Climate

Climate is the weather condition prevailing in an area in general over a long period of time.

In the eyes of Koppen, the world consists of 5 climate types:

 Tropical or Megathermal Climates (A): Tropical or mega thermal climates are

characterized as having constant warm temperature.
 Dry or Arid Climates (B): Dry or arid climates have low precipitation rates.
 Temperate or Mesothermal Climates (C): Temperate or meso thermal climates maintain
mild annual temperatures.
 Continental or Microthermal Climates (D): Continental or microthermal climates have
hot summers and cold winters occurring typically at the interior of a continent.
 Polar or Alpine Climates (E) Polar or alpine climates sustain consistent cold temperatures
throughout the year.

These classifications can be divided into finer units. So let’s go through each class and explore
where you live fits the criteria.

1. Tropical (A)

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It’s warm all year-round for tropical climates. You can typically find this type of climate near
the equator from 15°N to 15°S latitude.

For example, tropical rainforests are hot, moist regions easily distinguishable by their enormous
trees, diverse species and thick soils.

Tropical climates sustain a healthy portion of high temperature (+18°C) with its lowest mean
monthly air temperature is greater than 18 °C.

And you can divide tropical climates further by their amount of precipitations:

Climate Type Criteria

Tropical (A) The lowest mean monthly temperature is greater than 18°C.
Tropical rainforest (Af) Precipitation in the driest month is at least 6 cm or greater.
Precipitation in the driest month is less than 6 cm but more than 4%
Tropical monsoon (Am)
of total annual precipitation.

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Tropical wet and dry Precipitation in the driest month is less than 10 cm and less than 4%
savannah (Aw) of total annual precipitation.

2. Dry (B)

Dry climates are the only category in the Koppen climate classification that isn’t entirely based on
temperature. They are characterized by having a shortage of water with a low annual mean
precipitation rate because water evaporates quickly from its temperatures.

In order to classify dry climates, you calculate the precipitation threshold based on how much total
precipitation falls during the high sun period. In the northern hemisphere, the defined period is
from April to September. But in the southern hemisphere, it’s from October through March.

If the annual precipitation is less than 50% of the precipitation threshold, the classification is BW
(arid: desert climate). But if it is more than 50%, the Koppen climate classification is BS (semi-
arid: steppe climate). For example, Phoenix, Arizona has an average annual temperature of 21.8°C.

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Approximately 38.4% of its annual precipitation falls from April to September. Because its
precipitation threshold is less than 50%, Phoenix, Arizona is an arid desert climate.

Climate Type Criteria

Arid desert (BW) Annual precipitation is less than 50% of the precipitation threshold.
Semi-arid steppe (BS) Annual precipitation is more than 50% of the precipitation threshold.

3. Temperate (C)

Temperate climate types take the middle road for average temperature. These types of climates are
common along the edge of continents.

For example, coastal locations have moderate changes in temperature with mild winters and
summers. Seasonal changes aren’t as extreme as dry climates.

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If the average temperature of the warmest month is higher than 10°C and the coldest month is
between 18° and 0°C, then it’s considered a temperature climate.

Climate Type Criteria

Mild temperate dry Precipitation in the driest month of summer is less than 1/3 the amount
summer (Cs) in the wettest winter month.
Mild temperate dry Precipitation in the driest month of winter is less than 1/10 of the amount
winter (Cw) in the wettest summer month.
Mild temperate humid
Does not satisfy Cs or Cw climate types.
(Cf)

4. Continental (D)

Continental climates are usually situated in the interior of continents. They have at least one
month with an average temperature below 0°C. Likewise, at least one-month averages above 10
°C.

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When you combine continental and dry climate types, they take up a large portion (approximately
56%) of the surface. It also experiences drastic shifts during seasonal changes.

Typically, continental climates range from 40° to 75° latitudes in the northern and southern
hemispheres. However, this type of climate type is rare in the southern hemisphere.

Climate Type Criteria

Continental dry Precipitation in the driest month of summer is less than 1/3 the amount in
summer (Ds) the wettest winter month.
Continental dry winter Precipitation in the driest month of winter is less than 1/10 of the amount
(Dw) in the wettest summer month.
Continental humid (Df) Does not satisfy Ds or Dw climate types.

5. Polar (E)

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Lastly, polar climates endure frigid temperatures year-round. The average temperature of the
warmest month in polar climatic zones is below 10°C.

Typically, these types of climates occur in the polar regions, generally greater than 70° latitude in
the northern and southern hemispheres.

Very little vegetation grows in polar types climates because it’s above the tree line. Most icecap
type of climates belongs to Inner Greenland and Antarctica.

Climate Type
Criteria
Tundra (ET) The average temperature in the warmest month is between 10° and 0°C.
Ice Cap (EF) The average temperature of the warmest month is 0°C or below.

What’s the importance of defining climate systems?

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It’s becoming more necessary to document and catalog climate types around the world because of
the changing climate

Global climate change

Global climate change and in particular global warming is the hottest environmental issue today.
The science concerning global warming is known, and warming as a result of human activity is
occurring.

Tools for studying global warming

The geologic record

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Sediments deposited on floods plains or in lakes, bogs, glaciers, or the ocean may be compared to
pages of history book. Organic materials that is often deposited with sediment may be dated by a
variety of methods to provide a chronology. The organic material can tell a story concerning the
past climate, life forms in the area, and environmental changes that have taken place.

Glacial ice contains trapped air bubbles that may be analyzed to provide information concerning
atmospheric carbon dioxide (co2) concentrations when the ice formed. These trapped air bubbles
are atmospheric time capsules from the past and have been used to analyze the carbon dioxide
content of air as old as 160,000 years. Glaciers also contain a record of heavy metals such as lead
that settle out of the atmosphere as well as a variety of other chemicals that can be used to study
recent earth history.

Real time monitoring

Monitoring is regular collection of data for a specific purpose. Real time monitoring refers to
collecting these data while a process is actually occurring. Samples of atmospheric gases can help
establish trends or changes in the composition of the atmosphere. Measurement of temperature
and the composition are also used to examine changes within them. Gathering of real time data is
necessary for testing models and for calibrating the extended prehistoric record derived from
geologic data.

Methods of monitoring vary with the subject being measured. For example, the impacts from
mining may be monitored by evaluating remotely sensed data collected by satellite or high-altitude
aerial photographs. However the most reliable data are often derived from ground measurements
that establish the validity of the airborne or satellite measurements.

Mathematical models

Mathematical models use numerical means to represent a real-world phenomenon and the linkages
and interactions between the processes involved. Mathematical models have been developed to
predict the flow of surface water and groundwater, erosion and deposition of sediment in river
systems, ocean circulation and atmospheric circulation.

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The global change models that have gained the most attention are the Global circulation models
(GMCs). The models predict changes in atmospheric circulation at the global scale. Data used in
the calculations are arranged into large cells that represent several degrees of latitude and
longitude, typical cells represent an area about the size of Oregon. Calculations involving
equations for major atmospheric processes are then used to make predictions. The models do
predict the regions that are likely to be relatively wetter or drier on the basis of specific change in
the atmosphere.

The Greenhouse Effect

The temperature of the earth is determined by three factors: -

• The amount of sunlight earth receives

• The amount of sunlight earth reflects and therefore does not absorb

• Atmospheric retention of reradiated heat

The basics of earth’s energy balance represents the equilibrium between incoming and outgoing
energy. Earth receives energy from the sun in the form electromagnetic radiation. Radiation from
the sun is relatively short wave, mostly visible where earth radiates relatively long wave infrared
radiation. The hotter the object whether it is the sun, earth, rock or lake, the more electromagnetic
energy it emits.

Absorbed solar energy warms earth’s atmosphere and surface, which then reradiate the energy
back into the space as infrared radiation. Water vapour and several other atmospheric gases
including carbon dioxide (Co2), methane (CH4), and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), human made
chemicals used in the air conditioners and refrigerators tend to be tend to trap heat. That is they

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absorb some of the energy radiating from the earth surface and are thereby warmed. As a result,
the lower atmosphere of the earth is much warmer than it would be if all of its radiation escaped
into the space without the intermediate absorption and warming. This effect is somewhat
analogous to the trapping of heat by a greenhouse and is therefore referred to as the greenhouse
effect.

It is important to understand that the greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon that has been
occurring for millions of years on earth as well in other planets in our solar system. Without heat
trapped in the atmosphere earth would be much colder than it is now, and all surface water would
be frozen. Most of the natural “greenhouse warming” is due to water vapour and small particles of
water in the atmosphere.

However potential global warming due to human activity is related to carbon dioxide, methane,
nitrogen oxide, and chlorofluorocarbons. In the recent years, the atmospheric concentration of
these gases and others has been increasing because of human activities. These gases tend to absorb
infrared radiation from the earth, and it has been hypothesized that earth is warming because of
the increases in the amounts of these so called greenhouse gases. The rate of increase of these
atmospheric gases due to human induced emissions and their relative contribution to the
anthropogenic, or human caused component of the greenhouse effect. Carbon dioxide produces 60
percent of the relative contribution.

Potential effects of climate change

 Changes in climate patterns

Global rise in temperature might significantly change rainfall patterns, soil moisture and other
climatic features. Stable or expanding global construction activities are crucial to people
throughout the world who depend upon the construction as their economic activity. Hydrologic

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changes associated with climatic change resulting from global warming might seriously affect
design and construction of structures worldwide.

Global warming might also change the frequency and intensity of violent storms, and this change
may be more important than the issue of which areas become wetter, drier, hotter or cooler.
Warming oceans will feed more energy into high-magnitude storms such as hurricanes. More or
larger hurricanes would increase the hazard of living in low lying coastal areas, of which many
experiencing rapid growth of human population.

The global and regional climatic changes have a significant effect on the incidence of hazardous
natural events such as storm damage, landslides, droughts, and fires sometimes dramatically
illustrated by El Niño. El Niño is a natural climatic event that occurs of an average of once every
few years, most recently 2015-2016 and 1997-1998. This is a both an oceanic and atmospheric
phenomenon, involving unusually high surface temperatures in the eastern equatorial Pacific
Ocean and droughts and high intensity rainstorms in various places on earth.

 Sea level rise

A rise of sea level is a potentially serious problem related to global warming. Estimates of the rise
expected in the next century vary widely, from approximately 40 to 200cm (16 to 80 inch), and
precise estimates are not possible at this time.

However, a 40cm or (16 in.) rise in sea level would have a significant environmental impacts. Such
a rise could cause increased coastal erosion on open beaches of up to 80 m (260 ft), rendering
buildings and other structures more vulnerable to waves generated from high-magnitude storms.

In areas with coastal estuaries a 10cm (16 in.) sea level rise would cause a land ward migration of
existing estuaries, again putting pressure on human built structures in the coastal zones. A sea level
rise of 1 m (3.3ft) would have some very serious consequences; significant alterations would be
needed to protect investments in the coastal zones. Communities would have to choose between

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making very substantial investments in controlling coastal erosion or allowing beaches and
estuaries to migrate landward over wide areas.

 Change in the biosphere

There is a growing body of evidence that global warming is initiating a number of changes in the
biosphere, threatening both ecological systems and people. These include risk of extinction as land
use changes and habitat becomes fragmented. Other changes include shifts in the range of plants
and animals, with a variety of consequences;

 mosquitoes carrying diseases including malaria, Zika virus and dengue fever in Africa,
South America, central America and Mexico are migrating to higher elevations
 butterfly species are moving northward in Europe
 some birds species are moving northward in United Kingdom
 subalpine forest in the cascade mountains in Washington are migrating to higher meadows
 alpine plants in Austria are shifting to higher elevations
 sea melting in arctic is placing stress on sea birds, walruses and polar bears
 Warming of shallow water in the Florida Keys, Bermuda, Australia’s Great Barrier Reef
and many other tropical ocean areas is causing the bleaching of coral reefs.

Strategies for reducing the impact of global warming

Two big questions concerning the earth climate system and the people are;

1. What changes have occurred?

2. What changes could occur in the future?

Answering these questions requires geologic evaluation of prehistoric change and prediction
through modelling and simulation of future change. Because we know global warming is due in

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part to the increased concentration of greenhouse gases, reduction of these gases in the atmosphere
is a primary management strategy.

This was the subject of the 1997 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change in
Kyoto Japan. The objective of the convention was to produce an international agreement to reduce
emissions of greenhouse gases, especially carbon dioxide. The United States originally agreed to
reductions but in 2001refused to honour the agreement, much to the disappointment of other
nations, especially Europe allies. As a result, the leadership in controlling global warming has
shifted from the United States to the European Union. The Kyoto protocol was signed by 166
nations and became a formal international treaty in February 2005.

We are faced with a dilemma with respect to burning of fossil fuels. On the other hand, fossil fuels
are vital to our society and are necessary for continued economic development and growth, as well
as human well-being. Scientific evidence that burning fossil fuels is contributing significantly to
global warming. Burning fossil fuels is linked to environmental problems that include rise in sea
level, increased surface temperatures, and increase in frequency and intensity of storms such as
hurricanes.

It is important to recognize that following peak of emissions of carbon dioxide it will probably
take years it will probably take several hundred years to or longer before temperatures and sea
level stabilize. Therefore, the sooner we act to reduce emissions, the lower the impact will be and
sooner we will be on a path to stabilize climate change.

Assuming reduction of carbon emissions is necessary to reduce impacts of global warming, we

need to take action. There are several ways that we might reduce emissions of carbon dioxide into
the environment and they include: -

 Reduce emissions through improved engineering of fossil fuel-burning power plants

 Use those fossil fuels that release less carbon dioxide into the environment than does oil or
coal
 Conserve energy to reduce our dependence on fossil fuels
 Use more alternative energy sources
 Store carbon in earth’s systems such as forest, soils and in rocks below the earth surface.
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Storage of carbon in plants, soils, and in the ocean has received considerable study.

ELEMENTS OF WEATHER
Weather is the state of the atmosphere surrounding the earth at a certain area. The atmosphere is
a gaseous mantle (mostly oxygen and nitrogen) encasing the earth and rotating with it in space.
Weather is never static. It is dynamic, changing day-by-day, hour-by-hour and even minute-by-
minute. They are temperature, atmosphere, humidity, precipitation and cloud development

Temperature
Heat from the sun is transferred to the earth by radiation. This heat warms up the surface of the
earth and the atmosphere close to the surface is in turn warmed by heat reflecting from the surface.
This is the reason that the temperature above the surface is cooler than at the surface of the earth.
These temperatures generally decrease about 3.5 degrees per thousand feet in altitude. This
decrease is known as the adiabatic lapse rate.
The sun emits short-wave energy rays (radiation). When striking a solid object such as trees or
grass, it is warmed. The surface absorbs some of the heat and reflects some in long-wave radiation
that is absorbed by the water vapor in the air thus raising its temperature as well.
The type of surface will also affect the temperature. The temperature at the surface of a body of
water will be cooler because the heat will readily penetrate and spread throughout the water. On
the other hand, bare soil will be higher because heat will not penetrate. Instead, it will be
concentrated at the surface. In forested areas, the trees will absorb most of the heat.

Atmosphere
Atmospheric stability is the resistance of the atmosphere to vertical motion. If the atmosphere is
unstable, vertical movement of air is encouraged. If the atmosphere is stable, vertical movement
of air is discouraged. Parcels of air masses with different temperatures are continually mixing
trying to reach the same temperature, much as boiling water. The more difference in the

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temperatures in the atmosphere, the more unstable the conditions and the more movement of both
vertical and horizontally. More unstable conditions result in more vertical movement in the
atmosphere. Such conditions act like opening the damper on a stove.
The earth’s surface is not heated uniformly by the sun and this result in unstable conditions. The
warmer air next to the ground (heated from the ground) is lighter, since it expands, and tends to
rise. Cooler air from an area not heated as much and heavier, will flow in replacing the warmer
air--thus, wind. Forested areas will not heat up the adjacent air as much as a cleared field or
highways. Water will not heat up as much as land because a larger percent of the radiant heat is
readily absorbed into the lower levels of the water.

Cumulus clouds are an indicator of vertical movement. The higher they rise, the more unstable
the atmosphere is and with higher vertical movement. The air in the atmosphere mixes readily
with updrafts and downdrafts. Winds will be gusty and tend to change direction. With dry
conditions, there may be no cumulus clouds to show the unstable conditions. Other indicators are
strong, gusty winds, tall smoke columns, good visibility and dust devils or small whirlwinds.
Because of the radiant heat of the sun, stability changes much the same as the temperature and
relative humidity during a 24-hour period. Conditions are usually very stable at night and can
become very unstable during the day. An inversion is a layer in the atmosphere where the
temperature increases with altitude instead of decreasing. With warmer, less dense air, it acts as a
lid on updrafts. It is the most stable condition that exists, especially when close to the surface.
When the sun rises and begins to warm the earth’s surface, the lower atmosphere is warmed and
the inversion rapidly dissipates
Stable Conditions include; Clouds in layers, Stratus type clouds, Low clouds, Poor visibility,
Steady winds, Fog and Limited rise on smoke plumes
Unstable Conditions includes; Clouds growing vertically, Little or no clouds, Cumulus type
clouds, Smoke lifting high, Gusty winds, Good visibility and Dust devil

Humidity
The amount of water vapour in the air is its humidity. More water vapour in the air indicates higher
humidity. Time, place and temperature are the determining factors for humidity in the air. It can

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hold only a certain amount of water vapour at a given temperature. The instrument for measuring
relative humidity is known as hygrometer.
Relative humidity is Moisture in the form of water vapor is always present in the atmosphere. And
- the amount of moisture that is in the atmosphere affects the amount of moisture that is in the fuel.
Humidity is the ratio of the partial pressure of water vapor to the equilibrium vapor pressure of
water at a given temperature. It is the ratio of actual water vapor in the atmosphere compared to
the amount of water vapor that would saturate the atmosphere at that temperature. When the
relative humidity is 40 percent, it means that the atmosphere contains 40 percent of the moisture
that it could contain at that same temperature.
Relative humidity fluctuates widely during each 24-hour period. It will generally be the highest
in the early morning hours before daylight and the lowest during the early afternoon; the diurnal
cycle. This is because relative humidity is changed by temperature. When air is warmed, it
expands and as a result, will hold more moisture. The actual amount has not changed but it is
spread out over a larger area, consequently the percent is less. As temperature changes, relative
humidity changes but in the opposite direction. As temperature goes up, relative humidity goes
down and vice versa. Rule of Thumb: Relative Humidity doubles with each 20F drop in
temperature and halves with each 20F increase in temperature.

Precipitation
Precipitation (rain or snow) has a direct and immediate effect on fuel moisture and relative
humidity. Temperature usually drops as well and the winds become calm. When the atmosphere
becomes saturated, precipitation usually occurs if more moisture is added. Precipitation will
quickly dampen the surface of fuels to the point that fires cannot ignite and no wildfires will occur.

Cloud Development and Fronts

When moisture is added to the atmosphere or the air temperature is lowered, the relative humidity
increases. When it increases to the saturation point, the moisture begins to combine into droplets.
As this process continues, the droplets become visible--as clouds. When the atmosphere is very
dry, saturation may not be reached, and no clouds are formed.
Clouds are formed when there is a lot of surface heating from the sun and a lot of moisture is
present. As the air close to the surface is heated, it rises to be replaced by cooler air. The heated

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air can rise until it is saturated and clouds form. As it rises the warmer air cools until it reaches
the temperature of the surrounding air. At this altitude puffy type cumulus clouds will form. If
they continue to build up, they become darker and rain may occur.
Clouds are also caused by fronts. Fronts and the associated clouds are important because fronts
mean changing weather. Clouds are visible indicators of fronts and other weather phenomenon.
Cumulus clouds indicate vertical movement in the atmosphere. Clouds are moisture. The more
clouds available, the more moisture available and relative humidity will be higher. Overcast skies
shade the surface of the earth and less radiant heat is received. Temperatures are lower and winds
are more moderate.
The circulation around a low-pressure area causes horizontal converging of air at low levels and
lifting of air near the center. For this reason, low-pressure areas usually are areas of cloudiness and
precipitation. Frontal lifting is frequently combined with convergence.
When one mass of air is moving, it will push under the mass of air it is replacing if it is cooler,
causing the other mass to lift. If lifted high enough, clouds will form and rain may occur due to
cooling. If the air mass is warmer than the mass it is replacing, it will be pushed up over the other
mass. In either case, one air mass is lifted causing clouds. This is the reason we have changing
weather and possibly rain when a front comes through.

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