Food Engineering Reviews (2022) 14:535–554

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12393-022-09316-0

A Cold Plasma Technology for Ensuring the Microbiological Safety

and Quality of Foods
Ozioma Forstinus Nwabor1 · Helen Onyeaka2 · Taghi Miri2 · Kechrist Obileke3 · Christian Anumudu2 ·
Abarasi Hart4

Received: 20 January 2022 / Accepted: 7 May 2022 / Published online: 24 June 2022
© The Author(s) 2022

Abstract
Changing consumers’ taste for chemical and thermally processed food and preference for perceived healthier minimally
processed alternatives is a challenge to food industry. At present, several technologies have found usefulness as choice meth-
ods for ensuring that processed food remains unaltered while guaranteeing maximum safety and protection of consumers.
However, the effectiveness of most green technology is limited due to the formation of resistant spores by certain foodborne
microorganisms and the production of toxins. Cold plasma, a recent technology, has shown commendable superiority at
both spore inactivation and enzymes and toxin deactivation. However, the exact mechanism behind the efficiency of cold
plasma has remained unclear. In order to further optimize and apply cold plasma treatment in food processing, it is crucial to
understand these mechanisms and possible factors that might limit or enhance their effectiveness and outcomes. As a novel
non-thermal technology, cold plasma has emerged as a means to ensure the microbiological safety of food. Furthermore, this
review presents the different design configurations for cold plasma applications, analysis the mechanisms of microbial spore
and biofilm inactivation, and examines the impact of cold plasma on food compositional, organoleptic, and nutritional quality.

Keywords Cold plasma · Food safety · Shelf-life · Microbial spores · Food quality

Introduction food preservatives, has resulted in a craving for minimal

preserved food, considered healthy and safe. Synthetic pre-
Food preservation is an age-long science that has continu- servatives including butylated hydroxytoluene, butylated
ously evolved. Ancient people employed physical means, hydroxyanisole, sorbic acid, propyl gallate, and sodium
including sun drying, roasting, smoking, fermentation, nitrate have been correlated with cytotoxicity, suppression of
and salting, to preserve farm produce. With the advent of immune response, and genotoxicity [1–3]. Thus, to accom-
science and technology, chemicals with antimicrobial and modate the trending consumer’s taste, and ensure consum-
antioxidant properties were adopted as ideal food preserva- ers’ safety, several advances in food science and technology
tives. However, contemporary consumers’ taste, guided by have emerged as an alternative, effective, and safe approach
scientific revelations on the adverse health impact of most for preserving food products and agricultural produce [4–6].
Also, the use of multiple combinations of food preservation
techniques is suggested to enhance the safety of food prod-
* Helen Onyeaka
[email protected] ucts while ensuring extended product shelf-life [7, 8]. Unfor-
tunately, high demands are placed on the ideal preservation
1
Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal technique, with several lofty expectations. The acceptance
Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Prince of Songkla of preservative technique depends on factors ranging from
University, Hat Yai, Songkhla 90112, Thailand
health effects, cost and energy demands, duration of the
2
School of Chemical Engineering, University of Birmingham, shelf-life extension, ability to inactivate foodborne patho-
Edgbaston B15 2TT, UK
genic and spoilage vegetative microorganisms and spores,
3
Renewable and Sustainable Energy, University of Fort Hare, effects on food nutritional and organoleptic properties,
Alice 5700, Eastern Cape, South Africa
timing, and adaptability. Food preservation is a sacrosanct
4
Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, The component of the food production chain that promotes food
University of Sheffield, Sheffield S1 3JD, UK

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536 Food Engineering Reviews (2022) 14:535–554

security. Current estimates suggest that one-third of agri- of these methods have been reported to inactivate micro-
cultural produce are lost to food spoilage, with 25% of the bial spores in food, food processing facilities, and contact
total food loss attributed to microbial spoilage [9]. Micro- surfaces. Treatment of food with pulse electric field [14,
bial-mediated food deterioration is likely the most frequent 15], plasma technology [16, 17], ultrasonication [18–20],
cause of food loss and wastage of agricultural produce. and high hydrostatic pressure [21] alone or in combinations
The lack of a proper preservative/storage facility contrib- demonstrated promising results for spore inactivation in food
utes significantly to the global food security crisis. Hence, products.
proper storage and food preservation are key agricultural Moreover, cold plasma must be evaluated critically as an
goals to ensure food security and availability. Although gaint emerging food processing alternative before being accepted
progressive strides have been made in the science of food by the food industry. In 2018, Pankaj et al. [22] published a
preservation and processing, the goal of achieving a natu- review of cold plasma technology that discussed the nega-
ral, unaltered food with maximum safety remains elusive. tive effects and limitations. The overview did not explain
Microbial harzards including food spoilage and foodborne how spore-forming microbes and spores are inactivated.
diseases and food contamination demand greater invest- Recently, Laroque et al. [23] published another review that
ments towards ensuring consumers’ safety. describes in detail the most promising cold plasma sources
Food safety is a critical global issue that requires the con- and operation modes, the influence of operating conditions
certed efforts of both food producers and consumers. The on plasma properties, and the efficacy of this technology in
spread of pathogenic microorganisms, microbial toxins, and food processing. This review looked at the design of cold
other contaminants through food and drinks is a major dis- plasma processes that inactivate target microorganisms
ease and infection source. Mortality and morbidity due to with minimal impact on food quality. The previous review
foodborne diseases and intoxication are the major sources papers examined the impact of cold plasma species on food
of economic loss. Although the primary aim of preserva- components at molecular level and design methods to mini-
tion is the extension of food shelf-life, by extension, pres- mize the impact of the interactions. A review on the effects
ervation ensures the safety of food products through the of cold plasma on the chemical structure of different food
controls of pathogenic foodborne microorganisms. Various components and their impact on food attributes has been
chemical food preservatives possess antimicrobial proper- reported by Saremnezhad et al. [24]. But this review aims
ties that inhibit the proliferation of spoilage and pathogenic to highlight cold plasma technique as a recent ideal green
microorganisms. preservation technique by comprehensively elucidating its
Similarly, most evolving green technologies employed to benefits/advantages, superior attributes at spore inactivation,
preserve food inhibits microbial growth and, at increased mechanism of microbial inactivation, and factors that should
intensity, inactivates microbial cells. Although most pres- be considered to ensure optimal outcomes. Conversely, the
ervation and storage techniques such as pasteurization and formation of biofilm on food contact surfaces is a critical
freezing can effectively inhibit or inactivate foodborne safety concern in the food industry, since it is a potential
microorganisms, the presence of microbial spores in food source of contamination; for this reason, the most distinctive
constitutes a significant risk to food safety. Under preser- contribution of this review focuses on exploring how biofilm
vation treatments and unfavorable storage conditions, cer- can be disrupted through plasma treatment. The objective
tain pathogenic foodborne bacteria belonging to the genus is to provide food researchers, technologist/engineers, and
Clostridium and Bacillus adopt the inactive spore forms to industrialist with additional knowledge that could help pro-
survive. The subsequent regermination of spores into vegeta- mote and ensure effective understanding and application of
tive cells leads to food contamination, especially of finished cold plasma technique in food preservation and for enhance-
products. Microbial spores are recalcitrant to food process- ment of food safety.
ing and preservation treatments and are frequently asso-
ciated with contaminated of finished processed products.
Effective inactivation of microbial spores is a fundamental Plasma Technology
requirement for an ideal food preservation regimen. Several
emerging technologies, although capable of effectively inac- In the food industry, several green technologies have been
tivating microbial vegetative cells, fail to eliminate spores. adopted to rid production lines and products of microor-
Microbial spores survive treatments such as thawing, heating ganisms that could compromise product quality, resulting
[10], freezing, and UV radiations [11–13]. The presence of in recalls and foodborne illness outbreaks. This has led to
microbial spores in food products is a major cause of food- an upsurge on the topic of applications of green technolo-
borne disease and intoxication. Thus, several novel technolo- gies in preservation and shelf-life extension. Over the last
gies have been proposed to address challenges posed by the decade, the use of plasma has gained extensive applicabil-
spore forming pathogenic foodborne microorganisms. Some ity in the food industry as a relatively new and promising

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Food Engineering Reviews (2022) 14:535–554 537

non-thermal decontamination technology. The technol- by the chemical composition of the gas. However, plasma
ogy is not limited to the food industry alone but extends properties are influenced by the size, time scale, tempera-
to other sectors, including the surface decontamination of ture, and density of the charged and reactive species [52]. In
medical devices and environments [25–28], sanitization of a recent review published by Laroque et al. [23], factors such
heat-sensitive biological and chemical agents [29], environ- as gas composition, relative humidity, and electrode and
mental degradation of waste and toxic residues [30], and dielectric barrier including electrode and dielectric materi-
in the textile industry [31–33]. Its technique involves the als, electrode geometry, and shape have been discussed in
application of plasma such as ionized or partially ionized relation to plasma reactive species formation and ionization,
gases to inactivate food contaminants, including microbial efficiency, and action.
cells, enzymes, and toxins. The plasma is created either by Processing food is an important step in extending the
sufficiently heating gas in an enclosed chamber under deep shelf life and preserving the nutritional quality of food
vacuum or by using radiofrequency or microwave energy to while reducing post-harvest losses. With cold plasma, a
excite the gas molecules in order to produce free radicals, gaseous matter is converted into an ionized gas known
which are the main constituents of plasma. as plasma (comprising electrons, ions, neutral molecules,
Plasma has been described as the fourth state of matter and atoms as well as charged reactive species) when suf-
(i.e., solid, liquid, gas, and plasma). It is a collection of both ficient energy is applied. The application of cold plasma
neutral and charged particles referred to as reactive species. technology for food safety and preservation can be cat-
In a plasma state, molecules dissociate into their atomic ele- egorized into three types as follows: (i) direct plasma
ments, losing electrons and acquiring a higher energy state treatment which is generated at the site of application,
[34]. The efficacy of plasma technology depends on factors (ii) indirect plasma treatment in which it is created at a
such as energy defined as pressure, temperature, the ther- remote location and delivered to the target, and (iii) solu-
modynamic equilibrium between the particles [34], and the tion treated with plasma such as plasma-activated water
type of gas used [35]. Though plasma induction requires used as a disinfectant [53]. The configuration of different
sufficiently high energy, recent advancements in plasma cold plasma designs food safety applications is shown in
physics have made it possible to generate “cold plasma” at Fig. 1. As shown in Fig. 1a, plasma can be generated via
ambient temperatures and atmospheric pressures. This gen- dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) by dispersing current
erated cold plasma can be applied in medicine for steriliza- flow through dielectric materials between electrodes. In
tion [26], wound healing [36], and disease treatment [37, packaging where reactive oxygen and nitrogen species can
38]; in agriculture to enhance seed germination [39–41]; be generated directly within sealed packages, the DBD
and in the food industry for inactivation of vegetative and is highly appropriate for inactivating microorganisms on
spores of foodborne pathogenic and spoilage microorgan- fresh produce. Typical operation conditions are gas pres-
isms, enzyme inactivation, and toxin inactivation. Conse- sure in the range of 1­ 04–106 Pa and frequency 10–50 MHz.
quently, cold plasma has also been employed in environ- Due to its cost-effectiveness, configuration flexibility ena-
mental management for the degradation of contaminants bles food treatment in-package (such as meats, poultry,
such as pesticides [42] and dyes [43], and for the decon- fruits, and vegetables) and prevents post-contamination,
tamination and treatment of wastewater [44–47]. Other areas and consequently, the most convenient method of plasma
of applicability include catalysis and material sciences for generation, the DBD method, is the most commonly used
surface modification and functionalization [48–50] as well [23, 54]. Figure 1b illustrates the design configuration of
as sterilization. However, the application of cold plasma in plasma jet in which an inlet gas flows between electrodes
food sterilization has revolutionized preservation technol- while the outer electrode is grounded; the central elec-
ogy, offering a healthy alternative with negligible effect on trode is driven by high-voltage power supply to produce
the food nutritional and organoleptic properties. The cold free electrons that collide with gas molecules to produce
plasma is produced through partial ionization of gaseous various reactive species. The discharge plasma is utilized
molecules [51]. For food processing, plasma generation for the treatment of the food product. However, the appli-
methods are classified as dielectric barrier discharge (DBD), cation is area-limited. Corona plasma discharge is classi-
plasma jet (PJ), corona discharge (CD), radiofrequency (RF), fied as atmospheric pressure cold plasma. It occurs when
and microwave (MW). A detailed review of the specifics and current flows from an electrode with a high potential into
applicability for each has been reported by Laroque et al. a space filled with air or other gases, ionizing it in the
[23]. Researchers are most interested in DBD plasma gen- process and creating a region of plasma around the elec-
eration methods because they are a safe and low-cost alter- trode as shown in Fig. 1c. It can be powered with high-
native for processing applications. Applied electric fields pulsed DC or AC voltage. Unlike the other electrode con-
and spatial charge distribution are responsible for electron figurations, the electrodes here are highly asymmetrical,
energy, which drives plasmas’ reactivity, which is influenced designed with a thin wire or needle electrode facing flat

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Fig. 1  Different configuration of cold plasma designs for food safety applications: a dielectric barrier discharge, b plasma jet, c corona discharge,
d radiofrequency, and e microwave plasma system

plane or large diameter cylinder electrode. Furthermore, compared to DBD [55]. However, the produced plasma is
corona discharge arcs are commonly created by strong characteristically inhomogeneous, limiting its application
electric fields generated by small diameter wires, needles, for uniform treatment.
or sharp-edge electrode (see Fig. 1c). Notably, the corona On the other hand, radiofrequency (RF) plasma is formed
plasma region occurs in the immediate locality of the of by applying a radio frequency field to a gas flow as shown in
the point electrode. Unlike plasma jet, the corona plasma Fig. 1d. RF plasmas can be classified into capacitively cou-
discharge has a more extensive coverage of food sample pled plasma, inductively coupled plasma and helicon wave
area and also produces denser and more energetic plasma sources. The design configuration consists of two parallel

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Food Engineering Reviews (2022) 14:535–554 539

electrodes separated by a gap of a few centimeters in a vac- negatively charged, and UV radiation [59]. For effective
uum chamber [23, 54]. Methodologically, it can be operated operation of this design, products to be treated or sterilized
in the range of 1–100 MHz [56]. In contrast, microwave must fit between the electrode. The system can be best used
discharge is generated by a magnetron with a typical elec- for smaller food products such as seeds, berries, nuts, and
tromagnetic wave frequency of about 2.45 GHz (Fig. 1e). By flatter objects like chicken breast [53].
directing the electromagnetic waves into the treatment cham-
ber, the microwaves are absorbed by the gas which heats Cold Plasma as an Ideal Preservation Method
and ionizes, causing the release of electrons. This results in
ionization reactions because of inelastic collisions, releas- Plasma processing uses cold plasma to extend the shelf-
ing energy as photons of visible light and UV light. Unlike life of products and is a green, contemporary preservation
other plasma source that uses electrodes, it uses antenna method that is compatible with a range of food types. The
switches as microwave gas discharge plasma devices which efficacy of the technology has been demonstrated in sev-
uses the high-power microwave pulse for plasma generation eral reported articles on a wide variety of food, including
[57]. The purpose of this pulse is to prevent damage to the natural and processed products. Also, the application of the
receivers of low-signal microwaves through the circuit. The method to surface sanitization of in-package fruit and other
microwave electromagnetic field accelerates the electrons of food products, including vegetables, meat, cereal grains, has
gas molecules to create plasma. The technique has the poten- demonstrated promising results, with effective eradication of
tial to generate both quasi-equilibrium and non-equilibrium microorganisms, prolonging of products shelf life, reducing
plasma for different applications [57]. Microwave plasma spoilage losses, and improving nutritional, functional, and
configuration comprises of the following components: a sensory properties of food products [60]. In addition, cold
power source such as magnetron, circulator, standing wave plasma technology offers numerous advantages, including
ratio meter, matching circuit/network and microwave-to- rapid processes, enhanced process efficiency, elimination of
plasma applicator. process steps, better quality product, and retention of prod-
uct characteristics (e.g., texture, nutrition value, organolep-
Cold Plasma Design tic properties), and improved shelf life. Table 1 highlights
reported applications of cold plasma technology in different
Three major designs of cold plasma technology for food food types. It is clear that significant log reduction of spore-
sterilization are currently employed. These include remote formers microbes as well as inactivation spores itself can be
treatment, direct treatment, and close proximity with an achieved with cold plasma technology. Also, the technique
electrode. These designs are configured according to the can be applied for a wide variety of purpose such as decon-
positioning of the source that generates the plasma and the tamination, inactivation of spores and spore-formers, food
surface of the target [53]. In the remote treatment design, quality preservation, in-packaging treatment, and food self-
the target product is not placed directly in the plasma cham- life extension (Table 1). Consequently, it can be applied to
ber. The ionized gas used for remote treatment might be air, food products in various forms: juice, vetegables and fruits,
nitrogen, or a mixture of noble gases [53]. The limitation and meats. One of the major advantages of cold plasma pro-
of the remote treatment design is the generation of reactive cessing over other non-thermal technologies is the evidenced
species which might interact with other plasma species such effectiveness at spore inactivation [17, 61], and it also inac-
as charged particles or photon species. However, in terms of tivates microbial toxins [17, 62, 63]. More also, co-usage
design, the remote treatment is preferred over others because of cold plasma processing with other technologies or as an
of its design simplicity, size flexibility, and target physical adjunctive technique ensures effective deactivation of veg-
shape. Unlike the remote treatment, in the direct treatment, etative cells and microbial spores by efficiently ensuring the
the target product is placed in direct contact with the gen- inactivation of microbial proteins.
erated plasma and often employs the plasma needle and
microwave plasma tube [53]. The direct treatment results Mechanism of Microbial Inactivation
in higher exposure to UV radiation because of the closeness
of the target product. This results in high moisture content The inactivation of bacteria, spores, and other microorgan-
due to the heat generation by conduction in the product isms in foods and on non-food surfaces has been demon-
[58]. This process alters the appearance and texture of food strated through a variety of studies using atmospheric cold
products such as meats and deteriorates vitamins and nutri- plasma. It has also been reported that cold plasma process-
ents. In close proximity design, the food product is placed ing effectively inactivates a broad range of microorganisms
in close proximity to one of the electrodes. This type of by generating reactive species lethal to cells [87]. The pro-
design ensures that the target product is exposed to a higher cess of generating plasma through the oxidation of gases
combination of reactive charged particles, electrons that are produces reactive species such as reactive oxygen species

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 Table 1  Applications of cold plasma technology in food preservation and shelf-life extension
540

Food Operation parameters Organisms targeted Microbial Log reduction Technologies Gas Purpose Reference

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Raw chicken breast 60, 70, or 80 kV for 60, Psychrophiles > 1.0 log Dielectric discharge O2 and ­CO2 In-packaging treatment [64]
meat 180, or 300 s
Fresh and frozen pork 20 kV, 58 kHz, for 0, Escherichia 1.5 log and > 1.0 log Corona discharge Air Quality Preservation [65]
30, 60, 90, and 120 s coli O157:H7 and Listeria plasma jet
monocytogenes
Sprout of rapeseed 20 kV, 1.5 A, and 58 kH Bacillus cereus, 1.2–2.2 log Corona discharge Air Decontamination [66]
(Brassica napus L.) Escherichia coli, plasma je
seeds Salmonella spp.
Ready-to-eat ham 30 kV at 3.5 kHz Listeria monocytogenes 4 log CFU/cm2 Dielectric barrier O2 + ­N2 + CO2 Microbial inactivation [67]
discharge OR
CO2 + N
Cherry (40, 60, 80 kV) at (60, TBC 3 log Dielectric barrier Dry air Preservation [68]
80, 100, 140 s) discharge
Blueberries - Aerobic mesophilic total 0.68–1.25 log CFU/g Diffuse coplanar surface Nitrogen gas Microbial inhibition [69]
viable count, yeasts barrier dis -charge
and molds
Asian sea bass 230 V at 50 Hz for 5 Psychrophilic bacteria, Dielectric barrier Ar2/O2 Shelf-life extension [70]
min lactic acid bacteria, discharge
Pseudomonas,
Enterobacteriaceae
Clostridium perfringens
Black peppercorns 10.3 kV and 22.1 min Bacillus tequilensis 3.4 log CFU/g 1.7 log Dielectric barrier Helium Decontamination [71]
spores/g discharge
Red pepper flakes 50–1000 W Bacillus cereus and 0.7 ± 0.1 and 1.4 ± 0.3 Microwave plasma Helium/oxygen Preservation [72]
Aspergillus flavus log spores c­ m−2 (99.8:0.2 v/v)
1.5 ± 0.3 and 1.5 ± 0.2
log spores c­ m−2
Fresh-cut carrot 100 kV for 5 min (∼250 Total aerobic mesophiles, 2 log10 CFU/g Dielectric barrier Atmospheric air Decontamination [73]
W power) and yeast and mold discharge
Ready-to-eat rocket 6 kV, 45 kHz Total Viable Count 0.57 to 1.02 log CFU/g Dielectric barrier Atmospheric air shelf-life extension [74]
leafy salad (TVC), Pseudomonas discharge
spp., lactic acid bacteria
(LAB), yeasts and
molds
Powdered Spirulina 10–20 W Bacillus subtilis spore 2 logs Dielectric barrier Nitrogen gas Spore inactivation and [16]
algae discharge preservation
Blueberry 45 kV, 50 s Botrytis cinerea spore - Dielectric barrier - Preservation [75]
discharge
Tomato juice 50 Hz, 3.8 kV, and C. albicans 2 to 7 log10 CFU/m AC powered GlidArc Air Shelf-life extension [60]
40 W and S. cerevisiae, reactor
Food Engineering Reviews (2022) 14:535–554
 Table 1  (continued)
Food Operation parameters Organisms targeted Microbial Log reduction Technologies Gas Purpose Reference

Fresh leafy vegetable 26 kV, 2500 Hz Escherichia coli 5.5 × 103 CFU/mL Dielectric barrier Air Microbial inhibition [76]
discharge
White shrimp 10 min, 500 Hz, 40 kV Staphylococcus spp., 1–2 log Dielectric barrier Atmospheric air Preservation [77]
and Salmonella sp. discharge
Chub mackerel 60 kV and 60 s Total viable count 1.47 and 2.7 log CFU Dielectric barrier Atmospheric air Preservation [78]
discharge
Ready to eat meat 10 kV, 2 kHz Salmonella Typhimurium 1.14 log Dielectric barrier N2, ­CO2 Decontamination [79]
(Ham) and Listeria And 1.02 log discharge
monocytogenes
Tomato 260 V at 50 Hz Escherichia coli 6 log CFU m
­ L−1 Dielectric barrier Atmospheric air Sanitization [80]
Food Engineering Reviews (2022) 14:535–554

discharge
Fresh meat 80 kV for 60, 120 or Brochothrix 2 Log Dielectric barrier CO2 + ­O2 Shelf-life extension [81]
300 s thermosphacta discharge
Radish sprouts 2.45 GHz, 50–1000 W, Salmonella typhimurium 2.6 ± 0.4 log CFU/g Microwave generated Nitrogen gas Preservation [82]
Onion powder 170 mW m ­ −2, 250 mW Bacillus cereus, 2.1 log spores/cm2, 1.6 Microwave generated Helium Decontamination [83]
­m−2 Aspergillus brasiliensis log spores/cm2, and
and Escherichia coli 1.9 CFU/cm2
O157:H7
Beef loin 9 kHz, 8.16, 8.88, 9.44 Staphylococcus aureus, > 2 log Dielectric barrier Air Preservation [84]
kV Listeria monocytogenes discharge
and Escherichia coli
Raw chicken breast 50 W Escherichia coli 1.44 log CFU/g Plasma jet based on N2 + ­O2 Decontamination [85]
cold arc plasma
Apple juice 65 V, 1.1 MHz Citrobacter freundii 5 log Plasma jet Argon and oxygen Decontamination [86]

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(ROS), reactive nitrogen species (RNS), UV radiation, the roles of plasma species on microbial inactivation found
energetic ions, and charged particles [88, 89]. However, the that NO and ions were contributed minimally to the cellular
antimicrobial effects of cold plasma have been reported to effects, whereas ROS caused rapid bacterial inactivation and
be primarily due to the activities of reactive species [90]. induced eukaryotic and prokaryotic oxidative stress [91].
During plasma discharge, the radical species exert antimi- Figure 2 describes the mechanism of free radical-induced
crobial effects principally through the induction of oxidative oxidative stress resulting in damage and cell lysis. Other
stress, resulting in loss of cellular function and lysis of cell. plasma byproducts such as UV radiation, H ­ 2O2, and electro-
The induced oxidative stress enhances cell damaged through magnetic fields acting together enhance microbial inactiva-
membrane poration, lipid peroxidation, enzyme inactivation, tion. Treatment of C. difficile spores with cold plasma led to
and DNA cleavage. At the same time, the cold plasma spe- ∼3 log reduction in viable spore counts after 5 min [92]. The
cies act on multiple sites of both bacterial and fungal cell, detection of reactive species responsible for cell death using
resulting in structural and functional alterations, and ulti- optical emission spectroscopy demonstrated the presence of
mately cell death. Likewise, the species cause the chemical atomic oxygen, atomic nitrogen, hydroxyl radicals, nitrite
breakdown of toxins such as aflatoxin to produce degrada- oxide, and nitrate in light emitted from the plasma. In addi-
tion products that are less toxic [51]. An investigation into tion, cell membrane damage was observed using scanning

Fig. 2  Mechanism of microbial

inactivation by cold plasma
treatment. Adopted from
Dobrynin et al. [88]

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electron microscopy, SEM [93]. The SEM showed that CP identified in contaminated food and food products, including
caused the mycelium fold and collapse depression on Bot- aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, patulin, fumonisins, zearalenone,
rytis cinerea [75]. and nivalenol/deoxynivalenol. Thus, effective denaturing of
microbial toxins ensures food safety. Cold plasma treatment
Effect of Cold Plasma on Microbial Spores and Toxins has been evidenced to neutralize microbial toxins and inhibit
the synthesis of toxins. High-performance liquid chroma-
The effectiveness of cold plasma processing has been exten- tography revealed inactivation of aflatoxin production by A.
sively investigated on both vegetative microbial cells and parasiticus and A. flavus following plasma treatment [95].
inactive spores. Several researchers have demonstrated the Similarly, a 50% reduction in ochratoxin A content was
efficacy of the technology with arrays of food spoilage and observed in roasted coffee samples artificially inoculated
foodborne pathogenic microorganisms including bacteria, with the mycotoxigenic fungi (Aspergillus and Penicillium
and fungi. The effect of cold plasma on resistant spores of spp.), after 30 min of cold plasma treatment [97]. To date,
Bacillus spp., Geobacillus spp., and Penicillium spp., inves- the mechanisms of cold plasma–mediated spore inactivation
tigated on food matrix, demonstrated a 3-log10 inactivation remains unclear. However, spore shell have been suggested
of B. coagulans spores after 10 s [94]. Sporicidal efficacy as the primary and main target for a plasma-induced inacti-
of cold plasma on C. difficile displayed similar results with vation [94]; neutral reactive oxygen species and UV radia-
∼3 log reduction in viable spore counts after 5 min of treat- tion were also reported to play dominant role in the inactiva-
ment [92]. An electron microscopic study demonstrated tion of spores [98]. Furthermore, an increases in hydrogen
complete disintegration of fungal spore membrane due to peroxide ­(H2O2) concentrations in plasma-treated cells and
electroporation and etching caused by the reactive plasma the increased nitrate ­(NO3−) concentrations indicated the
species [95]. B. cereus and A. flavus spores on red pepper role of plasma generated radical ions [61]. The proposed
flakes were significantly reduced by plasma treatment [72]; site of action and mechanism of cold plasma inactivation of
whereas, vegetative cells of G. stearothermophilus and B. spores are presented in Fig. 3.
cereus spores were effectively eliminated by exposure to
cold plasma [96]. Besides the menace of food spoilage and Effects on Nutritional and Organoleptic Qualities
foodborne diseases, toxins produced by certain foodborne of Food
microorganisms pose a serious health threat to consumers,
resulting to foodborne intoxication. Microbial contamination With the increasing demand for a fresh and healthy product
of food is among the leading cause of hospitalization and and unaltered nutritional/sensory properties, food preserva-
death annually. It is estimated that 600 million (about 1 in 10 tion entails more than just shelf-life extension. Ensuring that
people in the world) fall ill after eating contaminated food. treatment and processes employed for preservation do not
Microbial toxins mediate wide health consequences, rang- adversely affect the properties of the food is of equal
ing from mild enteric upset to severe and lethal outcomes. significance as a shelf-life extension. Thus, emerging pres-
Among bacteria involved in foodborne diseases, Salmonella ervation techniques are required to meet the prerequisite of
spp., Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Vibrio cholerae, Staphylo- preserving or enhancing the product’s organoleptic proper-
coccus aureus, Clostridium botulinum, Clostridium perfrin- ties. Unlike thermal technologies known for altering food
gens, Bacillus cereus, and Listeria monocytogenes are con- products’ innate properties, including nutritional, physical,
sidered toxigenic. Similarly, several mycotoxins have been and textural, cold plasma technology is commended for

Fig. 3  Proposed sites and

mechanism of plasma spore
inactivation

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protecting and preserving food properties. An investigation against planktonic cells but are incapable of inactivating the
of the effects of cold plasma technology on the total phe- sessile cells of the biofilm community. This often is associ-
nolic content of black pepper grains uncovered that there ated with the additional protective layer of exopolymeric
were no significant differences in the total phenolic content matrix which inhibits the effective penetration of the anti-
between treated and non-treated samples (p > 0.05) [93]. microbial agent and hence alters the effective dose or con-
The amino acid species of wine pickled Bullacta exarata centration required to inactivate the organism. The biofilm
did not change before and after ACP treatment; however, architecture and water channels are often seen as contribu-
the contents of serine, glutamine, aspartate, glycine, threo- tors to the slowdown of convective transport and limit dif-
nine, and leucine were significantly increased [99]. A simi- fusion. The use of plasma technology have demonstrated
lar study reported the absence of significant effects on lipid promising effects for the inactivation of biofilms. Exposure
oxidation, fatty acid composition, and nutritional quality of Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli biofilms to an
of commercially packaged mackerel fillets treated at 80 kV air‑based atmospheric‑pressure dielectric-barrier discharge
for extended treatment times of 5 min when compared with plasma for up to 4 min caused approximately 70% and 85%
untreated control samples [100]. Moreover, high-voltage disruption for S. aureus and E. coli biofilms, respectively
atmospheric cold plasma treatment increased the yield of [103]. A similar result was reported when atmospheric air
phenolic extracts from grape pomace, with high content of plasma technology was applied to inactivate E. coli and Lis-
anthocyanins and improved antioxidant capacity [101]. In teria innocua biofilms. Atmospheric air plasma damaged
addition, microwave-combined cold plasma treatment had both the bacterial biofilm cells and its structural integrity.
no effect on the antioxidant activity, color, sensory prop- Scanning electron microscopy envinced the disruption of
erties, and concentrations of capsaicin and dihydrocapsai- biofilms and pore formation in bacterial cells after exposure
cin of red pepper flakes during storage [72]. Furthermore, to plasma treatment [104]. The elevated reactive oxygen and
physiological and metabolomic analysis of cold plasma nitrogen species in bacterial cells treated with atmospheric
treated fresh-cut strawberries suggested that plasma treat- air plasma demonstrated their primary role in the observed
ment improved the biosynthesis of the metabolites in the bacterial inactivation process. Penetration of plasma spe-
flavones and flavonol biosynthesis pathway and biosynthesis cies into samples depends on several factors, including the
of phenylpropanoid pathway without altering the textural type of plasma, delivery mode, and the gas composition that
properties of the fresh-cut strawberries. The study further makes up the plasma. Active plasma species penetrates into
revealed that plasma treatment enhanced enzyme activities bacterial biofilms, reaching cells through the water channels.
and activated critical gene expression in phenylpropanoid Figure 4 presents the proposed mechanisms of biofilm dis-
as well as reactive oxygen species metabolism, leading to ruption by plasma treatment. A study aimed at investigating
enhancement of antioxidant capacity and the accumulation the capacity and extent of biofilm penetration by plasma
of total phenolics, total flavonoid, and anthocyanin [102]. demonstrated that plasma could penetrate a Porphyromonas
gingivalis 10 days biofilms, of about 30 layers of cells and a
Effects of Cold Plasma Technology on Biofilm thickness of about 15 µm, and effectively deactivate all the
Formation on Food Contact Surfaces bacteria in the 15-µm-thick biofilms [105]. The penetration
of cold plasma depends on factors such as the generating
The formation of biofilm on food contact surfaces is a criti- gas, intensity, voltage, and the free radical species generated.
cal safety concern, due to the cross contamination of prod- Liu et al. [106] noted a higher penetration capacity for ­H2O2
ucts that might arise from disloged biofilm cells. Biofilm compared to nitrous/nitric acid and ­O3(aq), even though ­O3
formation on contact surfaces is a major microbial survival is chemically stable with a much lower concentration than
mechanism and is often associated with resistance to food ­H2O2 in the gas phase [106]. In addition, oxidative disrup-
preservative treatments, sanitizers, and processing. The tion of the exopolymeric matrix by activated plasma species
exopolymeric matrix of biofilms serves as a protective layer breaksdown the protective shield, exposing the encased cells
that shields the cells from the antimicrobial effects of food- to the direct effects of plasma. Furthermore, atmospheric
grade sanitizers, antimicrobial chemicals and agents, and cold plasma technology significantly reduced Pseudomonas
food treatment processes. In addition, cells within the bio- aeruginosa quorum sensing–regulated factors [107] and thus
film community have been noted to synergistically resist the might be a relevant mechanism of biofilm disruption.
effects of antimicrobial compounds through the process of
quorum sensing. Quorum sensing mechanism enables the
community of cells to respond concertedly to changes within Factors Influencing the Efficacy of Cold Plasma
their environment, often resulting in the production of neu-
tralizing enzymes, and well as toxins. Several chemical and The efficacy of cold plasma treatment is influenced by sev-
technological methods have demonstrated excellent activity eral factors, including microbial factors, food factors, and

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Fig. 4  Mechanisms of biofilm

disruption by plasma treatment

plasma operational parameters. It has been demonstrated inactivation of Campylobacter jejuni reported that nitrogen
that tweaking of instrument setting parameter such as volt- gas for 20 s did not yield any reduction (p > 0.05) in viable
age, frequency, treatment time, and working gas composition cell count. However, a 0.8-log reduction (p < 0.05) in colony-
alters the treatment outcome. A study aiding to investigate forming units (CFU) was observed when the nitrogen gas was
the effects of a range of dielectric barrier discharge high volt- supplemented with 2% (vol/vol) air [113]. Shi et al. [114]
age atmospheric cold plasma parameters on the inactivation noted that relative humidity, gas type, and treatment time are
of Bacillus atrophaeus spores in a sealed package [108] all significant on generated ozone concentration and aflatoxin
observed a strong effect of process parameters on the inacti- degradation. The study further reported the generation of a
vation. Direct plasma exposure for 60 s resulted in ≥ 6 l­ og10 higher ozone concentration in MA65 than in air. In addition,
cycle reduction of spores in all gas types tested. However, high ozone concentration resulted in the effective degrading
indirect exposure for 60 s resulted in either 2.1 or 6.3 ­log10 of aflatoxin in corn compared with air. Furthermore, work-
cycle reduction of spores depending on gas types used. The ing gas mixture and treatment time were observed to exert a
authors noted that relative humidity was a critical factor in strong effect on the atmospheric cold plasma inactivation of
bacterial spore inactivation by high-voltage atmospheric cold E. coli and L. monocytogenes. Working gas ratios were asso-
plasma. Several factors regulate the antimicrobial effects of ciated with different bactericidal efficacies. The effectiveness
cold plasma treatments [109, 110]. Figure 5 highlights the of atmospheric air (gas mix 1), 90% N ­ 2 + 10% O ­ 2 (gas mix
factors that might affect the outcome of cold plasma treat- 2) and 65% ­O2 + 30% ­CO2 + 5%N2 (gas mix 3) was found to
ment. The working parameters and instrumental setting of vary for individual microbial species and strain [115]. The
the cold plasma system are crucial to the effectiveness. An presence of oxygen in plasma generation is critically impor-
increase in microbial inactivation rates has been reported tant for increased microbial inactivation [113]. The enhanced
with variations in process parameters, including power, fre- effect demonstrated by oxygen is thought to be due to the
quency, and voltage. At higher power 50 W, a higher reduc- generation of ozone ­(O3), a strong oxidizing agent that is
tion in the microbial count was achieved at a short time inter- used in water treatment as a disinfectant. The dissociation
val; reduction in power required an increased treatment time of oxygen molecules at high voltages results in the produc-
to achieve an equivalent reduction in microbial count [111]. tion of ozone [116]. It has also been observed that treatment
Similarly, cold plasma treatment on almonds demonstrated time plays a vital role in cold plasma–mediated microbial
an increased reduction in the microbial count after 30-s treat- inhibition [117]. Food intrinsic and extrinsic factors primar-
ment with increasing voltage [112]. Since plasma can be ily influence the shelf-life and microbial composition of the
generated by the excitation of various gases, the type of gas products. Similarly, factors including nature, type, moisture
used for plasma generation is crucial to the effectiveness of content, and composition are important to the effectiveness
plasma-mediated microbial inactivation. A comparison of air of a food preservation regimen [118].
and nitrogen gas in dielectric barrier discharge plasma for the

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Fig. 5  Factors influencing cold plasma treatment. Adopted from Bourke et al. [119]

The antimicrobial efficacy of cold plasma treatment might Clostridium and Bacillus species is notable for spore forma-
be influenced by the nature of food constituents (e.g., fat, tion and resistance to various food preservation treatments.
protein, carbohydrate content). Although several reviews Spore resistance to preservation treatments can be induced
have highlighted the possible effects of food composition by a number of factors, including structure of the spores,
and nature on the effectiveness of cold plasma treatment, formed with cortex, coat, and exosporangium of the spores;
only a few research has been dedicated to providing clarity water content in the central region of core of the spore; the
on the subject. saturation of spore DNA by a group of acid-soluble pro-
The importance of osmotic stress and suboptimal pH teins; and low permeability of the inner spore membrane
on the efficacy of cold plasma inactivation of Salmonella to hydrophilic molecules [122–124]. Microbial exosporium
Typhimurium and Listeria monocytogenes studied on vari- layer protects the interior components of the cell from degra-
ous food structures demonstrated that growth under osmotic dative effects of preservation treatment. Thus, several studies
stress or at sub-optimal pH promotes microbial cell adaption have demonstrated that preservation treatments including
and resistance to cold plasma treatment [118]. In addition, cold plasma are usually more effective against vegetative
a study that investigated the influence of surface roughness cells. Cold plasma inactivation of G. stearothermophilus
on the efficacy of cold atmospheric pressure plasma on and B. cereus vegetative cells and spores demonstrated a
microbial inactivation showed that an increase in surface statistically significant difference in the inactivation of G.
roughness resulted in a decreased microbial inactivation stearothermophilus vegetative cells receiving indirect and
efficacy [120]. The water content of food product affects direct, as well as for B. cereus vegetative cells and spores.
the effectiveness of cold plasma treatment for inactivation However, no statistically significant difference in the inac-
of food contaminating microorganisms. The high hydroxyl tivation of G. stearothermophilus spores receiving indirect
radicals generated during treatment in liquid water phase or direct exposure [96]. Los et al. [117] reported that the
promotes effective and increased inactivation of microbial efficacy of cold plasma treatment was strongly affected by
cells [121]. Microbial characteristics, including type, strain, the type of microorganism studied. The authors observed
physiological state, growth phase, and mode of existence high resistance for B. atrophaeus endo spores, after direct
(planktonic or sensile). Foodborne microorganisms such as and indirect plasma treatment for 20 min, and concluded that

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the endospores of B. atrophaeus were considerably more against microbial biofilms of foodborne pathogenic bacteria
resistant against ACP treatment than the vegetative cells. demonstrated that plasma treatment for 60 s reduced popu-
Furthermore, antimicrobial application in the food industry lations of E. coli to undetectable levels, whereas 300 s was
and processing facilities extend beyond preservation and necessary to significantly reduce populations of L. monocy-
shelf-life extension. Attachment of microorganisms on food togenes and S. aureus biofilms. The authors, however, sus-
contact surfaces and processing lines is a major cause of pected possible induction of viable but non-culturable state
food contamination, especially of finished products. Per- of bacteria following plasma treatment [107]. A 4-day-old
sistent microorganisms in the food-processing environment single-species biofilms of Chromobacterium violaceum was
and resistance to food-grade antimicrobial sanitizers and effective inactivated after 10-min plasma treatment [134].
preservatives have emerged a food safety threat, resulting Moreover, the effectiveness of plasma treatment varies from
in finished product recall and foodborne disease outbreak. cell to cell due to variations in cellular properties. Besides
In addition, the formation of biofilm on food contact sur- spore formation and the formation of biofilms, the thickness
faces is a leading cause of food contamination, foodborne of the bacterial cell wall has been correlated to the effec-
disease outbreaks, and recall of finished food products. The tiveness of plasma treatments. Cells with thicker cell walls
dense exopolymer matrix of biofilm communities is asso- are more resistant to plasma treatment compared with cells
ciated with various undesirable effects in food processing, with thin cell walls. Also, the effectiveness of cold plasma
including impaired heat flow, corrosion of contact surfaces, treatment is reported to vary between gram-negative and
hampered diffusion of food-grade antimicrobial sanitizers, gram-positive bacteria, due to the difference in the cell wall
and resistance to antimicrobials [125, 126]. In recent years, composition [135].
the use of modern green technologies for the decontamina-
tion of food processing lines and facilities as well as hospital Advantages and Disadvantages of Cold Plasma
premises is replacing the conventional use of antimicrobial Treatment Over Other Technologies
chemical sanitizers [127–129]. Studies have demonstrated
that cold plasma treatment can effectively disrupt and The transition from a chemical preservative-based food
inactivate microbial biofilm. The antimicrobial efficacy of processing to a green technology mediated food processing
atmospheric cold plasma against Pseudomonas aeruginosa orchestrated by changing consumers taste, safety concerns,
biofilms revealed that treatment for 60 s by either the direct and changing food regulations has prompted a proliferation
or the indirect exposure reduced bacterial populations by of several technologies seeking application in the food pro-
an average of 5.4 log cycles from an initial 6.6 log10 CFU/ cessing industry. Unfortunately, most of the proposed green
mL. The extension of the treatment time from 60 to 120 technology is either limited due to expensive cost of machin-
s and 300 s reduced biofilms to undetectable levels [130]. ery, effect on product quality, not suited for all food type
Plasma treatment is also indicated for effective disruption of or are inadequate for maximum protection of food product.
fungi biofilm. The in vitro and in vivo inactivation effects Cold plasma technique has shown numerous advantages and
of cold plasma treatment on C. albicans biofilm indicated suitability for the treatment of numerous food types and can
significant inactivation effects [131]. A similar study dem- ensure adequate inactivation of food contaminating micro-
onstrated that both gas plasma and plasma activated water organism, including recalcitrant microbial spores, as well as
treatment decreases of A. flavus metabolic activity and spore enzymes and toxins. Figure 6 highlights some of the benefits
counts, with maximal reductions of 2.2 and 0.6 log10 units of cold plasma technique in the food industry. In addition,
for gas plasma and plasma-activated water, respectively. cold atmospheric plasma is versatile with applications in
Biofilm study revealed detrimental effects of gas plasms on biomedical and food processing and relatively safe. How-
biofilm structure [61]. Atmospheric cold plasma treatment ever, in the absence of standardization in terms of treatment
on E. coli spp., B. subtilis, and Lactobacillus spp. biofilms parameters and resulting biological effects [136].
resulted in > 3 log10 after 5 min but was ineffective against Decontamination of food products with uneven surfaces
B. atrophaeus [132]. Spores have generally been shown to might also pose safety concerns due to the internalization of
require extended treatment in other to achieve enhanced microorganisms and subsequent compromise of food quality.
inactivation compared with vegetative cells. Ziuzina et al. Furthermore, although cold plasma treatment is assumed to
[133] reported that plasma treatment for 30 s reduced plank- preserve food quality, mild alterations mild lead to unpleas-
tonic populations of Salmonella, L. monocytogenes and E. ant physical changes that might affect the consumer accepta-
coli in lettuce broth to undetectable levels. However, depend- bility and result in economic loss. Chemical changes, such as
ing on storage conditions, bacterial type, and age of biofilm, lipid oxidation, may lead to both economic loss and prompt
300 s of treatment was required to reduce biofilm popula- health concerns [137]. An increase in lipid oxidation was
tions on lettuce by a maximum of 5 log10 CFU/sample. reported in cold plasma–treated mackerel. Similarly, the
An investigation of the effects of atmospheric cold plasma oleic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid contents were lower in

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Fig. 6  Benefits of cold plasma

processing in food preservation

mackerel slices [138]. Thiobarbituric acid reactive substance process parameters influenced the degree of effectiveness
value showed a time-dependent manner increase in Asian [141]. A similar study reported that microwave-combined
sea bass slices after cold plasma treatment [70]. cold plasma treatment numbers of B. cereus and A. flavus
spores on red pepper flakes. The antioxidant activity and
Adjunctive Application of Cold Plasma color of the flakes were unaltered during storage following
treatment with either low microwave cold plasma or high
As new technologies emerge and gain relevance in the food microwave cold plasma treatment. Furthermore, low micro-
industry, it has become evident that few weaknesses might wave cold plasma also did not affect the sensory properties
limit the spectrum of applicability irrespective of the excel- and the concentrations of capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin of
lent qualities in certain areas. The use of multiple food the flakes [72]. Shiekh et al. [142] employed a combination
treatment technologies is perhaps a strategic approach for of pulsed electric field (PEF) pre-treatment, immersion in
enhancing food safety. Complimentary usage of food pro- chamuang leaf extract (CLE) followed by high voltage cold
cessing technologies at mild or reduced process parameter atmospheric plasma for quality preservation and shelf-life
(for example low temperature and low voltage) augments the extension of Litopenaeus vannamei, and reported the lowest
effect of individual methods by introducing several hurdles microbial load and spoilage bacteria count, and higher like-
while preserving the sensory, nutritional, and compositional ness scores in PEF treated sample with 2% CLE followed by
qualities of the food product. This section reviews reported high voltage cold plasma treatment. They reported synergy
applications of cold plasma technique as an adjunctive or between phenolic compounds in CLE and active species
complementary method to promote product safety and shelf- generated from high voltage cold atmospheric plasma on the
life extension. Cold plasma–based hurdles can be employed effective inhibition of microbial growth of L. vannamei dur-
to overcome limitations of individual cold plasma treatment, ing refrigerated storage. A reduction melanosis scores, lipid
improve the inactivation efficacy, and retain the maximum oxidation, total volatile base, protein carbonyl contents, and
food quality attributes [139]. The combined effects of ultra- microbial load were attained in CLE and PEF pre-treated
sound and cold plasma significantly improved carrot juice shrimp samples exposed to cold plasma compared with con-
quality and safety, with a reduction in total plate count and trol and other treated samples [143]. Application of cold
yeast and mold count compared with products treated with plasma as an adjunctive treatment to nisin pre-treated was
individual technique. Ultrasound and cold plasma treat- effectively employed for the inactivation of Listeria mono-
ment enhance carrot juice’s stability with increase, chlo- cytogenes of the surface of apples [144]. Simultaneous
rogenic acid, sugar contents, and mineral profile [140]. ultraviolet and cold plasma treatments were used to inac-
Microwave-combined cold plasma treatment was effective tivate indigenous mesophilic aerobic bacteria and Bacillus
for inactivating Bacillus cereus spores on contaminated red tequilensis spores on black peppercorns without altering the
pepper without altering the physical properties. However, color of the black peppercorns [71]. The versatility of cold

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plasma and complementarity with other technologies is a flavor, and textural attributes have so far proved beneficial to
principal benefit that can be strategically harnessed for better the food industry, with cold plasma as one of the most recent
product quality and shelf-life preservation. advances. The effectiveness of plasma treatment in food pro-
cessing has been demonstrated by several studies on varying
Cold Plasma for Industrial Application types of food products. However, it is relevant to fully under-
stand the mechanism of action of cold plasma treatment,
Part of the challenges associated with cold plasma is the the role of the radical species generated, and to investigate
presence of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which triggers its efficacy across the diverse physiological microbial state.
lipid oxidation mostly in meat tissue and fish, fatty acids, Optimization of process parameters in line with individual
aldehydes, hydroxyl acids, and keto acid which results in food type and product should be a major scientific focus
off-flavors and odors during storage [145]. These compounds to harmonize parameters and promote usage ease. In addi-
negatively affect the product’s acceptability and shelf life. tion, there is a need for research to focus on the effects of
In juices, cold plasma technology leads to the degradation cold plasma treatment on the compositional, nutritional, and
of extremely polymerized oligosaccharides [146], which is organoleptic properties of food products. Moreover, data on
caused by ozonolysis. The high consumption of gas is also the chemical residual effects and potential toxicity of the
cited as a limitation or drawback of the technology [147], various gases used in the generation of plasma would be
especially for large-scale applications. Furthermore, the high necessary in guiding decision and regulation. The effects
cost of setting up the cold plasma technology tends to be a of combined usage of cold plasma with other technologies
major challenge or drawback. Moreover, cold plasma treat- would be another interesting area for future outlook, and in
ment is associated with the undesirable alteration of tex- addition to the evaluation of the residual chemical genera-
tual properties, acidity, and decolorization of treated foods. tion and chemical modification in antimicrobial compounds
Products of animal origin when treated with cold plasma following plasma exposure. It is also important to verify the
exhibit acceleration of lipid oxidation which has a negative claims that treatment of microorganisms with cold plasma
impact on the sensory characteristics. Several opportunities could induce a viable but not culturable state.
are associated with the use of cold plasma technology. Stud-
ies have demonstrated the potential and application of cold
plasma technology in the decontamination of wastewater. Author Contribution Conceptualization: HO, OFN; writing–original
draft: HO, OFN; writing review and editing: OFN, AH, KO, CA, TM;
Cold plasma decontamination lowers the amount of pollut- data curation: OFN, KO; supervision: HO. All authors were involved
ants in wastewater [147]. Furthermore, treatment with cold in the preparation of the final draft.
plasma reduced several water-borne pathogenic microorgan-
isms [46, 148–151] revealed the substantial inactivation of Declarations
spike protein in plasma inactivated water to inhibit corona-
virus transmission. Hence, the combination of CP with other Conflict of Interest The authors declare no competing interests.
suitable treatments approach possesses viable potential for
wastewater remediation in the future. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attri-
bution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adapta-
tion, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long
as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source,
Conclusion and Future Directives provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes
were made. The images or other third party material in this article are
included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated
In recent past, cold plasma treatment has received increasing otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in
popularity in the food industry due to the reported efficiency the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not
in microbial inactivation, toxin, enzyme degradation, and permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will
mild to absolutely no impact on food properties. Several need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a
copy of this licence, visit http://​creat​iveco​mmons.​org/​licen​ses/​by/4.​0/.
research and reviews have attempted to provide clarity on the
mechanism of microbial spore inactivation by cold plasma
technique. This notwithstanding, the detailed mechanism of
cold plasma is still not fully elucidated. Herein, the vari- References
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