You may have noticed that the number of electrons is not part of the mass number. This is because
electrons have a tiny mass compared to neutrons and protons. We say their mass is negligible when
compared to the particles in the nucleus.

Nuclide Notation
A nuclide is a group of atoms containing the same number of protons and neutrons
For example, 5 atoms of oxygen are all the same nuclide but are 5 separate atoms
Atomic symbols are written in a specific notation called nuclide or AZX notation

Atomic symbols in A-Z-X Notation describe the constituents of nuclei

The top number A represents the nucleon number or the mass number
Nucleon number (A) = total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus
The lower number Z represents the proton or atomic number
Proton number (Z) = total number of protons in the nucleus
Note: In Chemistry, the nucleon number is referred to as the mass number and the proton number
as the atomic number. The periodic table is ordered by atomic number
An example of an atomic symbol is:

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Atomic symbols, like the one above, describe the constituents of nuclei
When given an atomic symbol, you can figure out the total number of protons, neutrons and
electrons in the atom:
Protons: The number of protons is equal to the proton number
Electrons: Atoms are neutral, and so in a neutral atom the number of negative electrons must
be equal to the number of positive protons
Neutrons: The number of neutrons can be found by subtracting the proton number from the
nucleon number
The term nucleon is used to mean a particle in the nucleus – ie. either a proton or a neutron
The term nuclide is used to refer to a nucleus with a specific combination of protons and neutrons

Nuclear Charge and Mass

The different particles that make up atoms have different properties
Relative mass is a way of comparing particles. It is measured in atomic mass units (amu)
A relative mass of 1 is equal to mass of 1.67 × 10-27 kg
Charge can be positive or negative
Relative charge is, again, used to compare particles
The fundamental charge is equal to the size of the charge on a proton and an electron, however
the electron's charge is negative
The properties of each of the particles are shown in the table below:
Table of Relative Charge & Mass

If have a particle has 0 relative charge, this means it is neutral

Nuclear Charge
Nuclear charge is normally stated as the relative charge of the nucleus
The term 'relative' refers to the charge of the particle divided by the charge of the proton
The proton number is the number of protons in a nucleus
Since nuclei are made up of only protons and neutrons, the proton number determines the relative
charge on a nucleus

Exam Tip

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Charge can be either positive (+) or negative (–). Therefore, remember to include the sign when
writing the relative charge!

Nuclear Mass
Nuclear mass is stated as the relative mass of the nucleus
The term 'relative' refers to the mass of the particle divided by the mass of the proton
The mass number is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus
The nucleon number (mass number) determines the relative mass of a nucleus

Exam Tip
The relative mass of a nucleus only includes the protons and neutrons. However, this is pretty much
the relative mass of the whole atom because electrons have negligible (very little) mass in comparison
to the proton and neutron.

Fission & Fusion

Nuclear Chain Reaction - JavaLab
Caution This simulation is intended to understand the principle of fission, and the proportions of the model presen
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Nuclear Fission
There is a lot of energy stored within the nucleus of an atom
This energy can be released in a nuclear reaction such as fission
Nuclear fission is defined as:
The splitting of a large, unstable nucleus into two smaller nuclei
Isotopes of uranium and plutonium both undergo fission and are used as fuels in nuclear power
stations
During fission, when a neutron collides with an unstable nucleus, the nucleus splits into two
smaller nuclei (called daughter nuclei) as well as two or three neutrons
Gamma rays are also emitted

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Large nuclei can decay by fission to produce smaller nuclei and neutrons with a lot of kinetic
energy
The products of fission move away very quickly
Energy transferred is from nuclear potential energy to kinetic energy
The mass of the products (daughter nuclei and neutrons) is less than the mass of the original
nucleus
This is because the remaining mass has been converted into energy which is released during
the fission process
The processes involved in nuclear fission can be shown in different ways as diagrams
These diagrams show how the reaction happens in a way that is easy to understand

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 The diagram above is useful because it shows clearly the different parts of the fission reaction
An example of a nuclide equation for fission is:

The above equation represents a fission reaction in which a Uranium nucleus is hit with a neutron
and splits into two smaller nuclei – a Krypton nucleus and a Barium nucleus, releasing three
neutrons in the process
The sum of top (nucleon) numbers on the left-hand side equals the sum of top number on the
right-hand side:
235 + 1 = 92 + 141 + (3 × 1)
The same is true for the lower (proton) numbers:
92 + 0 = 36 + 56 + (2 × 0)

Nuclear Fusion
Small nuclei can react to release energy in a process called nuclear fusion
Nuclear fusion is defined as:
When two light nuclei join to form a heavier nucleus
This process requires extremely high temperatures to maintain
This is why nuclear fusion has proven very hard to reproduce on Earth
Stars use nuclear fusion to produce energy
In most stars, hydrogen atoms are fused together to form helium and produce lots of energy

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Two hydrogen nuclei are fusing to form a helium nuclei
The energy produced during nuclear fusion comes from a very small amount of the particle’s mass
being converted into energy
Albert Einstein described the mass-energy equivalence with his famous equation:
E = m × c2
Where:
E = energy released from fusion in Joules (J)
m = mass converted into energy in kilograms (kg)
c = the speed of light in metres per second (m/s)

Therefore, the mass of the product (fused nucleus) is less than the mass of the two original nuclei
This is because the remaining mass has been converted into energy which is released when
the nuclei fuse
The amount of energy released during nuclear fusion is huge:
The energy from 1 kg of hydrogen that undergoes fusion is equivalent to the energy from
burning about 10 million kilograms of coal
An example of a nuclide equation for fusion is:

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 Fission vs. Fusion: What’s the Difference?
All of the energy we produce comes from basic chemical and physical processes.That’s mostly been accomplished thro
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Nuclear Reactions in Stars

The energy of the stars comes from nuclear fusion processes. For stars like the sun which have
internal temperatures less than fifteen million Kelvin, the dominant fusion process is proton-proton
fusion. For more massive stars which can achieve higher temperatures, the carbon cycle fusion
becomes the dominant mechanism. For older stars which are collapsing at the center, the temperature
can exceed one hundred million Kelvin and initiate the helium fusion process called the triple-alpha
process.
Another class of nuclear reactions is responsible for the nuclear synthesis of elements heavier than
iron.

Nuclear Fusion in Stars

The enormous luminous energy of the stars comes from nuclear fusion processes in their centers.
Depending upon the age and mass of a star, the energy may come from proton-proton fusion, helium
fusion, or the carbon cycle. For brief periods near the end of the luminous lifetime of stars, heavier
elements up to iron may fuse, but since the iron group is at the peak of the binding energy curve, the
fusion of elements more massive than iron would soak up energy rather than deliver it. While the iron
group is the upper limit in terms of energy yield by fusion, heavier elements are created in the stars by
another class of nuclear reactions. This nuclear synthesis of elements heavier than iron uses energy
rather than supplies it.

Nuclear power station

HOW A NUCLEAR POWER PLANT WORKS ?.. || NUCLEAR REACTION || 3D ANIMATION ||
HOW A NUCLEAR POWER PLANT WORKS ?.. || NUCLEAR REACTION || 3D ANIMATION || LEARN FROM THE BASE-
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 https://www.nuclearinst.com/Nuclear-Reactor-Simulator

The main nuclear fuels are uranium and plutonium. In a nuclear power station, nuclear fuel undergoes
a controlled chain reaction in the reactor to produce heat - nuclear energy is converted to heat energy:
heat is used to change water into steam in the boiler
the steam drives the turbine (heat to kinetic energy)
this drives the generator to produce electricity - kinetic to electrical energy
Control Rods & Moderators:
In a nuclear reactor, a chain reaction is required to keep the reactor running
When the reactor is producing energy at the correct rate, two factors must be controlled:
The number of free neutrons in the reactor
The energy of the free neutrons
To do this, nuclear reactors contain control rods and moderators

The overall purpose of a nuclear reactor is to collect the heat energy produced from nuclear
reactions
Control Rods:
Purpose of a control rod: To absorb neutrons
Control rods are made of a material which absorb neutrons without becoming dangerously
unstable themselves
The number of neutrons absorbed is controlled by varying the depth of the control rods in the fuel
rods
Lowering the rods further decreases the rate of fission, as more neutrons are absorbed
Raising the rods increases the rate of fission, as fewer neutrons are absorbed

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 This is adjusted automatically so that exactly one fission neutron produced by each fission event
goes on to cause another fission
In the event the nuclear reactor needs to shut down, the control rods can be lowered all the way so
no reaction can take place
Moderator:
The purpose of a moderator: To slow down neutrons
The moderator is a material that surrounds the fuel rods and control rods inside the reactor core
The fast-moving neutrons produced by the fission reactions slow down by colliding with the
molecules of the moderator, causing them to lose some momentum
The neutrons are slowed down so that they are in thermal equilibrium with the moderator, hence
the term ‘thermal neutron’
This ensures neutrons can react efficiently with the uranium fuel
Shielding:
The entire nuclear reactor is surrounded by shielding materials
The purpose of shielding is to absorb hazardous radiation
The daughter nuclei formed during fission, and the neutrons emitted, are radioactive
The reactor is surrounded by a steel and concrete wall that can be nearly 2 metres thick
This absorbs the emissions from the reactions
It ensures that the environment around the reactor is safe

Shielding metals in a nuclear reactor

Advantages & Disadvantages of Nuclear Power

Advantages of using nuclear power include:
Extensive reserves of fissionable materials
Increasingly refine technology available

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 No greenhouse gases produced
A large amount of power is produced
Disadvantages of using nuclear power include:
Hazardous radioactive waste materials produced
Dangerous if the power plant goes significantly wrong
Danger of misuse of nuclear material
Problems with mining fuel

Detecting Radiation (Geiger–Müller tube)

Geiger-Müller Tube (Virtual Lab)
Measure half-fife and compare the penetration power of different types of radiation in a free online lab.
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It is important to regulate the exposure of humans to radiation

The amount of radiation received by a person is called the dose
Ionising nuclear radiation is measured using a detector connected to a counter

Count Rate
Count rate is the number of decays per second recorded by a detector and recorded by the
counter
It is measured in counts/s or counts/min
The count rate decreases the further the detector is from the source
This is because the radiation becomes more spread out the further away it is from the source

Geiger–Müller tube
The Geiger-Müller tube is the most common device used to measure and detect radiation
Each time it absorbs radiation, it transmits an electrical pulse to a counting machine
This makes a clicking sound or displays the count rate
The greater the frequency of clicks, or the higher the count rate, the more radiation the Geiger-
Müller tube is absorbing
Therefore, it matters how close the tube is to the radiation source
The further away from the source, the lower the count rate detected

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A Geiger-Müller tube (or Geiger counter) is a common type of radiation detector
Examples of other radiation detectors include:
Photographic film (often used in badges)
Ionisation chambers
Scintillation counters
Spark counters

Accounting for Background Radiation

EXTENDED
Background radiation must be accounted for when taking readings in a laboratory
This can be done by taking readings with no radioactive source present and then subtracting this
from readings with the source present
This is known as the corrected count rate

What is a GM Counter / Geiger Muller Counter? - explained simply and clearly

Geiger Muller Counters, or GM Counters, are used to measure nuclear particle. A Geiger Muller Counter works on t
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Background Radiation
It is important to remember that radiation is a natural phenomenon
Radioactive elements have always existed on Earth and in outer space
However, human activity has added to the amount of radiation that humans are exposed to on
Earth
Background radiation is defined as:
The radiation that exists around us all the time

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 There are two types of background radiation:
Natural sources
Man-made sources

Background radiation is the radiation that is present all around in the environment. Radon gas is
given off from some types of rock
Every second of the day there is some radiation emanating from natural sources such as:
Rocks
Cosmic rays from space
Foods
Although most background radiation is natural, a small amount of it comes from artificial sources,
such as medical procedures (including X-rays)
Levels of background radiation can vary significantly from place to place

Sources of Background Radiation

Background radiation can come from natural sources on Earth or space and man-made sources

Natural Sources
Radon gas (in the air)
Airborne radon comes from the ground
This is from the natural decay of uranium in rocks and soil
The gas is tasteless, colourless and oderless but it not generally a health issue
Rocks and Buildings
Heavy radioactive elements, such as uranium and thorium, occur naturally in rocks in the
ground
Uranium decays into radon gas, which is an alpha emitter

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 This is particularly dangerous if inhaled into the lungs in large quantities
Natural radioactivity can be found in building materials, including decorative rocks, stone and
brick
Cosmic rays from space
The sun emits an enormous number of protons every second
Some of these enter the Earth’s atmosphere at high speeds
When they collide with molecules in the air, this leads to the production of gamma radiation
Other sources of cosmic rays are supernovae and other high energy cosmic events
Carbon-14 in biological material
All organic matter contains a tiny amount of carbon-14
Living plants and animals constantly replace the supply of carbon in their systems hence the
amount of carbon-14 in the system stays almost constant
Radioactive material in food and drink
Naturally occurring radioactive elements can get into food and water since they are in contact
with rocks and soil containing these elements
Some foods contain higher amounts such as potassium-40 in bananas
However, the amount of radioactive material is minuscule and is not a cause for concern

Man-Made Sources
Medical sources
In medicine, radiation is utilised all the time
Uses include X-rays, CT scans, radioactive tracers, and radiation therapy
Nuclear waste
While nuclear waste itself does not contribute much to background radiation, it can be
dangerous for the people handling it
Nuclear fallout from nuclear weapons
Fallout is the residue radioactive material that is thrown into the air after a nuclear explosion,
such as the bomb that exploded at Hiroshima
While the amount of fallout in the environment is presently very low, it would increase
significantly in areas where nuclear weapons are tested
Nuclear accidents
Accidents such as that in Chernobyl contributed a large dose of radiation into the environment
While these accidents are now extremely rare, they can be catastrophic and render areas
devastated for centuries

Exam Tip
The sources that make the most significant contribution are the natural sources:
Radon gas
Rocks and buildings
Food and drink
Cosmic rays

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Make sure you remember these for your exam!

Uses of Radiation
Radiation is used in a number of different ways:
Medical procedures including diagnosis and treatment of cancer
Sterilising food (irradiating food to kill bacteria)
Sterilising medical equipment (using gamma rays)
Determining the age of ancient artefacts
Checking the thickness of materials
Smoke detectors (alarms)
The properties of the different types of radiation determine which one is used in a particular
application

Smoke Detectors
Alpha particles are used in smoke detectors
The alpha radiation will normally ionise the air within the detector, creating a current
The alpha emitter is blocked when smoke enters the detector
The alarm is triggered by a microchip when the sensor no longer detects alpha

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In the diagram on the right, alpha particles are stopped by the smoke, preventing the flow of
current and triggering the alarm

Measuring the Thickness of Materials

Radiation can be used for tracing and gauging thickness
Mostly commonly this is beta particles
As a material moves above a beta source, the particles that are able to penetrate it can be
monitored using a detector
If the material gets thicker, more particles will be absorbed, meaning that less will get through
If the material gets thinner the opposite happens
This allows the machine to make adjustments to keep the thickness of the material constant

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Beta particles can be used to measure the thickness of thin materials such as paper, cardboard
or aluminium foil
Beta radiation is used because it will be partially absorbed by the material
If alpha particles were used all of them would be absorbed and none would get through
If gamma were used almost all of it would get through and the detector would not be able to
sense any difference if the thickness were to change

Diagnosis and Treatment of Cancer

Radiotherapy is the name given to the treatment of cancer using radiation
(Chemotherapy is treatment using chemicals)
Although radiation can cause cancer, it is also highly effective at treating it
Radiation can kill living cells. Some cells, such as bacteria and cancer cells, are more susceptible
to radiation than others
Beams of gamma rays are directed at the cancerous tumour
Gamma rays are used because they are able to penetrate the body, reaching the tumour
The beams are moved around to minimise harm to healthy tissue whilst still being aimed at the
tumour
A tracer is a radioactive isotope that can be used to track the movement of substances, like blood,
around the body
A PET scan can detect the emissions from a tracer to diagnose cancer and determine the
location of a tumour

Radiation therapy to remove a tumour

Sterilising Food and Medical Equipment

Gamma radiation is widely used to sterilise medical equipment
Gamma is most suited to this because:

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 It is the most penetrating out of all the types of radiation
It is penetrating enough to irradiate all sides of the instruments
Instruments can be sterilised without removing the packaging
Food can be irradiated in order to kill any microorganisms that are present on it
This makes the food last longer, and reduces the risk of food-borne infections

Food that has been irradiated carries this symbol, called the Radura. Different countries allow
different foods to be irradiated

Exam Tip
If you are presented with an unfamiliar situation in your exam don’t panic! Just apply your
understanding of the properties of alpha, beta and gamma radiation. Mainly think about the range
(how far it can travel) and ionising power of the radiation to help understand which radiation is used in
which situation.

Uses Of Nuclear Radiation | Radioactivity | Physics | FuseSchool

Uses of Nuclear RadiationWhat have the Hulk and Spiderman got in common? They both gained their super powers bec
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Dangers of Radioactivity
Is radiation dangerous? - Matt Anticole
View full lesson: http://ed.ted.com/lessons/is-radiation-dangerous-matt-anticoleWhen we hear the word radiation,
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Ionising radiation can damage human cells and tissues at high doses:
This could be in terms of:
Cell death
Tissue damage

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 Mutations
Cancer
As a result, its use needs to be kept to a minimum
However, the benefits of using radiation in medicine can out way the potential risks
The risks posed by the radiation are smaller than the risks associated with leaving the condition
untreated
For example, if a person has a cancerous tumour that is likely to kill them, then it is less of a risk to
use radiotherapy than to leave the tumour

Tissue Damage
Radiation is effectively used to destroy cancerous tumour cells
However, it can cause damage to healthy tissue if it is not properly targeted
This is mostly from high-energy radiation such as gamma rays and X-rays

Mutations
If the atoms that make up a DNA strand are ionised then the DNA strand can be damaged
If the DNA is damaged then the cell may die, or the DNA may be mutated when it reforms
If a mutated cell is able to replicate itself then a tumour may form
This is an example of cancer, which is a significant danger of radiation exposure

Diagram showing the damage caused to DNA by ionising radiation. Sometimes the cell is able to
successfully repair the DNA, but incorrect repairs can cause a mutation
Acute radiation exposure can have other serious symptoms:
It can cause skin burns, similar to severe sunburn
Radiation can reduce the amount of white blood cells in the body, making a person more
susceptible to infections by lowering their immune system

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 Because of this, it is very important to handle radioactive sources carefully

Safe Storage
The risks associated with handling radioactive sources can be minimised by following a few simple
procedures:
Store the sources in lead-lined boxes and keep at a distance from people
Minimise the amount of time you handle sources for and return them to their boxes as soon as
you have finished using them
During use, keep yourself (and other people) as far from the sources as feasible. When
handling the sources do so at arm’s length, using a pair of tongs

Radioactivity warning sign

When using tongs, gloves and safety specs are usually unnecessary when handling radioactive
materials, unless there is a risk of the material leaking on to things

Disposing of Radioactive Waste

If an isotope has a long half-life then a sample of it will decay slowly
Although it may not emit a lot of radiation, it will remain radioactive for a very long time
Sources with long half-life values present a risk of contamination for a much longer time
Radioactive waste with a long half-life is buried underground to prevent it from being released into
the environment

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Radioactive waste with long half lifes are buried deep underground

Safety Precautions
EXTENDED
To mitigate the risks of radiation exposure, there are some safe practices that should be used:
Radioactive sources should be kept in a shielded container when not in use, for example, a
lead-lined box
Radioactive materials should only be handled when wearing gloves, and with tongs to increase
the distance from them
It may be appropriate to wear protective clothing to prevent the body becoming contaminated

The time that a radioactive source is being used for should be limited

Regulating Exposure
Because of the harmful effects of radiation, it is important to regulate the exposure of humans to
radiation
The amount of radiation received by a person is called the dose and is measured in sieverts (Sv)
One sievert is a very big dose of radiation
It would cause acute radiation poisoning
People would normally receive about 3 mSv (0.003 Sv) in one year
To protect against over-exposure, the dose received by different activities is measured
A dosemeter measures the amount of radiation in particular areas and is often worn my
radiographers, or anyone working with radiation

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A dosemeter, or radiation badge, can be worn by a person working with radiation in order to
keep track of the amount of radiation they are receiving

Differences in Exposure
The amount of radiation that a person receives is affected by a person’s occupation, lifestyle
orlocation
Some areas around the world have higher background radiation because they are closer to
sources of radiation
People that work with nuclear radiation receive more radiation
The UK limit for nuclear industry employees is 20 mSv in one year
The diagram below compares the dose received by some different activities

All living things emit a small amount of radiation: the amount of radiation within a banana is tiny,
and not at all dangerous!

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Radioactive Decay
Build a Nucleu
https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/build-a-nucleus/latest/build-a-nucleus_en.html
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Some atomic nuclei are unstable

This is because of an imbalance in the forces within the nucleus
Forces exist between the particles in the nucleus
This is commonly due to the nucleus have too many protons or neutrons
Carbon-14 is an isotope of carbon which is unstable
It has two extra neutrons compared to stable carbon-12

Carbon-12 is stable, whereas carbon-14 is unstable. This is because carbon-14 has two extra
neutrons
Some isotopes are unstable because of their large size or because they have too many or too few
neutrons
Unstable nuclei can emit radiation to become more stable
Radiation can be in the form of a high energy particle or wave

28
s‬
Unstable nuclei decay by emitting high energy particles or waves
As the radiation moves away from the nucleus, it takes some energy with it
This reduces the overall energy of the nucleus
This makes the nucleus more stable
The process of emitting radiation is called radioactive decay
Radioactive decay is a random process
This means it is not possible to know exactly when a particular nucleus will decay
It cannot be predicted when a particular unstable nucleus will decay
This is because radioactive decay is a random process, this means that:
There is an equal probability of any nucleus decaying
It cannot be known which particular nucleus will decay next
It cannot be known at what time a particular nucleus will decay
The rate of decay is unaffected by the surrounding conditions
It is only possible to estimate the probability of a nuclei decaying in a given time period
Therefore, the emission of radiation is:
Spontaneous
Random in direction

Marie Curie's Interactive Simulation | CK-12 Exploration Series

"Study the basics of radioactive decay and the properties of atomic nuclei in Marie Curie's laboratory and classroo
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Types of Radioactive Decay

When an unstable nucleus decays, it emits radiation called nuclear radiation
There are different types of radiation that can be emitted:
Alpha (α) particles
Beta (β-) particles
Gamma (γ) radiation

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a
m
 These changes are spontaneous and random

Alpha Particles
The symbol for alpha is α
An alpha particle is the same as a helium nucleus
This is because they consist of two neutrons and two protons
Alpha particles have a charge of +2
This means they can be affected by an electric field

Beta Particles
The symbol for beta is β-
Beta particles are fast-moving electrons
They are produced in nuclei when a neutron changes into a proton and an electron
Beta particles have a charge of -1
This means they can be affected by an electric field

Gamma Rays
The symbol for gamma is γ
Gamma rays are electromagnetic waves
They have the highest energy of the different types of electromagnetic waves
Gamma rays have no charge

Alpha particles, beta particles and gamma waves can be emitted from unstable nuclei

Alpha, Beta & Gamma Emission

α, β and γ radiation can be identified by the emission from a nucleus by recalling their:

30
 Nature (what type of particle or radiation they are)
Their relative ionising effects (how easily they ionise other atoms)
Their relative penetrating abilities (how far can they travel before they are stopped completely)
The properties of Alpha, Beta and Gamma are given in this table, and then described in more detail
below
Different Properties of Nuclear Radiation

The trend down the table shows:

The range increases
Penetrating power increases
Ionisation decreases

Decay Equations
EXTENDED
Radioactive decay events can be shown using a decay equation
A decay equation is similar to a chemical reaction equation
The particles present before the decay are shown before the arrow
The particles produced in the decay are shown after the arrow
During decay equations the sum of the mass and atomic numbers before the reaction must be the
same as the sum of the mass and atomic numbers after the reaction
The following decay equation shows Polonium-212 undergoing alpha decay
It forms Lead-208 and an alpha particle
An alpha particle can also be written as a helium nucleus (Symbol He)

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The polonium nucleus emits an alpha particle, causing its mass and charge to decrease. This
means it changes into a new element

Alpha Decay Equation

When the alpha particle is emitted from the unstable nucleus, the mass number and atomic
number of the nucleus changes
The mass number decreases by 4
The atomic number decreases by 2

Alpha decay equation

Beta Decay Equation

During beta decay, a neutron changes into a proton and an electron
The electron is emitted and the proton remains in the nuclei

Beta decay equation

Gamma Decay
The gamma ray that is emitted has a lot of energy, but no mass or charge
Here is an example of Uranium-238 undergoing gamma decay
Notice that the mass number and atomic number of the unstable nuclei remains the same
during the decay

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Gamma decay equation

Exam Tip
You are not expected to know the names of the elements produced during radioactive decays, but you
do need to be able to calculate the mass and atomic numbers by making sure they are balanced on
either side of the reaction.

Penetrating Power
Alpha, beta and gamma have different properties
They penetrate materials in different ways
This means they are stopped by different materials

Alpha, beta and gamma are different in how they penetrate materials. Alpha is the least
penetrating, and gamma is the most penetrating
Alpha is stopped by paper, whereas beta and gamma pass through it

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 Beta is stopped by a few millimetres of aluminium
Gamma can pass through aluminium
Gamma rays are only partially stopped by thick lead

Exam Tip
Remembering the type of particle, penetration and ionising power for alpha, beta and gamma radiation
is very important for your exam! Often the exam question will give some clues and you will have to
choose which type of radiation it could be based off these.

Ionising Effect of Radiation

EXTENDED
Ionisation is the process of which an atom becomes negative or positive by gaining or losing
electrons
All nuclear radiation is capable of ionising atoms that it hits
When an atom is ionised, the number of electrons it has **changes
**
This is mostly done by knocking out an electron so the atom loses a negative charge and is left
overall positive

When radiation passes close to atoms it can knock out electrons, ionising the atom
Alpha is by far the most ionising form of radiation
Alpha particles leave a dense trail of ions behind them, affecting virtually every atom they meet
Because of this they quickly lose their energy and so have a short range
Their short range makes them relatively harmless if handled carefully, but they have the
potential to be extremely dangerous if the alpha emitter enters the body

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 Beta particles are moderately ionising
The particles create a less dense trail of ions than alpha, and consequently have a longer range
They tend to be more dangerous than alpha because they are able to travel further and
penetrate the skin, and yet are still ionising enough to cause significant damage
Gamma is the least ionising form of radiation (although it is still dangerous)
Because Gamma rays don’t produce as many ions as alpha or beta, they are more penetrating
and have a greater range
This can make them hazardous in large amounts
The ionising effects depend on the kinetic energy and charge of the type of radiation
The greater the charge of the radiation, the more ionising it is
This means alpha radiation is the most ionising as it has a charge of +2
A beta particle has a charge of –1 so is moderately ionising
This means gamma radiation is the least ionising as it has a charge of 0 (no charge)
The higher the kinetic energy of the radiation, the more ionising it is
This means alpha particle is still the most ionising because it has the greatest mass
However, a beta particle is very light (it is an electron) but travels at high speeds, therefore, it
has a lot of kinetic energy and is still moderately ionising
Gamma radiation has virtually no mass so is weakly ionising

Exam Tip
Remembering the properties of alpha, beta and gamma radiation really helps with deducing how much
ionising power they have. E.g. An alpha particle is a helium nucleus which contains two protons and
two neutrons. It therefore has a charge of +2 since each proton has a charge of +1 and a neutron has
no charge.

Deflection in Electric & Magnetic Fields

EXTENDED
A particle is deflected in an electric field if it has charge
A particle is deflected in a magnetic field if it has charge and is moving perpendicular to it
Therefore, since gamma (γ) particles have no charge, they are not deflected by either electric
or magnetic fields
Only alpha (α) and beta (β) particles are

Electric Fields
Alpha particles have a charge of +2 (charge of a helium nucleus)
Beta particles have a charge of +1 (charge of an electron)
Therefore, between an electric field created between a negatively charged and positively charged
plate
Alpha particles are deflected towards the negative plate
Beta particles are deflected towards the positive plate
Gamma radiation is not deflected and travels straight through between the plates

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Alpha and Beta particles can be deflected by electric fields
Alpha particles are heavier than beta particles
Therefore, beta particles are deflected more in the electric field and alpha is deflected less

Magnetic Fields
Similarly, alpha and beta particles are deflected by magnetic fields whilst they are moving
They are deflected in opposite directions due to their opposite charges

Alpha and Beta particles can also be deflected by magnetic fields

Exam Tip

36
It is important to note that because of their opposite charges, alpha and beta particles will deflect in
opposite directions. You do not need to know which direction alpha and beta particles are deflected in
a magnetic field (this is covered at DP-level) but you should know that they are deflected, whilst
gamma is not because they are charged and they deflect in opposite directions.

Half-Life
Half Life Period of a Radioactive Substance - JavaLab
Radioactive decay The radioactive material can collapse its own nucleus structure. At the same time, the nucleus
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It is impossible to know when a particular unstable nucleus will decay

But the rate at which the activity of a sample decreases can be known
This is known as the half-life
Half-life is defined as:
The time taken for half the nuclei of that isotope in any sample to decay
In other words, the time it takes for the activity of a sample to fall to half its original level
Different isotopes have different half-lives and half-lives can vary from a fraction of a second to
billions of years in length
Half-life can be determined from an activity–time graph

The graph shows how the activity of a radioactive sample changes over time. Each time the
original activity halves, another half-life has passed
The time it takes for the activity of the sample to decrease from 100 % to 50 % is the half-life
It is the same length of time as it would take to decrease from 50 % activity to 25 % activity
The half-life is constant for a particular isotope
Half-life can also be represented on a table
As the number of half life increases, the proportion of the isotope remaining halves

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Table For Number of Half Lives to Proportion of Isotope

Half-Life Graphs
To calculate the half-life of a sample from a graph:
Check the original activity (where the line crosses the y-axies), A0
Halve this value and look for this activity
Go across from the halved value (on the y-axis) to the best fit curve, and then straight down to
the x-axis
The point where you reach the x-axis should be the half-life
The time taken for the activity to decrease to half its original value is the half-life

Background Radiation
Background radiation is radiation that is always present in the environment around us
As a consequence, whenever an experiment involving radiation is carried out, some of the radiation
that is detected will be background radiation
When carrying out experiments to measure half-life, the presence of background radiation must be
taken into account

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When measuring radioactive emissions, some of the detected radiation will be background
To do this you must:
Start by measuring background radiation (with no sources present) – this is called your
background count
Then carry out your experiment
Subtract the background count from each of your readings, in order to give a corrected count
The corrected count is your best estimate of the radiation emitted from the source, and should
be used to measure its half-life

Exam Tip
When looking for the corresponding time for the activity, it is good practice to draw a line on the graph
with your ruler like is done in the mark scheme of the worked example. This ensures you're reading the
most accurate value possible.

half-life-Criteria B and C.pdf

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Radioactive Dating
Radioactive dating is a process by which the approximate age of an object is determined through
the use of certain radioactive nuclides. For example, carbon-14 has a half-life of 5,730 years and is
used to measure the age of organic material. The ratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12 in living things
remains constant while the organism is alive because fresh carbon-14 is entering the organism
whenever it consumes nutrients. When the organism dies, this consumption stops, and no new
carbon-14 is added to the organism. As time goes by, the ratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12 in the
organism gradually declines, because carbon-14 radioactively decays while carbon-12 is stable.
Analysis of this ratio allows archaeologists to estimate the age of organisms that were alive many
thousands of years ago.

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 Figure: Along with stable carbon-12, radioactive carbon-14 is taken in by plants and animals, and
remains at a constant level within them while they are alive. After death, the C-14 decays and the
C-14:C-12 ratio in the remains decreases. Comparing this ratio to the C-14:C-12 ratio in living
organisms allows us to determine how long ago the organism lived (and died). (CC-BY 4.0;
OpenStax).
C-14 dating does have limitations. For example, a sample can be C-14 dating if it is approximately
100 to 50,000 years old. Before or after this range, there is too little of the isotope to be detected.
Substances must have obtained C-14 from the atmosphere. For this reason, aquatic samples
cannot be effectively C-14 dated. Lastly, accuracy of C-14 dating has been affected by
atmosphere nuclear weapons testing. Fission bombs ignite to produce more C-14 artificially.
Samples tested during and after this period must be checked against another method of dating
(isotopic or tree rings).

How Does Radiocarbon Dating Work? - Instant Egghead #28

How do scientists determine the age of fossils that have been under the surface of the earth for thousands of year
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To calculate the age of a substance using isotopic dating, use the equation below:
how old (time) = n × t 1/2
n is the number of half-lives and t 1/2 is the half-life (in time).
Example: How long will it take for 18.0 grams of Ra-226 to decay to leave a total of 2.25 grams?
Ra-226 has a half-life of 1600 years.
Solution
18.0g 9.0g 4.5g 2.25g, this is three half-lives
how old (time)= 3×1600 years
This decay process takes 4800 years to occur.

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"Learn about how radiocarbon dating works and how anthropologists can use this method to figure out who long ago p
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 Criteria B and C Guide.pdf
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Worksheet

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