PHYSICAL HAZARDS

CHAPTER 1
PHYSICAL HAZARDS

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Contents
Element 1- Overview................................................................................................................................... 17
1.1 Types of physical hazards.................................................................................................................. 17
Element 2- Noise ......................................................................................................................................... 18
2.1 Control of Exposure to noise at work place ...................................................................................... 19
2.2 Assessment of risk to Health and safety created by exposure to Noise at workplace ..................... 20
2.3 Risk assessment ................................................................................................................................ 21
2.4 Hearing Protection ............................................................................................................................ 23
Element 3- Vibration ................................................................................................................................... 27
3.1 Hand Arm Vibration .......................................................................................................................... 27
3.1.1 Factors influencing effects of exposure to hand arm vibration ................................................. 28
Hand Arm Vibration Risks ....................................................................................................................... 33
3.2 Measuring Vibration levels ............................................................................................................... 36
3.3 Whole body vibration ....................................................................................................................... 37
3.3.1 Factors influencing effects of exposure to whole body vibration ............................................. 37
Element 4- Manual Handling Tasks............................................................................................................. 44
4.1 Identifying hazardous manual tasks ................................................................................................. 44
4.2 Characteristics of hazardous manual tasks ....................................................................................... 44
4.3 Assessing Risks .................................................................................................................................. 47
Sources of risks ....................................................................................................................................... 49
Controlling the risks ................................................................................................................................ 52
Element 5- Radiation................................................................................................................................... 72
5.1 Non ionizing radiation ....................................................................................................................... 72
5.2 Ionizing Radiation.............................................................................................................................. 74
Element 6- Heat .......................................................................................................................................... 76
6.1 What is heat stress? .............................................................................................................................. 76
6.2 Reducing the risk ............................................................................................................................... 77
6.3 Risk Assessment ................................................................................................................................ 78
Element 7- COLD ......................................................................................................................................... 82
7.1 How does the body react to cold conditions? .................................................................................. 83
7.2 How can cold stress be prevented? .................................................................................................. 85

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Element 1- Overview
A physical hazard is defined as "A factor within the environment that can harm the body
without necessarily touching it.
1.1 Types of physical hazards
➢ Noise
➢ Vibration
➢ Manual Handling Tasks
➢ Radiation
➢ Heat
➢ Cold

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Element 2- Noise
Learning Outcomes

In this section, you will get to know,

• Health effects of exposure to Noise

• Control of Exposure to noise at work place
• Controlling Noise
• Reducing Noise
• Assessment of risk to Health and safety created by exposure to noise at workplace
• When is a risk assessment needed
Hearing damage caused by exposure to noise at work is permanent and incurable. Research
estimates that over 2 million people are exposed to noise levels at work that may be harmful.
Hearing loss is usually gradual due to prolonged exposure to noise. It may only be when
damage caused by noise over the years combines with normal hearing loss due to ageing that
people realize how deaf they have become. Hearing damage can also be caused immediately by
sudden, extremely loud noises. Exposure to noise can also cause tinnitus, which is a sensation
of noises in the ears such as ringing or buzzing. Tinnitus may occur in combination with hearing
loss.

Health effects of exposure to Noise

Exposure Limit

The lower exposure action values are a daily or weekly personal noise exposure of 80 dB and a
peak sound pressure of 135 db. The upper exposure action values are a daily or weekly personal
noise exposure of 85 dB and a peak sound pressure of 137 db. The exposure limit values are a
daily or weekly personal noise exposure of 87 dB and a peak sound pressure of 140 db. Where
the exposure of an employee to noise varies markedly from day to day, an employer may use
weekly personal noise exposure in place of daily personal noise exposure.

Weekly exposure

Use of weekly exposure might be appropriate in situations where noise exposure varies
markedly from day to day, example where people use noisy power tools on one day in the week

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but not on others. It is only likely to be appropriate where daily noise exposure on one or two
working days in a week is at least 5 dB higher than the other days, or the working week
comprises three or fewer days of exposure. When considering whether to use weekly averaging
it is important to:
✓ Ensure there is no increase in risk to health. It would not, for example, be acceptable to
expose workers to very high noise levels on a single day without providing them with
hearing protection.
✓ consult the workers concerned and their safety or employee representatives on
whether weekly averaging is appropriate;
✓ Explain to workers the purpose and possible effects of weekly averaging.

Taking in to account of hearing protectors

Actions to take to reduce risk and exposure, and the levels at which they are required to be
taken, do not allow you to take account of the reduction of noise provided by wearing hearing
protection. the only exception when this reduction can be taken into account is in relation to
the exposure limit values. The reduction is likely to be an estimate based on the information
provided by the manufacturer of the particular hearing protection device used. Whether the
exposure limit values are complied with will depend, not only on the reduction provided by the
hearing protectors, but also on whether the hearing protection is in good working order, is
appropriate for the type of noise and is properly worn.

2.1 Control of Exposure to noise at work place

The employer shall ensure that risk from the exposure of his employees to noise is either
eliminated at source or, where this is not reasonably practicable, reduced to as low a level as is
reasonably practicable.
If any employee is likely to be exposed to noise at or above an upper exposure action value, the
employer shall reduce exposure to as low a level as is reasonably practicable by establishing
and implementing a program of organizational and technical measures, excluding the provision
of personal hearing protectors, which is appropriate to the activity. The employer shall –
✓ ensure that his employees are not exposed to noise above an exposure limit value; or
✓ if an exposure limit value is exceeded forthwith –
➢ reduce exposure to noise to below the exposure limit value;
➢ identify the reason for that exposure limit value being exceeded; and
➢ modify the organizational and technical measures to prevent it being exceeded
again.
✓ Where rest facilities are made available to employees, the employer shall ensure that
exposure to noise in these facilities is reduced to a level suitable for their purpose and
conditions of use.
✓ The employer shall adapt any measure taken in compliance with the requirements of
this regulation to take account of any employee or group of employees whose health is
likely to be particularly at risk from exposure to noise.

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Reducing Noise

✓ consider whether there are alternative processes, equipment and/or working methods
which would eliminate risks from noise exposure.
✓ take noise into account when selecting tools and machinery.
✓ maintain machinery in accordance with manufacturers’ recommendations.
✓ explore any opportunity to provide your employees with periods of relief from noise
exposure.

Reduction of Exposure below exposure limit values

✓ You must not permit an employee to be exposed above the exposure limit values. You
will need to check whether your program of control measures, including, in this case,
the provision of hearing protection, is enough to prevent this level of exposure.
✓ If you discover that an exposure limit value is exceeded, you must immediately take
action to reduce exposure. Address the reasons for the overexposure by reviewing your
program of control measures. You should consider the technical and organizational
controls, the adequacy of any hearing protection supplied and the systems you have in
place to ensure that noise-control measures and hearing protection are fully and
properly used and maintained.
✓ You should not consider the exposure limit values to be a target for your noise control
program

2.2 Assessment of risk to Health and safety created by exposure to Noise at workplace
An employer who carries out work which is liable to expose any employees to noise at or above
a lower exposure action value shall make a suitable and sufficient assessment of the risk from
that noise to the health and safety of those employees. In conducting the risk assessment, the
employer shall assess the levels of noise to which workers are exposed by means of –

✓ Observation of specific working practices.

✓ Reference to relevant information on the probable levels of noise corresponding to any
equipment used in the particular working conditions.
✓ If necessary, measurement of the level of noise to which his employees are likely to be
exposed.
and the employer shall assess whether any employees are likely to be exposed to noise at or
above a lower exposure action value, an upper exposure action value, or an exposure limit
value. The risk assessment shall include consideration of –
✓ The level, type and duration of exposure, including any exposure to peak sound
pressure.
✓ The effects of exposure to noise on employees or groups of employees whose health is
at particular risk from such exposure.

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✓ As far as is practicable, any effects on the health and safety of employees resulting from
the interaction between noise and the use of ototoxic substances at work, or between
noise and vibration.
✓ Any indirect effects on the health and safety of employees resulting from the interaction
between noise and audible warning signals or other sounds that need to be audible in
order to reduce risk at work.
✓ Any information provided by the manufacturers of work equipment.
✓ The availability of alternative equipment designed to reduce the emission of noise.
✓ Any extension of exposure to noise at the workplace beyond normal working hours,
including exposure in rest facilities supervised by the employer.
✓ Appropriate information obtained following health surveillance, including, where
possible, published information.
✓ the availability of personal hearing protectors with adequate attenuation
characteristics.
The risk assessment shall be reviewed regularly, and forthwith if –
✓ there is reason to suspect that the risk assessment is no longer valid.
✓ there has been a significant change in the work to which the assessment relates,
and where, as a result of the review, changes to the risk assessment are required, those
changes shall be made.

2.3 Risk assessment

The purpose of the risk assessment is to enable the employer to make a valid decision about
whether your employees are at risk from exposure to noise and what action may be necessary
to prevent or adequately control that exposure. It enables you to demonstrate readily to others
who have an interest, example safety representatives and enforcement authorities, that you
have, from the earliest opportunity, considered
✓ All the factors related to the risks from noise exposure.
✓ The steps which need to be taken to achieve and maintain adequate control of the risks.
✓ The need for health surveillance.
The risk assessment must take into account all noise exposure at work, including, for example,
piped music and personal stereos.

When is a risk assessment needed?

✓ You must do a risk assessment if any employee is likely to be exposed to noise at or

above the lower exposure action values. A person’s daily noise exposure depends on
both noise level and length of exposure.
✓ If your workplace is intrinsically noisy, i.e. it is significantly noisier than you would expect
from the sounds of everyday life, it is possible that the noise levels will exceed 80 db.
This is comparable to the noise level of a busy street, a typical vacuum cleaner or a
crowded restaurant – you will be able to hold a conversation, but the noise will be

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intrusive. Working in an environment of 80 dB for eight hours will result in exposure at

the lower exposure action value.
To get a rough estimate of whether a risk assessment is required you could use the simple
tests below,

Factors to consider in assessing risk

✓ Level, type and duration of exposure - The factors which govern a person’s daily noise
exposure are the level of noise and the length of time they are exposed to it. The
greater the noise level or the longer the duration of exposure, the greater the person’s
noise exposure will be. Other characteristics of the noise, such as the frequency and
whether the noise is continuous or characterized by high levels of short duration, may
also affect the risk.
✓ Employees or groups of employees whose health is at particular risk - Some workers
should be given particular consideration within your risk assessment, example people
with a pre-existing hearing condition, those with a family history of deafness (if known),
pregnant women and young people.
✓ The availability of alternative equipment designed to reduce the emission of noise -
Manufacturers are legally required to ensure that machinery is designed and
constructed to reduce risks from noise to the lowest level taking account of technical
progress. You should expect to be able to find equipment on the market which reflects
technical progress in low noise emissions, and for progress to continue over time. In
deciding whether you have done enough to reduce risks from noise you will need to
consider whether there are lower-noise alternatives to the tools and machinery you are
using.
✓ Extension of exposure to noise at the workplace beyond normal working hours -
Employees can also be exposed to noise at the workplace over and above their normal
working hours, example during overtime, extended shifts, lunch breaks or rest times.
For example, in sleeping quarters, noise levels over 45 dB are known to cause
annoyance and/or sleep disturbance. Minimizing exposure during rest periods and
breaks is particularly important to allow employees some respite from the noise
✓ The availability of personal hearing protectors with adequate attenuation characteristics
- You will need to consider whether suitable hearing protection is available for reducing

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noise exposure in the particular circumstances of your work. The hearing protection has
to be appropriate to the level and character of the noise and to reduce the noise
adequately. You need to take account of this when planning measures to control the risk
and you need to consider developments in hearing protection technology and design
when reviewing those measures. Hearing protection should not be used as an
alternative to controlling noise by technical and organizational means, but it can be used
as an interim measure while these other controls are being developed.
✓ Record the significant findings of the risk assessment
➢ The major findings, including which of your employees are at risk, the level of
risk and exposure, and under what circumstances the risks occur;
➢ The action you have taken or intend to take, with timescales and allocation of
responsibility.

2.4 Hearing Protection

If in any area of the workplace under the control of the employer an employee is likely to be
exposed to noise at or above an upper exposure action value for any reason the employer shall
ensure that
✓ The area is designated a Hearing Protection Zone;
✓ The area is demarcated and identified by means of the sign specified for the purpose of
indicating that ear protection must be worn.
✓ access to the area is restricted where this is practicable and the risk from exposure
justifies it.
and shall ensure so far as is reasonably practicable that no employee enters that area unless
that employee is wearing personal hearing protectors.

Need for Hearing protectors

Personal hearing protection should only be used,

✓ where there is a need to provide additional protection beyond what has been achieved
through noise-control measures.
✓ As an interim measure while developing those control measures.
It should not be used as an alternative to controlling noise by technical and organizational
means.

The duty to provide hearing protectors depends on the exposure levels,

✓ Where employees are exposed between the lower and upper exposure action values
employers have to provide protectors to employees who ask for them but the Noise
Regulations do not make their use compulsory.
✓ Where employees are likely to be exposed at or above the upper exposure action
values, employers have to provide hearing protectors.
✓ Making the use of hearing protection compulsory for workers exposed below the upper
exposure action values should be avoided, except within hearing protection zones.

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✓ Where workers are exposed above the upper exposure action values and are therefore
required to wear hearing protection, it should not necessarily be made compulsory at all
times throughout the working day, example in areas or at times when noise levels are
low. Hearing protection use should be targeted at particular noisy jobs and activities and
be selected to reduce exposure at least to below the upper exposure action values.

Hearing protection zones

✓ Hearing protection zones provide a way to manage the use of hearing protection. They
give a reminder to those employees for whom hearing protection is compulsory during
particular jobs or activities. They also provide a way of ensuring that employees or other
people affected by the noise from those jobs or activities are protected.
✓ hearing protection zones should be designated in any areas of workplace where work is
going on during which particular employees must be provided with, and use, hearing
protection. Hearing protection zones should be designated in any areas of workplace
where the upper exposure action values would be likely to be exceeded if personnel
spent a significant portion of the working day within them, even if access is generally
infrequent, example plant rooms or compressor houses.
✓ Hearing protection zones should be marked with signs showing that they are areas
where hearing protection is needed. These signs should be located at all entrances to
the zones and at appropriate places within the zones as necessary. The sign need not
include any words, but where wording is included it should convey the same meaning as
the sign.

The boundaries of hearing protection zones should be considered carefully. Hearing

protection zones should not be overlapping with designated or commonly used
walkways. Zones should not extend any further than is necessary to protect people
carrying out their normal work or any foreseeable non-typical tasks.
In situations where the boundaries of the zone cannot be marked, example where the work
requires people to move the noise sources about a great deal adequate alternative
arrangements should be made to help make sure that people know where or when protectors
should be worn. These could include:

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✓ attaching signs to tools warning that people who are using them must wear hearing
protectors;
✓ written and verbal instructions on how to recognize where and when protectors should
be worn, example by designating particular tasks or operations as ones where
protectors must be used.

Personal protective equipment

✓ Earmuffs They should totally cover your ears, fit tightly and have no gaps around the
seals. Don’t let hair, jewel, glasses, hats etc. interfere with the seal. Keep the seals and
the insides clean. Don’t stretch the headband – the tension is crucial to protection.
Helmet-mounted earmuffs can need particular care to get a good seal around your ears.
✓ Earplugs They go right in the ear canal, not just across it. Practice fitting them and get
help if you are having trouble. Clean your hands before you fit earplugs, and don’t share
them. Some types you use only once, others can be re-used and even washed – make
sure you know which type you have.
✓ Semi-inserts/canal caps These are held in or across the ear canal by a band, usually
plastic. Check for a good seal, every time you put them on. Follow the same general
advice as for earplugs and make sure any band keeps its tension.

Maintenance and use of Equipment

✓ Make full and proper use of personal hearing protectors provided and of any other
control measures provided in compliance with his duties.
✓ If any defect in any personal hearing protectors or other control measures is detected
report it immediately.

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Use and maintenance of Noise equipment

You must ensure, so far as is practicable, that any noise-control equipment you put in place is
fully and properly used. For example, if a noise enclosure is provided with an access door, you
will need to make sure that the equipment is not operated while the door is open. You should
make sure that adequate instructions and supervision are in place to achieve this.
You must also make sure that noise-control equipment is maintained. You should carry out
regular checks and introduce a system for reporting any defects or problems to someone with
authority and responsibility for remedial action. You will need to put right any deficiencies
promptly.
Your program of maintenance should include:
✓ Inspecting the noise-control equipment (such as silencers or enclosures) periodically to
make sure it is kept in good condition.
✓ monitoring the equipment’s effectiveness. Spot checks of the noise level at pre-selected
locations will usually be adequate.
✓ reporting the results of these checks to someone with responsibility and authority for
taking remedial action.

Exercise

1. What are the health effects of exposure to Noise?

2. How to Control exposure to noise at work place?
3. What are the ways of controlling Noise?
4. What are the ways of Reducing Noise?
5. When is a risk assessment needed?

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Element 3- Vibration

Exposure to vibration when using hand held / operated tools and machinery can lead to
permanent injury of the hands and arms.

Learning Outcomes

In this section You will get to know,

Hand Arm Vibration

Health effects of exposure to hand arm vibration
Factors influencing effects of exposure to hand arm vibration
Whole body vibration
Health effects of exposure to whole body vibration
Factors influencing effects of exposure to whole body vibration

3.1 Hand Arm Vibration

Hand–arm vibration (HAV) is vibration transmitted to a person’s hand and arm when using
hand-held power tools or hand-guided machinery like powered lawn-mowers or while holding
materials being processed by machines. HAV is commonly experienced by people who use jack-
hammers, chainsaws, grinders, drills, riveters and impact wrenches.

Health effects of exposure to hand arm vibration

Regular long-term exposure to excessive HAV can disrupt a person’s circulation in their hand
and forearm, and cause damage to nerves, tendons, muscles, bones and hand and arm joints.
These conditions are collectively known as hand-arm vibration syndrome (HAVS) and include:
✓ Carpal tunnel syndrome – a disorder of the hand and arm which may involve tingling,
numbness, pain and weakness in parts of the hand.
✓ Musculoskeletal disorders – muscular and vascular disorders like weakness, pain and
stiffness in the joints of the hands and arms and little or no grip strength.
✓ Vibration white finger (Raynaud’s phenomenon) – a sudden constriction of the blood
vessels which slows blood flow to the extremities, most often fingers and toes. The skin
will change in color, usually accompanied by discomfort like pain, tingling and
numbness. Severe cases can result in complete loss of touch sensation and manipulative
dexterity which can interfere with work and increase the risk of acute injuries due to
incidents.
✓ Dupuytrens contracture – fingers becoming permanently curled towards the palm and
reduced grip strength.

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Workers with HAVS may find it impacts their work, social and family life. Periodic attacks of
reduced blood circulation may happen at any time and everyday tasks like handling small
buttons on clothing, opening jars and turning door knobs may become difficult.
There is evidence to suggest that workers who are exposed to both HAV and noise are more
likely to suffer hearing loss than workers exposed to the same level of noise alone. Exposure to
both vibration and noise may also increase musculoskeletal problems.

3.1.1 Factors influencing effects of exposure to hand arm vibration

Exposure to HAV can be increased by

Tool characteristics:
✓ higher vibration emission
✓ poor tool maintenance
✓ little or no handle insulation
✓ heavy tools
✓ larger surface area of hand in contact with
tool.

Work organization:
✓ long exposure during each work shift and over
a number of years
✓ short and few rest periods
✓ cold temperatures
✓ harder material being contacted, and
✓ bad postures and working overhead.

Individual worker characteristics:

✓ gripping the handle more tightly than needed
✓ low operator skill e.g. poor technique
✓ lifestyle factors e.g. smoking, and medical history e.g. disease or prior injury to
fingers, hands or wrists.
Workers who report tingling and numbness in the hands after using vibrating tools may indicate
a
problem and controls should be put in place.

Exposure to Hand Arm Vibration

Daily Vibration exposure

Exposure to HAV depends on both the magnitude (intensity) of vibration expressed as

acceleration in meters per second squared (m/s2) and the duration of exposure. The daily

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vibration exposure A (8) for a worker carrying out one process or operating one tool can be
calculated from magnitude and exposure duration using the equation:

where:
ahv is the vibration magnitude (in m/s²)
T is the actual duration of exposure in hours – trigger time to the vibration magnitude ahv, and
T0 is the reference duration of eight hours.

Like vibration magnitude, the daily vibration exposure has units of meters per second squared
(m/s²). The duration of exposure or trigger time is the time the hands and arms are actually
exposed to the vibration from the tool or work piece. The trigger time is often much shorter
than the overall time on the job and is usually over-estimated by workers. The method used for
estimating trigger times often depends on whether the tool usage is continuous or intermittent.
The value of ahv may come from measured data, manufacturer’s information or other sources
like online databases. If a person is exposed to more than one source of HAV, then partial
vibration exposures are calculated from the magnitude and duration for each source.
The overall daily vibration exposure can be calculated from the partial vibration exposure
values using the equation:

where A1(8), A2(8) etc. are the partial vibration exposure values for the different vibration
sources.

Measurement Axes
For HAV the triaxle sum of the acceleration experienced by the worker in the three axes (x, y
and z) as shown in Figure 1, is used in calculating the daily vibration exposure A (8).

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This is different from whole-body vibration (WBV) where the axis with the highest average root
mean square acceleration is used in the calculation.
Sources of information on Emission values

Manufacturers, importers and suppliers of tools should be able to provide information on

vibration emissions. This may be in the information or instructions accompanying the tools or
on the manufacturer’s website. Declared emission values allow purchasers to compare tools
tested to the same standardized test code. The emission values can help when there are large
differences between tools so high-vibration tools can be avoided.
When considering the vibration emitted by a tool during a specific task, try to find data which is
measured while carrying out the same task as your intended use. This data will provide a better
guide to the levels likely to be found in practice when the task is performed in your workplace.
If a manufacturer declares an emission value of less than 2.5 m/s² then a value of 2.5 m/s²
should be used.
Other sources of information on vibration magnitudes include:
✓ trade associations or equivalent
✓ online international vibration databases which may be suitable for an initial
vibration risk assessment
✓ specialist vibration consultants
✓ government bodies

Table 2 provides examples of vibration magnitudes measured by the Health and Safety
Executive (HSE) UK.
Table 2 Examples of vibration magnitudes

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Daily vibration exposure A (8) using the exposure points system

A simple method of determining daily vibration exposure is the use of a points based system
depicted in Table 3.
The exposure action value of 2.5 m/s2 is assigned 100 exposure points and the exposure limit
value of 5 m/s2 is assigned a value of 400 points.
Where the vibration exposure point is:
✓ Between the exposure action value and the exposure limit value (yellow) action to
control exposure should be carried out where practicable.
✓ Greater than the exposure limit value (red) controls should be implemented to ensure
workers are not exposed above the limit.
✓ In the green area, exposures are likely to be below the exposure action value. However,
these exposures must not be assumed to be ‘safe’. There may be a risk of HAVS in some
workers, especially after many years of exposure.

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Daily vibration exposure A (8) – an alternative method of calculation

The graph in Figure 2 provides another method of working out daily vibration exposures.
To use the graph, draw a line horizontally from the point on the left hand scale representing the
vibration magnitude and another from the point on the bottom scale representing the
exposure duration. Where they intersect is the daily vibration exposure for the activity.
For example, a tool emitting a vibration magnitude of 4 m/s2 and used by a worker for 30
minutes per day gives a daily vibration exposure A (8) of 1 m/s2. If the same tool is used for 4
hours and 30 minutes per day, the daily vibration exposure A (8) would be 3 m/s2. Therefore,
control measures would be required as this is above the action value (2.5 m/s2).

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Working out the total daily vibration exposure A (8) where more than one item of plant is used
is more complicated using this graph than using the exposure points system shown in Table 3.
Individual vibration exposures from each tool need to be:
✓ squared
✓ added together
✓ the square root of the total taken as described above in the section on daily vibration
exposure A (8).

Hand Arm Vibration Risks

Eliminating and minimizing vibration exposure

Eliminating or minimizing exposure to HAV usually involves isolating or cushioning methods.

Workers must be consulted where reasonably practicable, when deciding how to manage the
risks of exposure to HAV in the workplace including selecting and trialing new powered hand-
tools.

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Minimizing HAV exposure usually requires a combination of control measures. Examples of

control measures, in order of the highest level of protection and reliability to the lowest,
include:
✓ substituting alternative methods or processes to eliminate the need to use vibrating
hand-held tools
✓ purchasing or selecting tools with low vibration emission levels
✓ modifying existing tools to either minimize the vibration or prevent the vibration from
moving into the handle of the tool
✓ directing cold air away from the worker’s hand
✓ maintaining equipment regularly
✓ altering work practices and the way work is organized to minimize exposure time.

Control measures should be supported by providing information, instruction or training on:

✓ good work practices and tool maintenance
✓ the effects of individual factors e.g. smoking and some medications may impact on
circulation and vibration white finger
✓ recognizing and reporting symptoms of HAVS.
Gloves should not be relied on to protect workers from vibration. They only provide protection
from cold temperatures, water, cuts and abrasions. The use of thick gloves may make HAV
exposure worse if a worker applies too much grip force to the tool.

Before using vibrating plant choosing the right tool

You should consider vibration emissions when purchasing or leasing tools for your workplace.
Manufacturers, importers or suppliers of the tools should provide this information. You should
get as much information about the vibration produced by the tool as possible.
The tool manufacturer or supplier can provide information on the vibration produced by a
specific tool. Specifications and product data sheets for tools that are supplied to the European
market are likely to contain information on the vibration emitted by the tool under standard
conditions.
Tools that is too powerful for the job can expose workers to unnecessary high vibration. Tools
should be selected for tasks based on their vibration emission, suitability and ability to do the
work efficiently. Tools, which are not designed for the job or not powerful enough, are likely to
expose workers to vibration for longer than is necessary due to the extra time and grip force
required to complete the job.
When selecting tools, you should also consider the worker, ergonomic and other factors
including:
✓ tool weight
✓ handle design and comfort

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✓ trigger mechanisms like whether the device has a locking button to reduce the force
needed under the trigger finger
✓ grip forces needed to support and operate the tool
✓ ease of use and handling with consideration for posture and direction of force
application
✓ hand heat loss from grip surfaces or from exhaust air on pneumatic tools
✓ noise
✓ dust
Pre-start checklist

The pre-start checklist in Table 2 can help you identify work activities which may expose
workers to HAV. It should be completed every time an operator uses a different type of power
tool. If a worker answers ‘yes’ to a question in Table 2 this indicates they may be exposed to
hazardous vibration levels and action may need to be taken to minimize exposure.

Operating vibrating plant

The longer a worker is exposed to HAV the greater their risk of developing HAVS.
To minimize the risk, a person conducting a business or undertaking should make sure:
✓ vibrating plant or power tools are suitable for the work to be done and are in a safe
condition
✓ work areas are designed, established and maintained for safe operation
✓ pre-start safety checks are completed
✓ safe work procedures for operation and maintenance are prepared and followed.
If a worker reports symptoms like tingling and numbness after using vibrating tools you should
immediately modify work methods or organization of work to reduce their exposure. For
example, by reducing the time the worker uses powered tools.

Is it necessary to measure hand-arm vibration?

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If workers report symptoms, for example tingling and numbness after using vibrating tools, it is
likely their exposure to vibration is reaching a level which is may lead to HAVS. This may
indicate a HAV problem and you should take steps to reduce exposure using information found
in this Guide.
Measurement of HAV may be needed in situations where there is no information about the
vibration emission of the tool, the tool is being used in an unusual way or if you are uncertain
about the effectiveness of controls, you have put in place to reduce exposure to HAV. A
competent person should carry this out.

3.2 Measuring Vibration levels

Measurement of HAV can be difficult and complex. When workers report symptoms like
tingling and numbness after using vibrating tools it is likely their exposure to HAV is reaching a
level, which could lead to Hand-Arm Vibration Syndrome (HAVS). This may be an indicator of a
HAV problem and controls should be put in place to eliminate or minimize exposure, so far as is
reasonably practicable.
Assessment by a competent person may be needed if there is inadequate information about
the vibration emission of the tool, the tool is being used in an unusual way or if you are
uncertain about the effectiveness of controls.
It is also important that the measurement equipment is fit for purpose.
Exposure to HAV should be evaluated using the method in AS ISO 5349.1-2013: Mechanical
vibration – Measurement and evaluation of human exposure to hand-transmitted vibration –
Part 1: General requirements.
Detailed practical guidance on this is available in AS ISO 5349.2-2013: Mechanical vibration –
Measurement and evaluation of human exposure to hand-transmitted vibration – Part 2:
Practical guidance for measurement at the workplace.
While there is no Australian workplace exposure standard for HAV, it is useful to make a
comparison to an accepted standard in order to work out how much HAV exposure is likely to
pose a risk. This can be done using the daily vibration exposure A (8).

Exposure limit values and action values

Exposure Action Value - If daily vibration exposure is likely to exceed an A (8) of 2.5 m/s2 action
should be taken to reduce exposure to below this value.
Exposure Limit Value - Controls must be put in place to ensure a worker is not exposed under
any circumstances to a daily vibration exposure A (8) of more than 5.0 m/s2.

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3.3 Whole body vibration

Whole-body vibration (WBV) is vibration transmitted to the whole body by the surface
supporting it, for example through a seat or the floor. It is commonly experienced by drivers,
operators and passengers in mobile plant when travelling over uneven surfaces. WBV may also
be experienced while standing, for example standing on platforms attached to concrete
crushing plant. WBV includes sharp impact-like shocks and jolts.

Health effects of exposure to whole body vibration

Studies of long-term exposure to WBV show evidence of risks to health, mainly musculoskeletal
disorders involving the lower spine, neck and shoulders. High WBV exposure increases the risk
of lower-back pain, herniated discs and early degeneration of the spine.
Other factors may cause or contribute to back pain and shoulder and neck disorders, for
example working posture, body size, muscle tone, physical workload and individual factors like
age, pre-existing disorders and muscle force.
This makes linking symptoms directly to WBV difficult and therefore, a specific WBV health
monitoring program is not recommended.
Exposure to WBV may cause or make worse:
✓ cardiovascular, respiratory, neurological, endocrine and metabolic changes
✓ digestive problems
✓ reproductive organ damage in both men and women
✓ Impairment of vision, balance or both.
Exposure to WBV may also cause discomfort, fatigue and other problems when work activities
are being carried out. This could lead to incidents. There is evidence workers who use vibrating
plant and are exposed to noise at the same time are more likely to suffer hearing loss than
workers exposed to the same level of noise alone. Exposure to both vibration and noise is also
understood to increase musculoskeletal problems.
3.3.1 Factors influencing effects of exposure to whole body vibration

Factors that can impact on WBV exposure include:

✓ seat design, suspension and maintenance
✓ cab layout, design and orientation
✓ task design and work organization
✓ lighting and visibility
The main factors influencing WBV exposure in vehicles and mobile plant include:
✓ resistance forces, rough roads and surface conditions e.g. mobile plant with scraper
blades
✓ road construction and maintenance

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✓ vehicle type and design

✓ age and condition of vehicle
✓ maintenance of vehicle suspension systems
✓ vehicle speed, driver skills and awareness
✓ vehicle activity
✓ engine vibration
Eliminating and minimizing vibration exposure

Exposure to WBV may be controlled:

✓ at the source
✓ along the paths of the vibration, and
✓ at the position of the worker.
Minimizing WBV exposure usually requires a combination of control measures. Control
measures, listed in order of the highest level of protection and reliability to the lowest, include:
✓ modifying the process to eliminate the task or the risk
✓ redesigning the task, vehicles or machines
✓ buying machines or vehicles designed to minimize vibration transmitted to the operator
✓ improving and maintaining road surfaces
✓ implementing a seat maintenance program to ensure vibration dampened seats are
maintained in good condition
✓ implementing speed limits
✓ implementing regular work breaks, posture changes or job rotation
✓ providing training, information and supervision on adjusting and using equipment e.g.
seats
✓ implementing safe work procedures and standard operating procedure
Do you need to measure whole body vibration?

Measuring WBV can be difficult and complex. If workers feel WBV is uncomfortable, it is likely
their exposure to vibration is reaching levels which could affect their health. It can also indicate
a WBV problem requiring controls to be put in place.

Measuring Vibration levels

Measurement of WBV can be difficult and complex. If workers report WBV as uncomfortable, it
is likely their exposure to vibration is reaching levels which could affect their health. This may
also be used as an indicator of a WBV problem requiring controls to be put in place to eliminate
or minimize exposure, so far as is reasonably practicable.
Assessment of WBV by a competent person may be required if there is no adequate
information about vibration emission available, the plant is being used differently from the way
it was when previously tested or if you are uncertain about the effectiveness of controls.

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The European Union has established a widely used and accepted exposure action value and
exposure limit value for WBV. The EU Directive limits are shown in Table 1.

Daily vibration exposure A (8)

Exposure to individual sources of constant WBV is calculated from the magnitude of vibration
expressed as acceleration in meters per second squared (m/s2) and the duration of exposure.
The daily vibration exposure A (8) is expressed in m/s2 and is the amount of vibration to which
a worker is exposed during a working day, normalized to an eight-hour reference period.

Vibration Dose Value

Exposure to intermittent WBV including shocks or jolts is measured using a VDV, which gives a
more representative value than the daily vibration exposure A (8).
The VDV is a cumulative value, which increases with measurement duration. It is assessed using
the length of time of the measurement and the total time a worker is exposed to the source of
vibration per day.
Daily vibration exposure A (8) and VDV measures are dependent on measured actual vibration
values for the item of plant.
Adjustment for extended working days

Longer shifts are already taken into account in the calculation of A (8) so no further adjustment
to the calculation of the daily vibration exposure A (8) is needed for shifts longer than eight
hours.
Calculation of VDV includes duration of measurement and duration of exposure. As long as the
VDV is calculated considering exposure duration, there is no need to adjust the value for
different shift lengths.

Uncertainty in assessment of exposure

Uncertainties associated with the evaluation of daily vibration exposure A (8) can mean the
calculated value is as much as 20 per cent above the true value, to 40 per cent below. If either

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the exposure duration or the vibration magnitude is estimated, for example based on
information from the worker (exposure duration) or manufacturer (magnitude), then the
uncertainty can be much higher.
Measurement axes

For WBV the axis with the highest average root mean square acceleration is used to calculate
the daily vibration exposure A (8). Figure 1 shows the standard orientation of the x, y, and z
axes. The measurements taken on the x and y axes are given a weighting, k, of 1.4 times the
measured value to reflect their contribution to health effects. This is different from hand-arm
vibration assessment in which the vibration measurement is the triaxle sum of the acceleration
experienced by the worker in the three axes.

Calculating the daily vibration exposure, A (8)

Exposure to WBV should be evaluated using the methods in AS 2670.1: Evaluation of human
exposure to whole-body vibration – General requirements.
The daily vibration exposure A (8) for a worker carrying out one process or operating one item
of plant can be calculated using the equation:

where:
aw is the vibration magnitude (in m/s²) on the axis which measured highest, including the
weighting factor, k=1.4, for the x and y axes

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T is the actual duration in hours of exposure to the vibration magnitude aw, and
T0 is the reference duration of eight hours.
The vibration magnitude, aw, may come from measured data, manufacturer’s information or
other sources like online databases. If a person is exposed to more than one source of WBV
then partial vibration exposures are calculated from the magnitude and duration for each
source.
The overall daily vibration exposure A (8) can be calculated from the partial vibration exposure
values using the equation:

where A1(8), A2(8), etc. are the partial vibration exposure values for the different vibration
sources.
The daily vibration exposure A (8) is worked out separately for each of the three axes. The total
on the highest axis the worker is exposed is then compared to the exposure action value and
exposure limit value.
Calculating the Vibration Dose Value

VDV is calculated as the root mean quad of the acceleration and is more sensitive to peaks in
acceleration than the root mean square acceleration. This gives a result in m/s1.75. Weighting
factors of 1.4 apply on the x and y axes.
VDV is not usually publicly available so measurements have to be taken to determine the VDV
for each piece of plant.
If VDVs are available, the daily VDV (VDVexp) can be worked out for each axis using the
equation:

Where:
VDVx is the measured or otherwise found VDV on the x-axis
Texp is the daily duration of exposure to the source of WBV, and
Tmeas is the time over which the VDVx was measured.

An equivalent equation is used on the y-axis while the equation for z-axis does not have the 1.4
weighting factor. The highest value of VDVexp, x, VDVexp, y and VDVexp, z is the daily VDV to
be compared to the exposure action level (9.1 m/s1.75) and exposure limit value (21 m/s1.75).
If a worker is exposed to more than one source of WBV and VDVs are available, the total VDV
for each axis is calculated using the equation:

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where VDVexp, x1, VDVexp, x2 etc. are the partial VDVs for each source on the x-axis. The
VDVexp, which is highest of the x, y and z axes is the daily VDV to be compared to the exposure
action value and exposure limit value.

Duration of exposure

To estimate the daily vibration exposure A (8) you need to work out the total daily duration of
exposure to the vibration emitted from the plant.
The exposure duration is not the overall time spent on a specific job. The exposure duration is
only the time during which the body is actually exposed to vibration. When asked, operators
may overestimate the exposure duration as they may only be thinking of the whole task
duration. It is better to estimate the exposure duration by observation and measurement of a
sample period of typical work. For example, a stopwatch may be used to determine the average
duration required to perform the work task when using the plant being evaluated.
While workers are usually exposed to vibration while plant is travelling, this is not always the
dominant source. For some kinds of plant more exposure occurs while it is stationary, for
example excavators and tree harvesters.
Daily vibration exposure using the exposure points system

A simple method for determining daily WBV exposure is the use of a points based system (see
Table 2). The exposure scores corresponding to the exposure action value and exposure limit
value are:
Exposure action value (0.5 m/s2) = 100 points, and
Exposure limit value (1.15 m/s2) = 529 points

Once you have worked out the whole-body vibration acceleration aw, which axis it was
determined on and the duration of exposure, you can work out a worker’s total exposure points
using Table 2.
Where the vibration exposure point is:
between the exposure action value and the exposure limit values (yellow), action to control
exposure should be carried out where practicable, and
greater than the exposure limit value (red), controls should be implemented to ensure workers
are not exposed above the limit under any circumstances.

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Exercise
1. What is Hand Arm Vibration?
2. What are the health effects of exposure to hand arm vibration?
3. What are the factors influencing effects of exposure to hand arm vibration?
4. What is Whole body vibration?
5. What are the health effects of exposure to whole body vibration?
6. What are the factors influencing effects of exposure to whole body vibration?

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Element 4- Manual Handling Tasks

A hazardous manual task, as defined in the WHS Regulation, means a task that requires a
person to lift, lower, push, pull, carry or otherwise move, hold or restrain any person, animal or
thing involving one or more of the following:
✓ repetitive or sustained force
✓ high or sudden force
✓ repetitive movement
✓ sustained or awkward posture
✓ exposure to vibration.
These factors (known as characteristics of a hazardous manual task) directly stress the body and
can lead to injury.

Learning Outcomes

In this section, you will get to know,

• Identifying hazardous manual tasks

• Characteristics of hazardous manual tasks
• Assessing Risks
• Controlling risk
• Good Handling technique for lifting
• Good Handling technique for pushing and pulling

4.1 Identifying hazardous manual tasks

The first step in managing risks from carrying out manual tasks is to identify those tasks that
have the potential to cause MSDs. Hazards that arise from manual tasks generally involve
interaction between a worker and:
✓ the work tasks and how they are performed
✓ the tools, equipment and objects handled
✓ the physical work environment

4.2 Characteristics of hazardous manual tasks

Force is the amount of muscular effort required to perform a movement or task. Forceful
muscular exertions overload muscles, tendons, joints and discs and are associated with most
MSDs.

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Repetitive force - using force repeatedly over a period of time to move or support an object

✓ lifting and stacking goods onto a pallet

✓ gripping and handling bricks when bricklaying

✓ repetitively pressing components with the
thumbs or other part of the hand to assemble
an item
✓ prolonged application of therapeutic massage
treatments
✓ removing splinting material from patients
using shears.

Sustained force - occurs when force is applied continually over a period of time.

✓ pushing or pulling a trolley around hospital

wards
✓ holding down a trigger to operate a power tool
✓ supporting a plaster sheet while fixing it to a
ceiling
✓ carrying objects over long distances
✓ supporting, positioning or stabilizing a patient’s
limb during surgery or when applying splinting
or casting material.

High force – may be exerted by the back, arm or leg muscles or by the hands and fingers.

✓ Lifting, lowering or carrying a heavy object

✓ Lifting, lowering or carrying an object that cannot be positioned close to the body
✓ pushing or pulling an object that is hard to move or stop
✓ restraining a person or animal.

Examples of high force using the hands and fingers include:

✓ using a finger-grip, a pinch-grip or an open-handed grip to handle a heavy or large load
✓ operating hand tools with tight squeeze grips
✓ gripping small instruments with high force, for example, a dental hygienist cleaning
teeth.

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Sudden force – jerky or unexpected movements while handling an item or load are particularly
hazardous because the body must suddenly adapt to the changing force.

✓ impact recoil of a large nail gun

✓ throwing or catching objects
✓ cutting reinforcement steel with large bolt cutters
✓ carrying an unbalanced or unstable load such as bagged stock feed pellets that suddenly
moves
✓ handling frightened or resistant animals
✓ handling patients who suddenly resist or no longer assist during the handling procedure.

Repetitive movement – using the same parts of the body to repeat similar movements over a
period of time.
✓ lifting goods from a conveyor belt and packing them in a carton
✓ typing and other keyboard tasks
✓ repeatedly reaching for and assembling components in electronics manufacturing
✓ using a socket and ratchet or spanner to unscrew long bolts.

Posture - An ideal posture is one where the trunk and head are upright and forward facing, the
arms are by the side of the body, the forearms are either hanging straight or at right angles to
the upper arm, and the hand is in the handshake position. Postures that are both awkward and
sustained are particularly hazardous.

Sustained posture – where part of or the whole body is kept in the same position for a
prolonged period.
✓ supporting plasterboard sheeting while it is nailed into place
✓ continually standing with weight mainly on one leg while operating a power press with
foot pedal controls.
Awkward posture – where any part of the body is in an uncomfortable or unnatural position,
such as:
✓ postures that are unbalanced or asymmetrical
✓ postures that require extreme joint angles or bending and twisting.

Vibration - There are two common forms of vibration according to contact points between the
body and the source:

Whole body vibration occurs when vibration is transmitted through the whole body, usually via
a supporting surface, such as a seat or the floor in heavy vehicles or machinery. This may result
in lower back pain, degeneration of the lumbar vertebrae and disc herniation.

✓ operating mobile plant such as heavy earth moving machinery

✓ driving a vehicle over rough terrain.

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Hand-arm vibration occurs when vibration is transferred through a vibrating tool, steering
wheel or controls in heavy machinery to the hand and arm. This can disrupt blood circulation in
the hand and forearm and damage nerves and tendons. Localized vibration contributes to
‘vibration-induced white finger’ and ‘carpal tunnel syndrome’ through the gripping force
needed to hold the vibrating tools (the tighter the grip, the more vibration is absorbed) and the
repetitive shock loads of some tools.

✓ using impact wrenches, chainsaws, jackhammers, grinders, drills or vibrating compacting

plates
✓ using needle guns in de-rusting metal.

4.3 Assessing Risks

A risk assessment involves examining the characteristics of the hazardous manual task in more
detail to assess whether the forces, movements and postures are undertaken in such a way that
they give rise to the risk of MSDs.
When should risk assessment be conducted?

You should carry out a risk assessment for any manual tasks that you have identified as being
hazardous, unless the risk is well-known and you know how to control it. A risk assessment can
help you determine:
✓ which postures, movements and forces of the task pose a risk
✓ where during the task they pose a risk?
✓ why they are occurring
✓ what needs to be fixed

How to do a risk assessment for hazardous manual tasks

Identify who should participate in the risk assessment, for example those workers who do the
task or their health and safety representative, and management who have control over how the
task is done. Describe the task and area where the manual task is performed. Note which body
parts are likely to be at risk of injury, then work through the assessment together to determine
which risk factors pose a risk and why the risk exists.
The whole task should be examined, although it may help to look at the task in stages to
identify all of the risk factors. For example, the task of putting stationery items away in a
storage cabinet may involve the following steps:
✓ collecting boxes of stationery supplies from the delivery dock – handling boxes that are
bulky may increase the risks associated with this task
✓ transporting stationery supplies to the storage area – using a trolley with poorly
maintained wheels may increase effort
✓ unpacking boxes of stationery supplies – unpacking boxes from the floor may increase
awkward postures
✓ placing supplies on storage shelves – shelving heights that are too high or too low may
increase awkward postures.

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Looking at each of the steps identifies the different sources of risk, which are the things that
should be changed to control the risks. For some complex situations, expert or specialist advice
may be useful when conducting a risk assessment. There are a range of risk assessment tools
that may be used.
Assessing similar tasks
If a number of your workers carry out very similar hazardous manual tasks, you may assess
these tasks together as a group instead of assessing each task individually. However, you should
only do a group risk assessment if all the tasks are sufficiently similar and do not expose a
worker to a different risk than if individual assessments were carried out.
What are the risk factors?

Does the task involve any of the following?

✓ repetitive movement?
✓ sustained or awkward postures?
✓ repetitive or sustained forces?
As a general guideline, ‘repetitive’ means that a movement or force is performed more than
twice a minute and ‘sustained’ means a posture or force is held for more than 30 seconds at a
time.
Examples of postures and movements that pose a risk if they are repetitive or sustained are:
✓ Bending the back or head forwards or sideways more than 20 degrees.
✓ Bending the back or head backwards more than five degrees or looking up.
✓ Twisting the back or neck more than 20 degrees.
✓ Working with one or both hands above shoulder height.
✓ Reaching forward or sideways more than 30cm from the body.
✓ Reaching behind the body.
✓ Standing with most of the body’s weight on one leg.
✓ Twisting, turning, grabbing, picking or wringing actions with the fingers, hands or arms
that includes excessive bending of the wrist.
✓ Squatting, kneeling, crawling, lying, semi-lying or jumping.
✓ Working with the fingers close together or wide apart
✓ Very fast movements.

Does the task involve long duration?

you have assessed a task as involving postures, movements or forces that are also repetitive
(more than two per minute) and/or sustained (held for more than 30 seconds), you should
determine the duration of the task.
The duration of the task is how long the task is carried out over a whole shift or continually at
any time during a shift. Tasks that continue over a long period or are repeated over the work
day increase the risk of injury.

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As a general guideline, long duration means the task is done for more than a total of two hours
over a whole shift or continuously for more than 30 minutes at a time.
Keep in mind that workers may use the same parts of the body to repeat similar movements
when carrying out various tasks that are similar in nature over time.
Does the task involve high or sudden force?
High forces can cause MSDs even if they are not repetitive or sustained. This means that any
task involving high force may be a risk, even if it is only done occasionally or for short periods.
The longer and more often force is applied and the higher the force, the greater the risk.
The risk in tasks involving high force is related to:
✓ the intensity of the force needed - forceful muscular exertions place high stress on the
muscles, tendons, joints, ligaments and vertebral discs.
✓ the speed involved - fast movements (particularly if repeated) can injure muscles,
tendons and ligaments. The rapid or sudden speed changes caused by sudden or
unexpected movements are high risk.
✓ whether the force is jerky or sudden - forces suddenly applied or stopped can overload
the muscles, tendons, joints, ligaments and vertebral discs. This can occur when
throwing or catching loads, or when the load or item worked on moves unexpectedly
(for example, when pulling up a fence post that suddenly comes free, or assisting and
holding a walking patient who suddenly falls).
High and sudden forces are commonly associated with the handling of live persons or animals
and loads that are unstable, unbalanced or difficult to hold.
Does the task involve vibration?
Prolonged exposure to whole-body or hand-arm vibration increases the risk of MSDs and other
health problems. The degree of risk increases as the duration of exposure increases and when
the amplitude of vibration is high.
Some examples of sources of vibration are:
✓ driving, particularly on rough roads
✓ frequent or prolonged use of hand powered tool
✓ use of machines or tools where the manufacturer’s handbook warns of vibration
✓ workers being jolted or continuously shaken
✓ use of a vehicle or tool not suitable for the environment or task.
Sources of risks
When conducting the assessment, think about the sources of any risks that are present in the
task. These will be the things that you may be able to change to eliminate or reduce the risk of
MSD. For example, poor postures and movements may be due to the layout of the workplace,
high forces may be due to the loads being handled, and the frequency and duration of the task
may be due to the work organization, limited staff numbers or increased work pace to meet
tight deadlines.

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The main sources of risk are:

✓ work area design and layout
✓ the nature, size, weight or number of things handled in performing the manual task,
✓ systems of work
✓ the environment in which the manual task is performed.

These sources of risk can also make the task more difficult to perform and therefore increase
the risk of MSD.
For each risk factor, you should ask:
✓ where in the task are they occurring?
✓ why each of these actions is occurring (source of the risk).
The answers to these questions will provide the information on how to fix the source of the risk
and hence control the risk of MSD.
Consider the work area design and layout

A work area includes work benches, conveyors, furniture and fittings and the equipment used
by workers doing that job. The positioning and relationship of the different elements in a work
area to each other and to the worker are important because of the effect on working postures.
A work area that is designed without consideration of the risks that arise from hazardous
manual tasks may impose awkward postures on workers undertaking manual tasks, for
example, bent and twisted positions with shoulders raised and the need to reach for items or
carry loads over long distances.
Consider the nature, size, weight or number of persons, animals or things handled

Loads

Loads can be a source of risk due to the amount of muscular effort needed to handle them. The
harder to grip and control a person, animal or thing, the greater the force required to handle
them.
The risk can arise from:
✓ size, shape and weight of load – loads that are large, bulky, or heavy and cannot be held
close to the body or are asymmetric and put uneven forces on the spine
✓ loads that are difficult to grip through unsuitable handles, handholds or surface textures
✓ unstable or unwieldy loads can create sudden high muscle forces and result in
overloading of muscles, tendons or discs
✓ handling people or animals – both the physical and behavioral nature of people or
animals can be a source of risk, for example unpredictable movements requiring sudden
forces to control.
Tools

Tools that are unsuitable for the task can be a source of risk by increasing the force required, or
by promoting sustained or awkward postures. Risks can arise from:

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Weight – heavy hand tools, particularly if held for long periods of time, increase the force and
effort required to perform a task, for example, a three-kilogram power drill used on an
assembly line.
Balance – if the heaviest part of the tool is in front of the wrist, the force required to grip the
tool and stop it tilting forward is increased.
Handle design – if the handle diameter is too large or too small, the grip span of the hand will
create awkward postures and greater force will be required to control the tool. A handle that is
too short or has prominent edges, can result in damaging compression of the palm.
Handle orientation – if the handle design does not place the wrist in a handshake position, the
worker will need to use an awkward posture to operate the tool. Tools that cannot be adapted
for use by both hands or are designed for right-handed use only can result in awkward postures
and increased force.
Shock loading and impact – tools that deliver impacts such as hammers, hammer drills, and nail
guns transmit impact forces to various ligaments and can require the use of a firmer grip to
maintain control. They are a particular source of risk if used repetitively and for long periods.
Prolonged use – continued use of any hand tool (even tools that are well suited to the user and
designed for the task) without adequate time to recover will increase risk of injury due to the
sustained force to support it. In particular, vibrating tools increase risk.
Maintenance – poorly maintained or irregular service of tools and equipment may increase the
effort needed to use them. For example, an unsharpened knife will increase the force required
to bone and slice meat.
Consider the systems of work

Systems of work, or the way work is organized, can influence the physical and mental demands
that a manual task places on a worker. The fatigue and strain (physical and mental) that may
arise from the aspects of work (task demands, task control and resources and support
provided) bring on physiological responses such as increased muscular tension and affect the
function of muscles, nerves and blood vessels, increasing the risk of the worker developing an
MSD.
The sources of risk include:
✓ time constraints
✓ pace and flow of work across the working day or shift
✓ ability for workers to influence workload or work methods and changes in the workplace
✓ the level of resources and guidance
✓ consultation processes
✓ work roles and performance requirements or processes for dealing with conflicts
✓ staffing levels, skill mix and shift arrangements.
Remember that workers will also have different physical and psychological characteristics and
these individual factors may increase the risk, for example:

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✓ Skills and experience – being inexperienced in a job may increase the risk
✓ Physical characteristics – an overload situation may result from a mismatch between the
worker and the task
✓ Unaccustomed work – workers who are new, have transferred from another job or are
returning from extended leave and whose muscles are not conditioned to the work.
✓
Consider the workplace environment

The sources of risk in the work environment include:

✓ Cold environments such as in cool rooms, freezers, cold stores or working outside in
cold and/or wet weather can lower body and hand temperature and make handling and
gripping objects more difficult. Increased grip force can also result from reduced
sensitivity in cold hands or from wearing gloves. Cold can also significantly increase the
risk of hand-arm vibration. Working in a cold environment requires thick or heavy
protective clothing that restricts movement which can increase the risk of MSD. It can
also cause overheating of the body as the clothing does not allow heat or sweat to
dissipate and may decrease the blood flow to muscles, increasing fatigue.
✓ High temperatures - (including radiant heat), for example, in foundries, laundries,
bakeries, kitchens, or working in hot weather can make handling and gripping objects
more difficult. Workers may have difficulty grasping objects due to perspiration on the
hands or there may be sudden or unexpected forces due to loads slipping.
✓ Humid environments - caused by processes such as steam cleaning, cooking or the
weather can also increase the risk of developing MSD. Handling wet or damp objects
may require increased force. Humidity may also increase discomfort and fatigue.
✓ Wind - may increase the force required to handle items and reduce control while
handling large objects, especially those that are flexible and have a large surface area.
When working in windy conditions and in low temperatures that are also windy, the
resultant wind chill may lower the body temperature further.
✓ Slippery and uneven floor surfaces - may increase the exertion required to perform
manual tasks due to difficulty maintaining stability. Unsuitable floor coverings (for
example carpet) may increase friction when moving objects such as trolleys
✓ Obstructions – caused by poor housekeeping and cleaning can lead to awkward
postures such as reaching or bending over obstacles
✓ Lighting - low or high levels of lighting, as well as glare and reflection, may lead to
awkward or sustained postures to either improve vision or to avoid glare.
Controlling the risks
The hierarchy of control

The ways of controlling the risk of MSDs are ranked from the highest level of protection and
reliability to the lowest. This ranking is known as the hierarchy of risk control. The WHS
Regulation requires duty holders to work through this hierarchy to choose the control that
most effectively eliminates or minimizes the risk in the circumstances. This may involve a single
control measure or a combination of two or more different controls.

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Eliminate the risk

The most effective control measure involves eliminating the hazardous manual task and its
associated risk. Eliminating hazards and risks is usually easier and cheaper to achieve in the
planning or design stage of an item, process or place used for work.

Minimize the risk

If it is not reasonably practicable to eliminate the risk, then you must minimize the risks so far
as is reasonably practicable by:
✓ substituting the hazard with something that gives rise to a lesser risk
✓ isolating the hazard from any person exposed to it
✓ implementing engineering controls.

If there is a remaining risk, it must be minimized so far as is reasonably practicable by

implementing administrative controls, and if a risk still remains, then suitable personal
protective equipment must be provided and used. These two types of control measures, when
used on their own, tend to be least effective in minimizing risks because they rely on human
behavior and supervision.
Control measures should be aimed at eliminating or minimizing the frequency, magnitude and
duration of movements, forces and postures by changing the source of risk: the work area, tool,
load, environment, method of handling and/or the way work is organized.
Hierarchy of control

Elimination –
✓ Automate the manual task (such as using remote controls).
✓ Deliver goods directly to the point of use to eliminate multiple handling.
Substitution –
✓ Replace heavy items with those that are lighter, smaller and/or easier to handle.
✓ Replace hand tools with power tools to reduce the level of force required to do the task.
Isolation –
✓ Isolate vibrating machinery from the user, for example by providing fully independent
seating on mobile plant.
Engineering –
✓ Use mechanical lifting aids.
✓ Provide workstations that are height adjustable.
Administrative –
✓ Rotate workers between different tasks.
✓ Arrange workflows to avoid peak physical and mental demands towards the end of a
shift.
Personal protective equipment –
✓ Heat resistant gloves for handling hot items.
✓ Shock absorbent shoes for work on hard concrete floors.

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Purchasing to eliminate or minimize risks

Before purchasing equipment, such as tools, containers, workstations, machinery and vehicles,
you should always check whether the item has been designed so that it can be used safely and
best matches the needs of your workers. Where possible, you should:
✓ brief designers and engineers so that consideration can be given to the design
implications on the manual tasks performed
✓ liaise with manufacturers and suppliers about handling, delivery and storage
requirements
✓ purchase ergonomically designed tools and equipment that suit the work being carried
out and the physical characteristics of the workers
✓ check any vibration specifications.
Changing the design or layout of work areas

A well-designed work area will assist in eliminating or reducing the risk factors associated with a
hazardous manual task, such as the degree of reaching, twisting or bending.
Workstation design

Workstations should be designed to allow workers to work in an upright position, shoulders in a

natural position (not elevated) and upper arms close to the trunk most of the time without
large reaches to perform the task. Work surfaces should be easily adjustable to suit a range of
workers and the tasks they perform.
Where it is not possible to provide adjustable workstations consider altering the design so that:
✓ the workstation height suits the widest range of physical characteristics of workers
✓ reaching distances suit shorter workers
✓ knee and leg clearances suit larger workers.

Working heights

Tasks with high visual demands should be performed above elbow height and work surfaces
may need to be tilted, for example, for tasks involving delicate or precise manipulation.
Tasks where the hands make a narrow range of movements and can rest on the work surface
should be performed at, or just above, elbow height. A sloping surface may reduce the amount
of neck flexion required to perform desk-based tasks, such as drafting.
Light manipulative tasks or tasks involving the use of a keyboard should be performed at just
below elbow height.
Tasks incorporating a range of arm movements using the shoulder should be performed at
between hip and shoulder height, for example taking items from a stack and placing them on a
conveyor.

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Tasks requiring considerable muscular effort or use of the body for leverage, for example,
drilling at a workbench, should be performed at hip height and no higher.
Where possible, place items used in manual tasks so they are:
✓ in front of the worker
✓ between waist and shoulder height
✓ close to the midline of workers and orientated towards the worker
✓ on the worker’s preferred side
✓ positioned within comfortable reaching distance
✓ positioned to avoid double handling and to avoid moving loads manually over long
distances.

Displays and controls should be positioned to encourage comfortable head and neck postures,
comfortable hand and arm reach and efficient use. You should:
✓ place frequently used displays and controls, including keyboards and other input
devices, directly in front of the worker
✓ position controls at comfortable elbow height
✓ select electronic or foot controls rather than hand controls if high force is required
✓ place pedals so that workers can operate them from a comfortable seated position.

Working position

Workers should not remain in a seated, standing or otherwise static posture for prolonged
periods. Design the workstation to provide opportunities for workers performing seated or
standing tasks to vary their postures and movements
For seated tasks, seating should have the following features:
✓ adjustable seat height and angle
✓ a contoured backrest with a lumbar curve except those where the backrest would
interfere with the actions to be performed
a swivel action to prevent the worker from twisting to reach workstation components
✓ rounded seat edges
✓ a five-point base with casters to allow movement on carpet, and gliders fitted to the
base for low-resistance flooring, where access to work items located beyond normal
reach is required
✓ a footrest or foot ring fitted on drafting or higher chairs to support the feet.
A seated work position is best for:
✓ work that requires fine manipulation, accurate control or placement of small objects
✓ close visual work that requires prolonged attention
✓ work that involves operating a foot pedal.
Workers carrying out standing tasks should be provided with:
✓ a chair, stool or support so that the worker can alternate between sitting and standing

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✓ a footrest (large enough for the whole foot) to allow the worker to stand with either
foot raised
✓ where possible, suitable floor covering to cushion concrete and other hard floors.
A standing work position is best when:
✓ large, heavy or bulky loads are handled
✓ forceful movements are required
✓ reaching is required
✓ movements away from the working position are frequent
✓ there is no knee room
✓ there is limited space.
Work space

Work areas should have enough space to accommodate the number of workers and other
people involved in the task, any equipment that might be required and space to operate the
equipment safely. For example, when observing workers of an aged care facility assisting an
infirm person to bathe, the bathroom may need to accommodate two workers, the client and a
mobile hoist with space to man oeuvre a person in the hoist over the toilet and bath or into a
shower area.
Changing nature, size, weight or number of items handled

Handling loads

Examples of control measures that should be considered when handling loads include:
✓ purchasing products in smaller loads for manual handling or larger loads to be shifted
mechanically
✓ reducing the size or capacity of containers
✓ using handheld hooks or suction pads to move loads such as sheet materials
✓ using grip devices adapted to the particular object to be carried.

Tools and equipment

Hand tools should be designed to:

✓ be held in a neutral wrist or handshake position
✓ allow the hand to retain a comfortable grip span
✓ be well-balanced (the heaviest part of the tool needs to be behind the wrist)
✓ be suitable for use by either hand
✓ provide a good grip surface
✓ prevent a worker from adopting a pinch grip with high force or for prolonged periods.
Minimize the level of muscular effort, particularly of the shoulder and wrist, needed to use
hand tools by:
✓ using power tools where possible
✓ suspending or supporting heavy tools where they are used repetitively and in the same
place

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✓ counterbalancing heavy tools that are used repetitively and need to be kept away from
the body
✓ using trigger locks where the grip has to be sustained for more than 30 seconds
✓ holding the work piece in place with either jigs or fixtures selecting tools that produce
the least amount of vibration
✓ reducing impact shocks
✓ limiting torque or ‘kick back’ reactions.

Using mechanical aids

Mechanical equipment may eliminate or reduce the need for workers to lift, carry or support
items, animals or people. A wide range of mechanical aids is available for various industries, for
example:
✓ conveyors such as roller conveyors, elevating conveyors, belt conveyors, screw
conveyors, chutes, monorails or trolley conveyors
✓ cranes such as overhead travelling cranes, gantry cranes or jib cranes, stacker cranes,
industrial manipulators and articulating arms
✓ lifting hoists
✓ loading dock levelers
✓ turntables
✓ springs or gas struts, mechanical devices such as hand winches, hydraulic pumps, and
battery powered motors
✓ forklifts, platforms trucks, tractor-trailer trains, tugs and pallet trucks
✓ lift tables, mechanical and hand stackers, lift trolleys, two-wheel elevating hand trucks,
and vacuum or magnet assisted lifters
✓ glass panel, duct and plaster lifters.
Mechanical aids should be:
✓ designed to suit the load and the work being done
✓ as light as their function will allow
✓ adjustable to accommodate a range of users
✓ easy to use
✓ suited to the environment in which the task is performed
✓ located close to the work area so they are readily available but do not cause an
obstruction
✓ supported by a maintenance program to ensure they are safe and that the required
effort
to use them is kept at the lowest possible level
✓ introduced with suitable instruction and training in their use.
When you introduce a mechanical aid into the workplace, you must provide adequate
information, instruction, training and supervision to ensure that new arrangements do not
introduce any additional risks to workers, for example, a forklift operated in the same
workspace used by other workers.

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Pushing and pulling loads

Pushing loads is preferable to pulling because it involves less work by the muscles of the lower
back, allows maximum use of body weight, less awkward postures and generally allows workers
to adopt a forward facing posture, providing better vision in the direction of travel.
Reduce the effort required to start the load in motion by:
✓ using motorized push/pull equipment such as tugs or electric pallet jacks
✓ using slide sheets to reduce friction when moving patients
✓ positioning trolleys with wheels in the direction of travel
✓ using large power muscles of the legs and whole body momentum to initiate the push or
pull of a load.
Reduce the effort to keep the load moving by:
✓ using motorized hand trucks and trolleys that are as lightly constructed as possible and
have large wheels or castors that are sized correctly and roll freely
✓ using hand trucks or trolleys that have vertical handles, or handles at a height of
approximately one meter
✓ ensuring that hand trucks and trolleys are well maintained
✓ treating surfaces to reduce resistance when sliding loads
✓ for pushing, ensuring handles allow the hands to be positioned above waist height and
with elbows bent close to the body
✓ for pulling, ensuring handles allow the hands to be positioned below waist height
allowing workers to adopt a standing position rather than being seated so the whole
body can be used.
Reduce the effort needed to stop the load by:
✓ indicating the place where loads need to be delivered
✓ planning the flow of work
✓ encouraging workers to slow down gradually
✓ fitting brakes and speed limiters so speed can be controlled, particularly if there is a
need to stop quickly so as to avoid other traffic.

Handling people and animals

Handling people
No worker should fully lift a person (other than a small infant) unaided, that is, without
assistance from, for example, mechanical aids, assistive devices or another worker. All people
handling activities are a potential source of injury and the risks associated with this hazardous
manual task must be eliminated or minimized so far as is reasonably practicable.
With people handling, the health and safety of the person being handled needs to be
considered as well as the health and safety of the worker/s and others involved in the task. The
physical condition of the person being handled as well as their non-physical characteristics, for
example their ability to understand and communicate and their behavior, will affect how the
people handling activity is undertaken and the risks involved. When people are being handled,

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the controls selected and applied should take into account all of the sources of risks. Controls
may include the following:
✓ a mobility risk assessment: maximize the person’s ability to assist in the move through
the use of appropriate advice, mechanical and/or assistive devices.
✓ moving the person to a place that does not constrain the movement of the worker
performing the task, for example, using a shower trolley to bathe a patient
✓ where handling is required, assessing the needs of the task including the specific type of
mechanical aids and personnel needed, and planning it in a manner that avoids the
hazardous manual task
✓ where the use of a hoist requires two or more people provide adequate supervision and
resources to eliminate the risk of workers being under time pressure and attempting the
task on their own
✓ planning how to handle a person attached to medical or other equipment
✓ ensuring the location and storage of mechanical aids and assistive devices allows easy
access
✓ providing training for the safe use of mechanical aids and assistive devices.
Handling animals
Supporting or restraining animals should only be carried out by people with the necessary skills
and experience. When animals are being handled consider the following:
✓ using mechanical devices or other restraining aids for lifting, transporting or restraining
animals
✓ moving the animal to a place that constrains or minimizes the movement of the animal
before commencing the task
✓ where handling is required, assessing the needs of the task including the specific type of
mechanical aids and personnel, and planning it in a manner that avoids double-handling
✓ where the use of a mechanical aid or assistive device requires two or more people,
providing adequate resources so that workers under time pressure don’t try to
complete the task on their own.
Changing the system of work

Workload and pace of work

The workload and pace should accommodate the physical demands of the manual task. Where
possible, work should be organized to minimize multiple handling and improve the flow of work
by:
✓ having raw materials delivered, located or transferred mechanically to the location or
work area where they will be used. For example, building supplies can be delivered by
truck or crane to the on-site location where they will be used or to the external lift,
rather than being delivered to the front gate
✓ delivering materials, tools and items on mobile systems, for example, on roller pallets
✓ processing and packaging items in the same location or on the same workbench
✓ locating storage areas close to distribution areas

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✓ changing the distribution of work across the work day or week to avoid high peak
workloads
✓ using systems that minimize the need for storage and additional handling
✓ asking suppliers to deliver products, items or tools in a way that allows them to be used
without the need for additional handling, for example, flat packs delivered on a vertical
frame or table tops facing the right way up for use.
Workers should not have to work at a rate that is at the limit of their ability. When you
establish a work rate, you should consult with the workers affected and their health and
safety representatives. Set realistic work rates by:
✓ allowing workers to control the pace for critical or physically demanding tasks
✓ providing adjustability in the line speed, for example, reduce the speed when
conditions are altered, such as when new products are introduced or poor quality
materials are used
✓ providing buffers to allow material to be taken off-line, for example, ‘holding’ bins or
benches off the main processing conveyor.
Design tasks for the working population

Task design should take account of the range of human dimensions and capabilities such as
height, reach and weight. Adapt work systems to accommodate the health/fitness status of a
worker. If this is not reasonably practicable, allocate the worker to other tasks. In designing
work systems, considerations also include:
✓ the capacity of workers who have not reached physical maturity for physically
demanding work
✓ the possibility that older workers may have a decreased physical capacity for physically
demanding or fast work
✓ the need for gradual adjustment to physically demanding work activities during recovery
from injury or illness
✓ pregnancy which affects the risk of back pain because of the changing shape of the
body.
Provide transition arrangements for workers undertaking unaccustomed work by:
✓ reducing the pace of work or workloads
✓ providing more frequent breaks
✓ job rotation.
Resources and support

When introducing risk control measures that involve plant, tools or equipment, ensure that:
✓ it is the right equipment for the task
✓ there is sufficient, available equipment
✓ plant, tools and equipment are checked and maintained on a regular basis.
To allow for adequate recovery time and to reduce exposure to risks of MSD, arrange to have
the right staffing levels, skill mix and shift arrangements considering:
✓ shift lengths
✓ the levels of overtime
✓ placement of rostered days off
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✓ the numbers of workers during peak periods.

Changing the work environment

Vibration

Whole-body vibration – the design of vibration damped equipment and engine mountings are
the most effective methods of controlling vibration exposure. Other strategies to reduce
exposure include:
✓ improving vehicle suspension and installation of operator seats mounted on suspension
systems which incorporate spring and damper elements
✓ ensuring that equipment and control measures implemented to reduce vibration are
well maintained
✓ ensuring workers adjust their seats appropriately and equipment is operated within the
speed suggested by the manufacturer or to a speed that reduces vibration levels
✓ training workers about the risks associated with whole-body vibration, the controls that
have been implemented and how they should be used.
Hand-arm vibration – substitute alternative manufacturing methods or processes to eliminate
the need for vibrating equipment. Where this is not possible, the best strategy is to purchase
tools and equipment that produce less vibration.

Cold conditions

To control exposure to cold conditions you should:

✓ ensure your workers take regular rest breaks in a warm place
✓ ensure your workers wear non-slip footwear and clothing that is fitted and not too bulky
or restrictive
✓ provide personal protective equipment suitable for the task (for example, gloves to
provide protection from the cold and also allow a good grip of the objects being
handled).

Heat and humidity

For workers in hot and humid conditions, reduce temperature and humidity during manual
tasks where possible by:
✓ relocating work away from sources of heat
✓ providing fans or air-conditioning
✓ using screens, awnings and clothing to shield workers from radiant heat sources such as
ovens, furnaces and the sun
✓ enclosing hot processes and increasing ventilation
✓ altering work schedules so that work is done at cooler times
✓ providing a cool, well-ventilated area where workers can take rest breaks
✓ ensuring that workers work at a sensible pace
✓ providing a supply of cool drinking water.

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Windy conditions

Consider minimizing the risk of exposure to windy conditions by:

✓ planning the route of work through protected pathways
✓ using vehicles to transport items in outdoor conditions
✓ coordinating tasks during low wind conditions.

Floors and surfaces

Keeping work areas clean, tidy and free of clutter or obstacles prevents workers from adopting
awkward postures and reduces the level of exertion that may be required to reach over or
around obstacles. Clean, smooth and flat surfaces can also reduce forces required to push and
pull objects and prevent slips, trips and falls.

Lighting

Select lighting to suit the task performed. To prevent awkward or sustained postures that may
arise from low or excessive levels of lighting, glare or reflection:
✓ provide additional lighting, such as a lamp on a movable arm, where required
✓ improve the layout of existing lights by lowering or raising them or changing their
position in the work area
✓ increase or decrease the number of lights
✓ change the diffusers or reflectors on existing lights
✓ change the lights to improve light levels or improve color perception
✓ change the orientation or position of the item to avoid shadows, glare or reflections
✓ clean lights and light fittings regularly
✓ use screens, visors, shields, hoods, curtains, blinds or external louvers to reduce
reflections, shadows and glare
✓ control natural light sources (particularly bright sunshine) on work pieces, screens and
work surfaces by orientation and placement at 90 degrees to the source and/or by
providing screening and louvers.

Using administrative control measures

Administrative control measures do not address the risk factors or source of the risk – they only
attempt to reduce risk by reducing exposure to those risk factors.
Job rotation
The risk of MSDs may be minimized by rotating staff between different tasks to increase task
variety. Job rotation requires the tasks to be sufficiently different to ensure that different
muscle groups are used in different ways so they have a chance to recover. To increase task
variety, you should consider:
✓ combining two or more tasks so both are done by one worker and alter the workstation
and items used accordingly
✓ providing breaks doing another task when the job is monotonous.

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Rest breaks

Regular rest breaks provide opportunities for workers to prevent the build-up of, or recover
from the effects of, fatigue in muscle groups used during hazardous manual tasks that involve:
✓ repetitive awkward postures or sustained postures
✓ application of high force
✓ vibration
✓ long duration
✓ high levels of mental demand combined with hazardous manual tasks, for example
inspection work.

The frequency and duration of rest breaks will be dependent on the nature of the task.
Generally, the greater the force required, or the longer a posture is sustained, the greater the
recovery time.
More frequent and shorter rest breaks are better for rest and recovery than fewer, longer
breaks. Build short breaks into task rotation arrangements where work is of a similar nature, for
example process production or hand tool use. Micro-pauses (very short intermittent breaks) in
physical activity are also beneficial. Build these into the design of tasks and methods of work,
for example:
✓ workers put down hand tools or release them (suspension) between operations
✓ keyboard operators remove hands from keyboards during natural keying breaks
✓ Stagger manual tasks over the full work shift.

Team handling

Team handling is manual handling of a load by two or more workers. Team handling brings its
own risks and requires coordination. It should only be used as an interim control measure. You
should redesign manual tasks to allow the use of mechanical equipment, or eliminate the need
to lift, if there is a regular need for team handling. Team lifting can increase the risk of MSD if:
✓ the load is not shared equally
✓ workers do not exert force simultaneously
✓ individual workers need to make foot or hand adjustments to accommodate other team
members, reducing the force each can exert
✓ performed on steps or on a slope where most of the weight will be borne by handlers at
the lower end
✓ Individual workers unexpectedly lose their grip, increasing or changing the balance of
the load on other team members.
Whenever team handling is used it is essential to match workers, co-ordinate and carefully plan
the lift. You should ensure that:
✓ the number of workers in the team is in proportion to the weight of the load and the
difficulty of the lift
✓ one person is appointed to plan and take charge of the operation
✓ enough space is available for the handlers to man oeuvre as a group
✓ team members are of similar height and capability, where possible

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✓ team members know their responsibilities during the lift

✓ training in team lifting has been provided and the lift rehearsed, including what to do in
case of an emergency
✓ aids to assist with handling (a stretcher, slings, straps, lifting bars, lifting tongs, trolleys,
hoists) are used where possible and training is provided in their use.

Information, training and instruction

If a risk of MSDs remains after implementing higher-level control measures, then the risk must
be minimized by providing information, training and instruction. Training in lifting techniques
must not be used as the sole or primary means to control the risk of MSDs.

Implementing control measures

Risk control may initially involve using short term, interim measures while a long term solution
is developed. For example, temporarily raise the bench until it can be replaced or altered
permanently, or rotate employees through a production line to reduce the time spent working
at a low bench until it can be changed.
To implement the most effective risk controls, you should:
✓ allow workers to trial solutions before decisions are made to make the solution
permanent
✓ review controls after an initial testing period, as they may need modification
✓ develop work procedures to ensure that controls are understood and responsibilities
are clear
✓ communicate the reasons for the change to workers and others
✓ provide training to ensure workers can implement the risk controls for the task
competently
✓ ensure that any equipment used in the manual task is properly maintained.

You should not make final decisions on the effectiveness of the control measures that you have
implemented until enough time has passed for your workers to adjust to the changes. Workers
should be given a chance to practice using the new workstation, tool, mechanical device or new
work method. Some modifications may require workers to use new muscle groups or different
parts of the body and they may initially feel some discomfort. At this stage, you should
frequently check with your workers how they feel the improvements are working.

Training

Training in the type of control measures implemented should be provided during induction into
a new job and as part of an on-going manual task risk control program. Training should be
provided to:
✓ workers required to carry out, supervise or manage hazardous manual tasks
✓ in-house designers, engineers and officers responsible for the selection and
maintenance of plant and/or the design and organization of the job/task
✓ any health and safety representatives.

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The training should include information on:

✓ manual task risk management, including the characteristics of hazardous manual tasks
✓ specific manual task risks and the measures in place to control them
✓ how to perform manual tasks safely, including the use of mechanical aids, tools,
equipment and safe work procedures
✓ how to report a problem or maintenance issues?

You should review your training program regularly and also when there is change to work
processes, plant or equipment, implementation of new control measures, relevant legislation or
other issues that may impact on the way the task is performed.
You should keep records of induction and training given to your workers. The records can
include information such as the date of the session, the topics dealt with, and the name and
signature of the trainer and each of the workers who attended the session.

Reviewing control measures

Control measures that have been implemented must be reviewed and, if necessary, revised to
make sure they work as planned and to maintain a work environment that is without risks to
health and safety. Control measures may be reviewed using the same methods as the initial
hazard identification step. Consult your workers involved in the manual task and their health
and safety representatives and consider the following:
✓ Are the control measures working effectively in both their design and operation,
without creating new risks?
✓ Are workers actively involved in the risk management process? Are they openly raising
health and safety concerns and reporting problems promptly?
✓ Have new work methods or new equipment reduced physical strain or difficulty?
✓ Has instruction and training on hazardous manual tasks and the implemented control
measures been successful?
✓ Is the frequency and severity of MSDs reducing over time? Is an alteration planned to
any structure, plant or process that is likely to result in a worker being exposed to a
hazardous manual task?
✓ Has an incident occurred as a result of a worker being exposed to a hazardous manual
task?
✓ If new information becomes available, does it indicate current controls may no longer
be the most effective?
If problems are found, go back through the risk management steps, review your information
and make further decisions about risk control.

Good Handling technique for lifting

✓ Think before lifting/handling. Plan the lift. Can handling aids be used? Where is the load
going to be placed? Will help be needed with the load? Remove obstructions such as

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discarded wrapping materials. For a long lift, consider resting the load midway on a
table or bench to change grip.
Adopt a stable position. The feet should be apart with one leg slightly forward to
maintain balance (alongside the load, if it is on the ground). The worker should be
prepared to move their feet during the lift to maintain their stability. Avoid tight
clothing or unsuitable footwear, which may make this difficult.

✓ Get a good hold. Where possible, the load should be hugged as close as possible to the
body. This may be better than gripping it tightly with hands only. Start in a good
posture. At the start of the lift, slight bending of the back, hips and knees is preferable
to fully flexing the back (stooping) or fully flexing the hips and knees (squatting).

✓ Don’t flex the back any further while lifting. This can happen if the legs begin to
straighten before starting to raise the load.
✓ Keep the load close to the waist. Keep the load close to the body for as long as possible
while lifting. Keep the heaviest side of the load next to the body. If a close approach to
the load is not possible, try to slide it towards the body before attempting to lift it.
✓ Avoid twisting the back or leaning sideways, especially while the back is bent. Shoulders
should be kept level and facing in the same direction as the hips. Turning by moving the
feet is better than twisting and lifting at the same time.
✓ Keep the head up when handling. Look ahead, not down at the load, once it has been
held securely.
✓ Move smoothly. The load should not be jerked or snatched as this can make it harder to
keep control and can increase the risk of injury.
✓ Don’t lift or handle more than can be easily managed. There is a difference between
what people can lift and what they can safely lift. If in doubt, seek advice or get help.
✓ Put down, then adjust. If precise positioning of the load is necessary, put it down first,
then slide it into the desired position.

Good handling technique for pushing and pulling

✓ Handling devices. Aids such as barrows and trolleys should have handle heights that are
between the shoulder and waist. Devices should be well maintained with wheels that
run smoothly. The law requires that equipment is maintained. When you buy new
trolleys make sure they are good quality with large diameter wheels made of suitable
material and with castors, bearings which will last with minimum maintenance.
Consulting your employees and safety representatives will help, as they know what
works and what doesn’t.
✓ Force. As a rough guide the amount of force that needs to be applied to move a load
over a flat, level surface using a well-maintained handling aid is at least 2% of the load
weight. For example, if the load weight is 400 kg, then the force needed to move the
load is 8 kg. The force needed will be larger, perhaps a lot larger, if conditions are not
perfect (example wheels not in the right position or a device that is poorly maintained).

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The operator should try to push rather than pull when moving a load, provided they can
see over it and control steering and stopping.
✓ Slopes. Employees should get help from another worker whenever necessary, if they
have to negotiate a slope or ramp, as pushing and pulling forces can be very high. For
example, if a load of 400 kg is moved up a slope of 1 in 12 (about 5°), the required force
is over 30 kg even in ideal conditions – good wheels and a smooth slope. This is above
the guideline weight for men and well above the guideline weight for women.
✓ Uneven surfaces. Moving an object over soft or uneven surfaces requires higher forces.
On an uneven surface, the force needed to start the load moving could increase to 10%
of the load weight, although this might be offset to some extent by using larger wheels.
Soft ground may be even worse.
✓ Stance and pace. To make it easier to push or pull, employees should keep their feet
well away from the load and go no faster than walking speed. This will stop them
becoming too tired too quickly.

MAC tool

The Manual Handling Assessment Charts (MAC) is a tool aimed at employers, health and safety
managers and safety representatives and is used by health and safety inspectors. The tool will
help you assess the most common risk factors in lifting (and lowering), carrying and team
handling operations and was developed to identify high-risk manual handling. It will point you
towards the factors you need to modify to control these risks.

Carrying operations flowchart

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Lifting operations flowchart

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Team handling operations flowchart

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Exercise

1. How to Identify hazardous manual tasks?

2. What are the characteristics of hazardous manual tasks?
3. What are the steps in assessing Risks?
4. What are the ways of Controlling risk?
5. What are the good Handling techniques for lifting?
6. What are the good Handling techniques for pushing and pulling?

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Element 5- Radiation

Radiation may be defined as energy traveling through space. Non-ionizing radiation is essential
to life, but excessive exposures will cause tissue damage. All forms of ionizing radiation have
sufficient energy to ionize atoms that may destabilize molecules within cells and lead to tissue
damage.
Radiation sources are found in a wide range of occupational settings. If radiation is not properly
controlled, it can be potentially hazardous to the health of workers.
Learning Outcomes

In this section, you will get to know,

• Nonionizing radiation
• Health effects of exposure to nonionizing radiation
• Ionizing radiation
• Health effects of exposure to ionizing radiation
5.1 Non ionizing radiation
Non-ionizing radiation is described as a series of energy waves composed of oscillating electric
and magnetic fields traveling at the speed of light. Non-ionizing radiation includes the spectrum
of ultraviolet (UV), visible light, infrared (IR), microwave (MW), radio frequency (RF), and
extremely low frequency (ELF). Lasers commonly operate in the UV, visible, and IR frequencies.
Non-ionizing radiation is found in a wide range of occupational settings and can pose a
considerable health risk to potentially exposed workers if not properly controlled.
Extremely Low Frequency Radiation (ELF)

Extremely low frequency (ELF) fields includes alternating current (AC) fields and other
electromagnetic, non-ionizing radiation from 1 Hz to 300 Hz. ELF fields at 60 Hz are produced by
power lines, electrical wiring, and electrical equipment. Some epidemiological studies have
suggested increased cancer risk associated with magnetic field exposures near electric power
lines.
Health effects

The issue of extremely low frequency (ELF) biological effects is very controversial. Research has
focused on possible carcinogenic, reproductive, and neurological effects. Other suggested
health effects include cardiovascular, brain and behavior, hormonal and immune system
changes.

Evaluating exposure

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Public and employee concerns about extremely low frequency (ELF) exposure has grown as a
result of increased media coverage over the last few years. The issue of ELF radiation is very
controversial. Exposure to electric and magnetic fields (EMFs) depends on the strength of the
ELF fields at the source, the distance from the source, and the duration of exposure. The 50 to
60 Hz range is of particular interest because it is associated with electrical power distribution,
and equipment utilizing alternating current

Radiofrequency and Microwave Radiation

Microwave radiation (MW) is absorbed near the skin, while Radiofrequency (RF) radiation may
be absorbed throughout the body. At high enough intensities both will damage tissue through
heating. Sources of RF and MW radiation include radio emitters and cell phones.

Health effects

Electric and magnetic fields are complex physical agents whose potential health effects are the
subject of much research. Particularly controversial are the biophysical mechanisms by which
these RF fields may affect biological systems. General health effects reviews explore possible
carcinogenic, reproductive and neurological effects. Health effects by exposure source are
noted in radar traffic devices, wireless communications with cellular phones, radio
transmission, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).

Hazards and solutions

Natural low-frequency EM fields come from two main sources: the sun, and thunderstorm
activity, but man-made fields at much higher frequencies have altered this natural EMF. At
sufficiently high power densities, RF/MW energy can cause thermal effects that can cause
blindness, and sterility. Non-thermal effects, such as alteration of the human body's circadian
rhythms, immune system and the nature of the electrical and chemical signals communicated
through the cell membrane have been demonstrated. However, none of the research has
conclusively proven that low-level RF/MW radiation causes adverse health effects.

Evaluating exposure

RF energy includes frequencies ranging from about 3000 cycles per second (3 kHz) to 300 billion
cycles per second (300 GHz). Microwaves are a subset of radio waves and includes frequencies
ranging from around 300 million cycles per second (300 MHz) to 3 GHz. RF exposures are
directly linked to absorption and distribution of RF energy in the body, and the absorption and
distribution are strongly dependent on body size and orientation and on frequency and
polarization of the incident radiation. A common measure of exposure is the Specific
Absorption Rate (SAR), the rate of energy absorption in tissue, measured in watts per kilogram
of tissue.

Infrared Radiation (IR)

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The skin and eyes absorb infrared radiation (IR) as heat. Workers normally notice excessive
exposure through heat sensation and pain. Sources of IR radiation include furnaces, heat lamps,
and IR lasers.

Visible Light Radiation

The different visible frequencies of the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum are "seen" by our eyes
as different colors. Good lighting is conducive to increased production, and may help prevent
incidents related to poor lighting conditions. Excessive visible radiation can damage the eyes
and skin.

Ultraviolet Radiation (UV)

Ultraviolet radiation (UV) has a high photon energy range and is particularly hazardous because
there are usually no immediate symptoms of excessive exposure. Sources of UV radiation
include the sun, black lights, welding arcs, and UV lasers.

Laser Hazards

LASER is an acronym which stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
The laser produces an intense, highly directional beam of light. The most common cause of
laser-induced tissue damage is thermal in nature, where the tissue proteins are denatured due
to the temperature rise following absorption of laser energy.
The human body is vulnerable to the output of certain lasers, and under certain circumstances,
exposure can result in damage to the eye and skin. Research relating to injury thresholds of the
eye and skin has been carried out in order to understand the biological hazards of laser
radiation. It is now widely accepted that the human eye is almost always more vulnerable to
injury than human skin.

5.2 Ionizing Radiation

While everyone is exposed to natural background radiation, workers may also be exposed to
ionizing radiation in workplaces with radiation sources. These radiation sources can pose a
health risk to workers if not properly controlled.
Occupational settings with ionizing radiation sources include:

▪ Medical and dental offices (e.g., X-rays).

▪ Hospitals and outpatient treatment centers, including specialty departments in:
o Radiology (e.g., medical X-rays and computed tomography (CT) scans).
o Nuclear medicine.
o Radiation oncology.
o Interventional fluoroscopy or radiology.
o Cardiac angiography.

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▪ Nuclear power plants (reactors) and their support facilities.

▪ Nuclear weapons production facilities.
▪ Industrial operations (e.g., radiography equipment for testing materials or products).
▪ Research laboratories (universities, colleges, and other scientific institutions)
▪ Veterinary facilities.
▪ Manufacturing settings and construction.
▪ Security operations.
▪ Air and space travel and transport (i.e., in-flight) operations, especially at high altitude.
▪ Workplaces with high levels of naturally-occurring radioactive materials (NORM).
▪ Worksites with high levels of technologically enhanced naturally-occurring radioactive
material (TENORM), such as uranium and other radioactive elements encountered during
hydraulic fracturing (commonly known as “fracking”) as part of oil and gas well
development.

Health effects

When ionizing radiation interacts with cells, it can cause damage to the cells and genetic
material (i.e., deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA). If not properly repaired, this damage can result in
the death of the cell or potentially harmful changes in the DNA (i.e., mutations).
Health effects from radiation doses can be grouped into two
categories: deterministic and stochastic. Deterministic effects occur after a threshold dose is
reached, meaning at dose below the threshold are not expected to cause the particular effect.
The severity of the effect increases with the dose. Skin reddening (erythema) is an example of a
deterministic effect with a threshold dose of approximately 300 rad. Although it may not
accurately describe all deterministic health effects, they are sometimes described as "short-
term" health effects.
Stochastic effects occur by statistical chance. The probability of the effect occurring in a
population increases with the dose received, and the severity of the effect does not depend on
the dose. Cancer is the main stochastic effect that can result from radiation dose, often many
years following the exposure. Stochastic health effects are assumed not to have a threshold
dose below which they do not occur. This is the reason that no level of radiation dose is
considered to be completely "safe" and why doses should always be kept as low as reasonably
achievable (ALARA). Although it may not accurately describe all stochastic health effects, they
are sometimes described as "long-term" health effects.

Exercise

1. What is nonionizing radiation?

2. What are the health effects of exposure to nonionizing radiation?
3. What is Ionizing radiation?
4. What are the health effects of exposure to ionizing radiation?

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Element 6- Heat

Learning Outcomes

In this section, you will get to know,

• What is Heat stress
• Body reaction to heat
• Effects of Heat stress
• Reducing the risk
• Risk Assessment

6.1 What is heat stress?

Heat stress occurs when the body’s means of controlling its internal temperature starts to fail.
Air temperature, work rate, humidity and work clothing are all factors which can cause heat
stress. It may not be obvious to someone passing through the workplace that there is a risk of
heat stress.
Body reaction to Heat

The body reacts to heat by increasing the blood flow to the skin’s surface and by sweating. This
cools the body as heat is carried to the surface from within by the increased blood flow and
sweat evaporates. Heat can also be lost by radiation and convection from the body’s surface.
Typical example of a heat stress situation
Someone wearing protective clothing and performing heavy work in hot and humid conditions
could be at risk of heat stress because:

✓ Sweat evaporation is restricted by the type of clothing and the humidity of the
environment
✓ Heat will be produced within the body due to the work rate and if insufficient heat is
lost deep body temperature will rise.
✓ As deep body temperature rises the body reacts by increasing the amount of sweat
produced, which may lead to dehydration.
✓ Heart rate also increases which puts additional strain on the body.
✓ If the body is gaining more heat than it can lose then the deep body temperature will
continue to rise. Eventually it reaches a point where the body’s control mechanisms
start to fail.
The symptoms will get worse the longer someone remains working in the same conditions.
Effects of Heat Stress

Heat stress can affect individuals in different ways and some people are more susceptible to it
than others.

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Typical symptoms are:

✓ an inability to concentrate;
✓ muscle cramps;
✓ heat rash;
✓ severe thirst – a late symptom of heat stress;
✓ fainting;
✓ heat exhaustion – fatigue, giddiness, nausea, headache, moist skin;
✓ heat stroke – hot dry skin, confusion, convulsions and eventual loss of consciousness.
This is the most severe disorder and can result in death if not detected at an early stage.

6.2 Reducing the risk

Remove or reduce the sources of heat where possible:
✓ Control the temperature using engineering solutions, example change the processes,
use fans or air conditioning, use physical barriers that reduce exposure to radiant heat.
✓ Provide mechanical aids where possible to reduce the work rate.
✓ Regulate the length of exposure to hot environments by:
o allowing workers to enter only when the temperature is below a set level or at
cooler times of the day;
o issuing permits to work that specify how long your workers should work in
situations where there is a risk;
o providing periodic rest breaks and rest facilities in cooler conditions.

✓ Prevent dehydration. Working in a hot environment causes sweating which helps keep
people cool but means losing vital water that must be replaced. Provide cool water in
the workplace and encourage workers to drink it frequently in small amounts before,
during (where possible) and after working.
✓ Provide personal protective equipment. Specialized personal protective clothing is
available which can incorporate personal cooling systems or breathable fabrics. The use
of some protective clothing or respiratory protective equipment may increase the risk of
heat stress.
✓ Provide training for your workers, especially new and young employees, telling them
about the risks of heat stress associated with their work, what symptoms to look out for,
safe working practices and emergency procedures.
✓ Allow workers to acclimatize to their environment and identify which workers are
acclimatized or assessed as fit to work in hot conditions.
✓ Identify employees who are more susceptible to heat stress because of an illness,
condition or medication that may contribute to the early onset of heat stress, example
pregnant women or those with heart conditions. You may need advice from an
occupational health professional.

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6.3 Risk Assessment

Identify the hazards

One of the most important aspects of your risk assessment is accurately identifying the
potential hazards in your workplace. A good starting point is to walk around your workplace
and think about any hazards. In other words, what is it about the activities, processes or
substances used that could injure your employees or harm their health? When you work in a
place every day it is easy to overlook some hazards, so here are some tips to help you identify
the ones that matter:

✓ Check manufacturers’ instructions or data sheets for chemicals and equipment as they
can be very helpful in explaining the hazards and putting them in their true perspective.
✓ Look back at your accident and ill-health records – these often help to identify the less
obvious hazards.
✓ Take account of non-routine operations (example maintenance, cleaning operations or
changes in production cycles).
✓ Remember to think about long-term hazards to health (example high levels of noise or
exposure to harmful substances).

Evaluate the risks

Having identified the hazards, you then have to decide how likely it is that harm will occur, ie
the level of risk and what to do about it. Risk is a part of everyday life and you are not expected
to eliminate all risks. What you must do is make sure you know about the main risks and the
things you need to do to manage them responsibly.

Generally, you need to do everything ‘reasonably practicable’ to protect people from harm.
This means balancing the level of risk against the measures needed to control the real risk in
terms of money, time or trouble. However, you do not need to take action if it would be grossly
disproportionate to the level of risk.

Your risk assessment should only include what you could reasonably be expected to know – you
are not expected to anticipate unforeseeable risks.

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Risk Assessment Work Sheet

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Exercise
1. What is Heat stress?
2. What is Body reaction to heat?
3. What are the Effects of Heat stress?
4. What are the ways of reducing the risk?

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Element 7- COLD

Anyone working in a cold environment may be at risk of cold stress. Some workers may be
required to work outdoors in cold environments and for extended periods, for example, snow
cleanup crews, sanitation workers, police officers and emergency response and recovery
personnel, like firefighters, and emergency medical technicians. Cold stress can be encountered
in these types of work environment. The following frequently asked questions will help workers
understand what cold stress is, how it may affect their health and safety, and how it can be
prevented.
Learning Outcomes

In this section, you will get to know,

• How cold is too cold
• How does body react to cold?
• What is hypothermia?
• What is Frostbite?
How cold is too cold?

What constitutes extreme cold and its effects can vary across different areas of the country. In
regions that are not used to winter weather, near freezing temperatures are considered
"extreme cold." A cold environment forces the body to work harder to maintain its
temperature. Whenever temperatures drop below normal and wind speed increases, heat can
leave your body more rapidly.
Wind chill is the temperature your body feels when air temperature and wind speed are
combined. For example, when the air temperature is 40°F, and the wind speed is 35 mph, the
effect on the exposed skin is as if the air temperature was 28°F.
Cold stress occurs by driving down the skin temperature and eventually the internal body
temperature (core temperature). This may lead to serious health problems, and may cause
tissue damage, and possibly death.
What are the risk factors that contribute to cold stress?
Some of the risk factors that contribute to cold stress are:

✓ Wetness/dampness, dressing improperly, and exhaustion

✓ Predisposing health conditions such as hypertension, hypothyroidism, and diabetes
✓ Poor physical conditioning

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7.1 How does the body react to cold conditions?

In a cold environment, most of the body's energy is used to keep the internal core temperature
warm. Over time, the body will begin to shift blood flow from the extremities (hands, feet,
arms, and legs) and outer skin to the core (chest and abdomen). This shift allows the exposed
skin and the extremities to cool rapidly and increases the risk of frostbite and hypothermia.
Combine this scenario with exposure to a wet environment, and trench foot may also be a
problem.
What are the most common cold induced illnesses/injuries?

✓ Hypothermia
✓ Frostbite
✓ Trench Foot

What is hypothermia?

Hypothermia occurs when body heat is lost faster than it can be replaced and the normal body
temperature (98.6°F) drops to less than 95°F. Hypothermia is most likely at very cold
temperatures, but it can occur even at cool temperatures (above 40°F), if a person becomes
chilled from rain, sweat, or submersion in cold water.
What are the symptoms of hypothermia?

▪ Mild symptoms:
o An exposed worker is alert.
o He or she may begin to shiver and stomp the feet in order to generate heat.
▪ Moderate to Severe symptoms:
o As the body temperature continues to fall, symptoms will worsen and shivering will
stop.
o The worker may lose coordination and fumble with items in the hand, become confused
and disoriented
o He or she may be unable to walk or stand, pupils become dilated, pulse and breathing
become slowed, and loss of consciousness can occur. A person could die if help is not
received immediately.

What can be done for a person suffering from hypothermia?

▪ Call 911 immediately in an emergency; otherwise seek medical assistance as soon as

possible.
▪ Move the person to a warm, dry area.
▪ Remove wet clothes and replace with dry clothes, cover the body (including the head and
neck) with layers of blankets; and with a vapor barrier (e.g. tarp, garbage bag). Do not cover
the face.
▪ If medical help is more than 30 minutes away:

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o Give warm sweetened drinks if alert (no alcohol), to help increase the body
temperature. Never try to give a drink to an unconscious person.
o Place warm bottles or hot packs in armpits, sides of chest, and groin. Call 911 for
additional rewarming instructions.
▪ If a person is not breathing or has no pulse:
o Call 911 for emergency medical assistance immediately.
o Treat the worker as per instructions for hypothermia, but be very careful and do not try
to give an unconscious person fluids.
o Check him/her for signs of breathing and for a pulse. Check for 60 seconds.
o If after 60 seconds the affected worker is not breathing and does not have a pulse,
trained workers may start rescue breaths for 3 minutes.
o Recheck for breathing and pulse, check for 60 seconds.
o If the worker is still not breathing and has no pulse, continue rescue breathing.
o Only start chest compressions per the direction of the 911 operator or emergency
medical services
o Reassess patient’s physical status periodically.

What is frostbite?

Frostbite is an injury to the body that is caused by freezing of the skin and underlying tissues.
The lower the temperature, the more quickly frostbite will occur. Frostbite typically affects the
extremities, particularly the feet and hands. Amputation may be required in severe cases.
What are the symptoms of frostbite?

▪ Reddened skin develops gray/white patches.

▪ Numbness in the affected part.
▪ Feels firm or hard.
▪ Blisters may occur in the affected part, in severe cases.

What can be done for a person suffering from frostbite?

▪ Follow the recommendations described above for hypothermia.

▪ Do not rub the affected area to warm it because this action can cause more damage.
▪ Do not apply snow/water. Do not break blisters.
▪ Loosely cover and protect the area from contact.
▪ Do not try to rewarm the frostbitten area before getting medical help; for example, do not
place in warm water. If a frostbitten area is rewarmed and gets frozen again, more tissue
damage will occur. It is safer for the frostbitten area to be rewarmed by medical
professionals.
▪ Give warm sweetened drinks, if the person is alert. Avoid drinks with alcohol.

What is immersion/trench foot?

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Trench Foot or immersion foot is caused by prolonged exposure to wet and cold temperatures.
It can occur at temperatures as high as 60°F if the feet are constantly wet. Non-freezing injury
occurs because wet feet lose heat 25-times faster than dry feet. To prevent heat loss, the body
constricts the blood vessels to shut down circulation in the feet. The skin tissue begins to die
because of a lack of oxygen and nutrients and due to the buildup of toxic products.
What are the symptoms of trench foot?

▪ Redness of the skin, swelling, numbness, blisters

What can be done for a person suffering from immersion foot?

▪ Remove the shoes, or boots, and wet socks.

▪ Dry the feet.

7.2 How can cold stress be prevented?

Employers should train workers on how to prevent and recognize cold stress illnesses and
injuries and how to apply first aid treatment. Workers should be trained on the appropriate
engineering controls, personal protective equipment and work practices to reduce the risk of
cold stress.
Employers should provide engineering controls. For example, radiant heaters may be used to
warm workers in outdoor security stations. If possible, shield work areas from drafts or wind to
reduce wind chill.
Employers should use safe work practices. For example, it is easy to become dehydrated in cold
weather. Employers therefore, can provide plenty of warm sweetened liquids to workers.
Avoid alcoholic drinks. If possible, employers can schedule heavy work during the warmer part
of the day. Employers can assign workers to tasks in pairs (buddy system), so that they can
monitor each other for signs of cold stress. Workers can be allowed to interrupt their work, if
they are extremely uncomfortable. Employers should give workers frequent breaks in warm
areas. Acclimatize new workers and those returning after time away from work, by gradually
increasing their workload, and allowing more frequent breaks in warm areas, as they build up a
tolerance for working in the cold environment. Safety measures, such as these, should be
incorporated into the relevant health and safety plan for the workplace.
Dressing properly is extremely important to preventing cold stress. The type of fabric worn also
makes a difference. Cotton loses its insulation value when it becomes wet. Wool, silk and most
synthetics, on the other hand, retain their insulation even when wet. The following are
recommendations for working in cold environments:

▪ Wear at least three layers of loose fitting clothing. Layering provides better insulation. Do
not wear tight fitting clothing.
o An inner layer of wool, silk or synthetic to keep moisture away from the body.
o A middle layer of wool or synthetic to provide insulation even when wet.

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o An outer wind and rain protection layer that allows some ventilation to prevent
overheating.
▪ Wear a hat or hood to help keep your whole body warmer. Hats reduce the amount of body
heat that escapes from your head.
▪ Use a knit mask to cover the face and mouth (if needed).
▪ Use insulated gloves to protect the hands (water resistant if necessary).
▪ Wear insulated and waterproof boots (or other footwear).

Safety Tips for Workers

▪ Your employer should ensure that you know the symptoms of cold stress.
▪ Monitor your physical condition and that of your coworkers.
▪ Dress properly for the cold.
▪ Stay dry in the cold because moisture or dampness, e.g. from sweating, can increase the
rate of heat loss from the body.
▪ Keep extra clothing (including underwear) handy in case you get wet and need to change.
▪ Drink warm sweetened fluids (no alcohol).

Exercise

1. How does body react to cold?

2. What is hypothermia?
3. What is Frostbite?

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