Electronics and communication
Electronics and communication
Introduction
accordance with modulating signals. Modulator circuits produce AM, DSB, and SSB
Amplitude Modulators
Amplitude Demodulators
Balanced Modulators
SSB Circuits
Basic Principle
As it is seen in the last study material that the basic equation for an AM signal is:
In the above equation, the first term is the sine wave carrier and the second term is
theproduct of the sine wave carrier and modulating signal.As it is apparent from Equ.
(7.1) that amplitude modulation voltage can be produced by a circuit that can multiply
the carrier by the modulating signal and then add the carrier. Block diagram realization
of above equation is shown in Fig (7-1). The product of the carrier and modulating
diode. A square law device can be used to generate product term of the expression. A
square-law function is one that varies in proportion to the square of the input signals. A
transistors (FETs) can also be biased to give a square-law response. A square law device
Vo = a (Vi) + b(Vi)2
Two conditions must be met in a circuit for heterodyning to occur. First, at least
two different frequencies must be applied to the circuit. Second, these signals must be
applied to a nonlinear impedance (Like transistor or diodes). These two conditions will
result in new frequencies (sum and difference) being produced. Any one of the
The way in which this can be applied, is shown in Fig 7-2. The diode serves as the
= a Vc sin 2πfct + a Vm sin 2πfmt + bV2c sin 22πfct + bV2m sin2 2πfmt + 2b Vc sin 2πfct. Vm sin
2πfmt
= a Vc sin 2πfct + 2b Vc sin2πfct. Vm sin 2πfmt + a Vm sin 2πfmt + bV2c sin 22πfct + bV2m
sin2 2πfmt
The other undesired harmonics as shown in Fig 7-3. The terms which are not bold in
above expression, can be deselected using a tank circuit which is tuned at frequency fC
Therefore,
* ( ) + ( 7.2)
( ) ≤ 1.
Low Level and High Level Modulation
modulation. With low-level modulation, the modulation takes place prior to the output
element of the final stage of transmitter. In high-level modulators, the modulation takes
at its maximum amplitude at the final element, therefore much higher amplitude
when all the amplifiers that follow the modulator stage must be linear
In low level modulator, little power is associated with either the carrier or the
Fig (7-5), diode modulation consists of a resistive mixing network, a diode rectifier, and
an LC tuned circuit. The carrier is applied to one of the input resistor and the
modulating signal to another input resistor. This resistive network causes the two
signals to be linearly mixed (i.e. algebraically added). A diode passes half cycles when
forward biased. The carrier amplitude controls the operating region of piecewise-linear
device. The carrier, in fact, would control the conducting stage of the diode described as
follows:
a) When the carrier is positive, the diode operates in the conducting region so that
it has low forward resistance. It acts as low resistance to the incoming signal.
b) When the carrier is negative, diode offers high resistance to the incoming signal
The coil and capacitor repeatedly exchange energy, causing an oscillation or ringing at
greater than that of the modulating signal, i.e. , Vc >> Vm. Now, the input signal to the
modulator is:
Since Vc controls the ON and OFF state of the diode, it acts like a switch. Thus, the
action of the carrier can be described by a switching function which can be written as
S(t) = o o o
The output signal would be the product of the input signal Vi(t) and switching function
S(t). Therefore,
Vo(t) = Vi(t) × S(t)
The amplitude modulated output will be contributed by the bold written terms in the
expression. Other terms will be blocked by an L-C tuned circuit which is tuned at
Where, m = is the modulation index. Equation (7-5) gives the desired output of AM.
Transistor Modulator (Basic Principle)
To perform modulation, we use non linear circuits. These circuits can be passive or
active. Besides providing modulation active circuits also gives power gain. Transistor is
network, a transistor, and an LC tuned circuit as shown in Fig (7-6). The emitter-base
junction of the transistor serves as a diode and nonlinear device. Modulation and
amplification occur as base current controls a larger collector current. The LC tuned
When no modulating signal is present, the circuit operates as a linear amplifier. The
output is simply the carrier amplified by the quiescent voltage gain. When a
multiplication occurs. The modulating signal varies the gain of the amplifier at a
sinusoidal rate equal to the frequency of the modulating signal and can be expressed as:
As cosine function goes from a maximum of +1 to a minimum of -1, above equation can
be reduced to
Av = Aq (1 ± m)
At 100% modulation,
Av (min) = 0
and the carrier is applied directly to the base. The modulating signal drives the circuit
into both saturation and cut-off states, producing the nonlinear amplification necessary
for modulation to occur. The collector waveform includes the carrier, upper and lower
capacitor C2 removes the modulating signal frequency from the waveform, producing a
symmetrical AM envelope at Vout .
Fig 7-8 Emitter AM Modulator waveforms.
1. Amplitude of the output signal depends on the amplitude of input carrier and
signal
Collector Modulator
with the modulating signal is applied to the collector. The schematic diagram for the
The RFC is a radio-frequency choke that acts as a short to DC and an open to high
frequencies. Therefore, it isolates the DC power supply from high-frequency carrier and
junction (approximately 0.7V), the transistor turns on and the collector current
flows.
Similarly, when the amplitude drops below 0.7V, the transistor turns off and the
collector current ceases. I.e. the transistor switches between saturation and cut-
During each time where the transistor is on, the negative going waveform is
The modulating signal adds to and subtracts from the DC supply VCC and the
signal.
Since the transistor operates nonlinearly, the collector waveform contains the two
original input frequencies (fc and fm ), the sum and difference frequencies ( fc ± fm ) as
The collector modulator is a linear power amplifier that takes the low-level modulating
signals and amplifies them to a high-power level. The operation of collector modulator
is similar to that of the plate modulator. The circuit configuration most often employed
connected in series with the collector supply voltage of the class C amplifier. A circuit of
The operation of this circuit is almost identical to the previous circuit except the
addition of a tank circuit in the collector of the transistor. The waveforms of the circuit
The waveforms for the modulating signal, carrier and collector current are
identical as before and the output is symmetrical AM DSBFC signal The positive half-
cycle of the envelope is produced in the tank circuit by the flywheel action. As the
− 2Vcc. The resonant frequency of the tank circuit is equal to fc , and the bandwidth
and all the higher-order cross products are removed leaving a symmetrical AM DSBFC
wave.
changing voltage on the emitter. The changing voltage is caused by the injection of the
modulating signal into the emitter circuitry of Q1, as shown in figure 7-13. Here the
modulating voltage adds to or subtracts from transistor biasing. The change in bias
AM Transmitter
Low-Level Transmitters
Figure 7.14 shows a block diagram for a low-level AM DSBFC transmitter
Fig 7-14 low-level AM DSBFC transmitter
The function of preamplifier (linear voltage amplifier with high input impedance) is to
raise source signal amplitude to a usable level with minimum nonlinear distortion and
RF carrier oscillator is used to generate the carrier signal, for this purpose usually
The buffer amplifier (low-gain, high-input impedance linear amplifier) is used to isolate
The intermediate and final power amplifiers (push-pull modulators) are required with
The coupling network matches output impedance of the final amplifier to the
walkie-talkie.
High-Level Transmitters
point). Same circuit as before, for carrier oscillator, buffer and driver but with addition
of power amplifier is also applied here. The modulator circuit has three primary
functions:
methods available, but they are the most common. All methods of AM modulation use
the easiest and least expensive types of modulation to achieve. The primary
First, with conventional AM, carrier power constitutes two thirds or more of the
total transmitted power .This is a major drawback because the carrier contains
no information.
sidebands is redundant.
In the next section, you will study other forms of modulation that have been
DSB-SC Modulators
Double sideband-suppressed carrier (DSB-SC) is a type of modulation, in which the
transmitted wave consists of only the upper and lower sidebands. Transmitted power is
saved through the suppression of the carrier wave, but the channel bandwidth
both the message signal m (t) and the carrier signal, as follows:
The modulated signal s (t) undergoes a phase reversal whenever the message
signal m (t) crosses zero. The envelope of a DSB-SC modulated signal is different
for amplitude modulation which is twice the bandwidth of the message signal,
2ωm.
1. Product Modulator
2. Balanced modulator
3. Ring modulator
Product Modulator
carrier and leaving only the sum and difference frequencies at the output. This
modulation process does not introduce sinusoid at fc and as a result, it is called Double-
In the time domain, for the baseband signal m(t) = Vm cosωmt, the DSB-SC signal
= Vm cosωmt × Vc cosωct
= [ o o ]
When the baseband is a single sinusoid of frequency fm, the modulated signal consists
of two sinusoids; the component of frequency ωc+ωm (USB) and the component of
Fig 7-14 shows the schematic diagram of product modulator for the realization of DSB-
modulating carrier frequency that differs from incoming carrier frequency by ωm.
Balance Modulator
One possible scheme for generating a DSBSC wave is to use two AM modulators
Fig. 7-14. Assume that two AM modulators are identical, except for the sign reversal of
the modulating signal applied to the input of one of the modulators. Thus the outputs
and
S2 (t) = Ac [1- kam (t)] cos ωct
Hence, except for the scaling factor 2ka the balanced modulator output is equal to
product of the modulating signal and the carrier signal as in product modulator.
Ring Modulator
The DSB-SC can be generated using either the balanced modulator or and the
‘ring-modulator’. The balanced modulator uses two identical AM generators along with
an adder. The two amplitude modulators have a common carrier with one of them
modulating the input message, and the other modulating the inverted message.
Ring modulator is one of the most useful product modulator, well suited for
transformers. If the transformers are perfectly balanced and the diodes are identical,
understand the operation of the circuit, assume that the diodes have a constant forward
resistance rf when switched on and a constant backward resistance rb when switched off;
and they switch as the carrier wave crosses through zero axis. On one half-cycle of the
carrier wave, the outer diodes ( D1-D3) are switched to their forward resistance rf and
the inner diodes (D2-D4) are switched to their backward resistance rb. On other half-
cycle of the carrier wave, the diodes operate in the opposite condition
Fig (7-15) The ring modulator used for the generation of DSB-SC
X(t) = ∑ o
W0(t) = o o o )
= o o o )
respect to both the message signal and the square wave carrier signal.
Filter Method
Filter Method
The filter method is the simplest and most widely used method of generating
SSB signals. The modulating signal is first applied to the audio amplifier. The amplifier’s
output is fed to one input of a balanced modulator. A crystal oscillator provides the
carrier signal which is also applied to the balanced modulator . The output of the
passing the DSB signal through a highly selective band-pass filter. With the filter
method, it is necessary to select either the upper or the lower sideband. Practically, the
construction of ideal filter is very difficult. The modulating signal is assumed to be a
single-frequency sine wave. The passband for the output filter is indicated on the
diagram for the upper sideband. The lower sideband also could be selected, if desired,
rather than the upper sideband. The sideband-suppression filter must have very sharp
cutoff characteristics, and the IF must be quite low for most SSB applications.
In a typical example, the filter’s response must change from near zero
attenuation to near full (30 dB or more) attenuation over a range of only 600 Hz. To
obtain a filter response curve with skirts as steep as those suggested, the Q of the filter
(reactance/resistance) must be very high. Possible filter types include LC filters, crystal
filters, ceramic filters, mechanical filters, and SAW filters. Because of Q limitations, LC
filters cannot be used for IF values greater than about 100 kHz. Mechanical filters have
been used at frequencies up to 500 kHz and crystal filters and ceramic filters up to
Phase-Shift Method
The phase-shift method of producing SSB suppressed-carrier signal is shown in
Figure 7-16. This method avoids filters and some of their attendant disadvantages.
Fig 7-16 SSB-SC Generation using Phase Shift Method
The audio input signal is applied to two all-pass networks with phase shifts that differ
by 90 degrees over the frequency range of interest. The signals are then applied to two
balanced modulators along with in-phase and quadrature (90-degree out of phase)
signals of the desired RF frequency. The in-phase and quadrature signals can be
operating at four times the output frequency. The outputs of the two balance
modulators are summed and then amplified to the desired level. The operation of an
SSB modulator that uses the phase shift method is demonstrated as follows:
This is the case for the output of the first modulator. When both modulating and carrier
frequencies are shifted 90 degrees, as in the case of the second balanced modulator, the
= * o ( ) o ( )+
= [ o o ] (7.4)
On the application of equation (7.3) and (7.4) to adder, the output of adder will be
Output corresponds to the equation of the lower sideband. If the polarity of one of the
modulating voltages or one of the RF voltages is reversed, the other sideband would
appear at the output terminals. Possible variations of SSB are SSB with full carrier and
SSB with reduced carrier. The carrier can be added after generation of the SSB signal.
Advantages
fit into a given frequency range than would be possible with double side band
DSB signals.
All of the transmitted power is message power none is dissipate as carrier power.
The noise content of a signal is an exponential function of the bandwidth: the
noise will decrease by 3dB when the bandwidth is reduced by half. There fore,
single side band SSB signals have less noise contamination than DSB double side
band.
Disadvantages
The cost of a single side band SSB reciver is higher than the double side band
The average radio user wants only to flip a power switch and dial a station.
Single side band SSB recievers require several precise frequency control settings
to minimize distortion and may require continual readjustment during the use of
the system.
AM Demodulation
So far, we have discussed various scheme of amplitude modulation. The basic
process involved in any AM system is frequency shift of baseband signal around carrier
signal. At the receiver end the modulated signal becomes meaningful for human use, if
fig 7.17.
Fig 7.17 Pcocess involved in modulation and demodulation
recover the original modulating information. The circuit used for modulation and
detection process be linear. Any new terms appearing in the frequency spectrum of the
indicate the same process. If the recovery of information signal involves the
reintroduction of the carrier, either internally as part of the applied modulated signal or
externally as produced by a local oscillator, and through converter action sum and
difference frequency terms are produced , then the process is technically demodulation.
DSB-SC and SSB-SC signal require a demodulation process. If frequency translation is
not essential to the recovery of the information signal, the process technically is
desirable kind. When the output of the detector is impressed upon a low-pass filter, the
radio frequencies are suppressed and only the low-frequency intelligence signal and dc
Square-Law Detection
Envelope Detection
Coherent Detection
extracting the desired message signal. Semi-conductor diodes and transistors are the
most common nonlinear devices used for implementing square law modulators. The
filtering requirement is usually satisfied by using a single or double tuned filters. When
portion of its characteristic curve, that is ,the signal applied to the diode is relatively
represented closely by a square law. In the square law region, the output voltage Vo is
proportional to the square of the input voltage Vi, thus Vo is proportional to the input
power.
Fig 7.18 Block Diagram of Square-Law Detector
diode. It differs from the linear diode detector is that in this case the applied input
carrier voltage is of small magnitude and hence is restricted to the excessively non
linear portion of the dynamic characteristic, whereas in linear diode detector, a large
amplitude modulated carrier voltage is applied to the diode and most of the operation
The basic circuit of square law diode detector is shown in Fig 7.19. The
diode is biased positively to shift the zero-signal operating point to the small current
combination constitutes the load. To study the operation of this detector, we may
consider first only the resistor R to constitute the load impedance. Then the dynamic
on the dynamic characteristic is also illustrated. This results in the output current
waveform. Since the operation takes place over the non linear region of the
A square law device has the input- output characteristics of the form
The first term in equation (7.7) contains terms in frequency ωc, (ωc - ωm), (ωc + ωm).
Evidently, the second term in equation (7.7) gives terms in frequencies 2ωc, 2(ωc - ωm),
component at the modulation frequency. The shunt capacitor C bypasses all the radio
frequency components like ωc, (ωc - ωm), (ωc + ωm), 2ωc, 2(ωc - ωm), 2(ωc + ωm) leaving only
the average component like ωm and 2ωm to flow through the load resistor R producing
the detected output. The term in frequency ωm constitute the desired output whereas
consider one of the simplest, used by most portable radios, etc, the Envelope Detector.
Envelope detector is used to detect high level modulated levels, whereas square -law
detector is used to detect low level modulated signals (i.e., below 1v). It is also based on
The operation of the envelope detector is as follows. On a positive half cycle of the input
signal, the diode is forward biased and the capacitor C charges up rapidly to the peak
value of the input signal. When the input signal falls below this value, the diode
becomes reverse biased and the capacitor C discharges slowly through the ‘bleed’
resistor R. The discharging process continues until the next positive half cycle. When
the input signal becomes greater than the voltage across the capacitor, the diode
conducts again and the process is repeated. The main advantage of this form of AM
Demodulator is that it is very simple and cheap! Just one diode, one capacitor, and one
resistor. That's why it is used so often. However, it does suffer from some practical
problems.
The circuit relies upon the behavior of the diode — allowing current
through when the input is +ve with respect to the capacitor voltage, hence ‘topping up’
the capacitor voltage to the peak level, but blocking any current from flowing back out
through the diode when the input voltage is below the capacitor voltage. Unfortunately,
all real diodes are non-linear. The current they pass varies with the applied voltage. As
a result, the demodulated output is slightly distorted in a way which depends upon the
diode's I/V characteristic. For example, most AM transistor radios produce output signals
like music with about 5-10% distortion. OK for casual listening, but hardly Hi-Fi! As a
result, this simple type of AM demodulator isn't any good if we want the recovered
circuit also suffers from the problems known as Ripple and Negative Peak Clipping. These
effects are illustrated in figure (7.21). The ripple effect happens because the capacitor
will be discharged a small amount in between successive peaks of the input AM wave.
The illustration shows what happens in the worst possible situation where the
modulating signal is a square wave whose frequency isn't much lower than the carrier
frequency. Similar, but less severe, problems can arise with other modulating signals.
Fig 7.22 Different value of RC affecting output of envelope detector
Consider what happens when we have a carrier frequency, ωc , and use an envelope
detector whose time constant, τ = RC. The time between successive peaks of the carrier
will be
Each peak will charge the capacitor to some voltage, Vpeak, which is proportional to the
modulated amplitude of the AM wave. Between each peak and the next the capacitor
[ ]
=
A sudden, large reduction in the amplitude of the input AM wave means that capacitor
charge isn't being ‘topped up’ by each cycle peak. The capacitor voltage therefore falls
exponentially until it reaches the new, smaller, peak value. To assess this effect,
consider what happens when the AM wave's amplitude suddenly reduces from Vpeak to
This produces the negative peak clipping effect where any swift reductions in the AM
wave's amplitude are ‘rounded off’ and the output is distorted. Here we've chosen the
worst possible case of square wave modulation. In practice the modulating signal is
normally restricted to a specific frequency range. This limits the maximum rate of fall of
the AM wave's amplitude. We can therefore hope to avoid negative peak clipping by
The above implies that we can avoid negative peak clipping by choosing a small value
Advantages:
It is inexpensive.
Disadvantage:
Due to large time constant, some distortion occurs which is known as diagonal
Application:
Coherent Detector
The base band signal m (t) can be recovered from a DSB-SC wave by multiplying it
with a locally generated sinusoidal signal and then low pass filtering the product. It is
assumed that local oscillator signal is coherent or synchronized, in both frequency and
phase ,with the carrier signal Vc(t) used in the product modulator to generate DSB-SC.
demodulation shown in Fig 7.22. For DSB-SC, we can no longer use the ‚envelope
detector‛ (as used for DSB-FC), in which no local carrier is required for the receiver. The
key to making the synchronous detector work is to ensure that the signal producing the
generated carrier signal from an oscillator will not work. Synchronous detectors use an
internal clock signal at the carrier frequency in the receiver to switch the AM signal off
= [ o ] .
Points to Remember
Suppressed carrier systems are well suited for point –to-point communications.
voice signals over metallic circuits, because it permits longer spacing between the
repeaters.
does.
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Questions
1. Explain Amplitude modulation with spectrum. Show that a nonlinear device can
be used for generating AM signal. What are its limitations?
2. Explain the generation of AM wave using a) Square law modulator b) Switching
modulator.
3. Explain the DSB-SC wave modulation with spectrum.
4. Explain the generation of DSB-SC wave using a) Balanced modulator b) Ring
modulator.
5. Explain SSB Modulation with its Spectral characteristics? What are the
Problems