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Fundamentals of food packaging technology

Bindu J.
Fish Processing Division ICAR- Central Institute of Fisheries
Technology, Cochin [email protected]

Introduction
Food packaging plays a crucial role in preserving and protecting food products from
external factors that can impact their quality, safety, and shelf life. It involves the design,
production, and use of various materials and techniques to ensure that food products reach
consumers in optimal condition. Packaging is vital to our modern food distribution and
marketing systems. Without protective packaging, food spoilage and wastage would increase
tremendously. The advent of modern packaging technologies and new methods of packaging
materials made possible the era of convenience products. In the past, packaging emphasized
the expectations of the producers and distributors but now it has shifted towards the consumer
since they are becoming more demanding and aware of different choices to choose from. A
food package usually provides a number of functions in addition to protection. Different
products have different packaging requirements and it is important to choose suitable
packaging material accordingly. The intended storage conditions of the product, i.e.,
temperature, relative humidity and expected shelf life have to be known. Multilayered plastics
are very popular since properties of different films can be effectively used to pack different
products. The basic function of food packaging is to protect the product from physical damage
and contaminants, to delay microbial spoilage, to allow greater handling and to improve
presentation.
Importance of Food Packaging
Proper food packaging serves multiple purposes, including:
o Protection: Packaging safeguards food from contamination, spoilage, and
damage during transportation and storage.
o Preservation: It extends the shelf life of food by preventing moisture loss,
exposure to light, and the entry of oxygen.
o Information: Packaging provides essential details about the product, such
as ingredients, nutritional information, and storage instructions.
o Branding and Marketing: Packaging plays a significant role in attracting
consumers, conveying brand identity, and promoting product differentiation.
Classification of Packaging Materials
Packaging materials can be classified in various ways based on different criteria. Here are some
common classifications of packaging materials.
1. Based on Material Type
Glass: Glass containers have been used for many centuries and still one of the important food
packaging material. Glass has its unique place in food packaging since it is strong, rigid and
chemically inert. It does not appreciably deteriorate with age and offers excellent barrier to
solids, liquids and gases. It also gives excellent protection against odour and flavor and product
visibility. Glass can also be moulded to variety of shapes and sizes. But it has disadvantages
like fragility, photo oxidation and heavier in weight.

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Metal Cans: Most frequently used container for packing food for canning is tin plate can. Tin
plate containers made their appearance in 1810. The base steel used for making cans is referred
as CMQ or can making quality steel. Corrosion behaviour, strength and durability of the tin
plate depend upon the chemical composition of the steel base. The active elements are
principally copper and phosphorous. The more of these elements present the greater the
corrosiveness of steel. Cans are traditionally used for heat sterilized products and different
types are standard tin plates, tin free steel and vacuum deposited aluminium on steel and
aluminium cans. For food products packing they are coated inside to get desirable properties
like acid resistance and sulphur resistance. But care has to be taken to avoid tainting of the
lacquer.
Polymer coated two-piece cans of 6 oz capacity (307 x 109) with a universal polymer
coating can be widely used for a variety of products. The can is made of Electrochemically
chromium coated steel (ECCS) plate with clear polyethylene terephtahalate (PET) coating on
either side The finished plate has a thickness of 0.19mm (0.15 mm of base steel + 20 µ PET
coating on either side). The cans are made out of the steel plate by draw and redraw (DRD)
process. The chromium coating along with the PET coating provides the can with a smooth,
greyish, glistening appearance in addition to act as a barrier between the product and the base
steel. The bottom of the can is designed for better stackability so that it can be stacked vertically
without risk of toppling on the shelf. This also helps to reduce the storage space requirement
for the cans. These cans are found to be suitable for thermal processing of fish and fish
products. These cans are having easy open ends. Metal cans are advantageous as packages
because of superior strength, high speed manufacturing and easy filling and dosing.
Disadvantages of metal cans are weight, difficulty in reclosing and disposal.
Paper: A very considerable portion of packaged foods is stored and distributed in packages
made out of paper or paper-based materials. Because of its low cost, easy availability and
versatility, paper is likely to retain its predominant position in packaging industries. Paper is
highly permeable to gases, vapour and moisture and loses its strength when wet. Ordinary
paper is not grease and oil resistant, but can be made resistant by mechanical processes during
manufacturing.
Paper board: Thicker paper is called as paper board. There is not a clear-cut dividing line
between the heaviest grade of paper and the lightest board. The lightest standard board is 0.19
mm thick and heavy papers are of 0.125 mm thickness. Paper boards are used for making
corrugated fibre board cartons.
Polymer Packaging: Plastics offer several advantages over other packaging materials since
they are light in weight, flexible and offers resistant to cracking. Plastics have the advantage
that most of them possess excellent physical properties such as strength and toughness. The
requirements with a particular food may not be met with in a single packaging material, as it
may not possess all the desired properties. In such cases copolymers or laminates consisting
of two or more layers of different polymers having different properties can also be used.
• Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE): Most commonly used as it possesses qualities
such as transparency, water vapour impermeability, heat sealability, chemical inertness
and low cost of production. Organic vapours, oxygen and carbon dioxide
permeabilities are high and has poor grease barrier property. Resists temperature

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between – 40°C to 85°C. Polyethylene (polythene, PE) is the material consumed in the
largest quantity by the packaging industry.
• High Density Polyethylene (HDPE): HDPE resins are produced by low-pressure
process. HDPE possess a much more linear structure than LDPE and has up to 90%
crystallinity, compared with LDPE which exhibits crystallinities as low as 50%. The
material is stronger, thicker, less flexible and more brittle than LDPE and has lower
permeability to gases and moisture. It has a higher softening temperature (121°C) and
can therefore be heat sterilized. High molecular weight high density polythene (HM-
HDPE) has very good mechanical strength, less creep and better environmental stress
crack resistance property.
• Linear Low-Density Polythene (LLDPE): Linear low-density polythene is low
density polythene produced by a low-pressure process. Normal low-density polythene
has many -C5H11 side chains. These are absent in LLDPE, allowing the molecules to
pack closer together to give a very tough resin. It is virtually free of long chain branches
but does contain numerous short side chains. Generally, the advantages of LLDPE over
LDPE are improved chemical resistance, improved performance at both low and high
temperatures, higher surface gloss, higher strength at a given density and a greater
resistance to environmental stress cracking. LLDPE shows improved puncture
resistance and tear strength. The superior properties of LLDPE have led to its use in
new applications for polyethylene as well as the replacement of LDPE and HDPE in
some areas.
• Polypropylene (PP): Polypropylene is produced by the polymerisation of propylene.
All PP films have permeability about ¼ to ½ that of polyethylene. It is stronger, rigid
and lighter than polyethylene.
• Cast polypropylene (CPP): It is an extruded, non-oriented film and is characterized by
good stiffness, grease and heat resistance and also has good moisture barrier. However, it
is not a good gas barrier.
• Oriented, Heat set Polypropylene (OPP): Orientation can be in one direction
(unbalanced) or in two directions equally (balanced). The resulting film is
characterized by good low temperature durability, high stiffness and excellent moisture
vapour transmission rate. One drawback of OPP is its low tensile strength.
• Polystyrene: The material is manufactured from ethylene and benzene, which are
cheap. The polymer is normally atactic and it is thus completely amorphous because of
the bulky nature of the benzene rings prevents a close approach of the chains. The
material offers reasonably good barrier to gases but is a poor barrier to water vapour.
New applications of polystyrene involve coextrusion with barrier resins such as EVOH
and poly vinylidene chloride copolymer to produce thermoformed, wide mouthed
containers for shelf stable food products and multi-layer blow moulded bottles. To
overcome the brittleness of polystyrene, synthetic rubbers can be incorporated at levels
generally not exceeding 14% w/w. High impact polystyrene is an excellent material for
thermoforming. Co-polymerisation with other polymers like acrylonitrile butadiene
improves the flexibility. Since it is crystal clear and sparkling, it is used in blister packs

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and as a breathing film for packaging fresh produce. These materials have low heat
sealability and often tend to stick to the jaws of heat sealer.
• Polyester: Polyester can be produced by reacting ethylene glycol with terephthalic acid.
Polyester film’s outstanding properties as a food packaging material are its great tensile
strength, low gas permeability, excellent chemical resistance, lightweight, elasticity and
stability over a wide range of temperature (-60° to 220°C). The later property has led
to the use of PET for boil in the bag products which are frozen before use and as over
bags where they are able to withstand cooking temperatures without decomposing.
Although many films can be metallized, polyester is the most commonly used one.
Metallization results in considerable improvement in barrier properties. A fast-growing
application for polyester is ovenable trays for frozen food and prepared meals. They are
preferable to foil trays for these applications because of their ability to be micro wave
processed without an outer board carton.
• Polyamides (Nylon): Polyamides are condensation products of diacids and diamine.
The first polyamide produced was Nylon-6,6 made from adipic acid and hexamethylene
diamine. Various grades of nylons are available. Nylon-6 is easy to handle and is
abrasion-resistant. Nylon-11 and nylon-12 have superior barrier properties against
oxygen and water and have lower heat seal temperatures. However, nylon-6,6 has a
high melting point and hence, it is difficult to heat seal. Nylons are strong, tough, highly
crystalline materials with high melting and softening points. High abrasion resistance
and low gas permeability are other characteristic properties.
• Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC): The monomer is made by the addition of reaction between
acetylene and hydrochloric acid. It must be plasticised to obtain the required flexibility
and durability. Films with excellent gloss and transparency can be obtained provided
that the correct stabilizer and plasticizer are used. Thin plasticized PVC film is widely
used in supermarkets for the stretch wrapping of trays containing fresh red meat and
produce. The relatively high-water vapour transmission rate of PVC prevents
condensation on the inside of the film. Oriented films are used for shrink-wrapping of
produce and fresh meat. Unplasticized PVC as a rigid sheet material is thermoformed
to produce a wide range of inserts from chocolate boxes to biscuit trays. Unplasticized
PVC bottles have better clarity, oil resistance and barrier properties than those made
from polyethylene. They have made extensive penetration into the market for a wide
range of foods including fruit juices and edible oils.
• Copolymers: When polythene resins are being manufactured it is possible to mix other
monomers with ethylene so that these are incorporated in the polymer molecules. These
inclusions alter the characteristics of the polythene. Vinyl acetate is commonly used
and the resulting ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) copolymers display better sealing than
modified polythene. Butyl acetate is incorporated with similar effects.
Aluminium foil: Aluminium foil is defined as a solid sheet section rolled to a thickness less
than 0.006 inches. Aluminium has excellent properties like thermal conductivity, light weight,
corrosion resistance, grease and oil resistance, tastelessness, odourlessness, heat and flame
resistance, opacity and non-toxicity. Aluminium foil free from defects is a perfect moisture and
oxygen barrier. In all flexible packaging applications using aluminum foil where good

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moisture and oxygen barrier properties are important, the foil is almost always combined with
heat sealing media such as polythene or polypropylene. It is the cheapest material to use for
the properties obtained. Foils of thickness 8 to 40 microns are generally used in food
packaging. Foil as such is soft and susceptible for creasing. Hence, foil is generally used as
an inner layer.
Wood: Used for packaging heavy or fragile items.
2. Flexibility
From skins, leaves, and bark, tremendous progress has been made in the development
of diversified packaging materials and in the packaging equipment. In general, packaging
materials may be grouped into rigid and flexible structures.
• Flexible materials: Plastic film, foil, paper and textiles are flexible materials.
• Rigid materials: Wood, glass, metals and hard plastics are examples of rigid
materials.

3. Function
• Primary Packaging: Primary packaging refers to the immediate contact packaging of
the food product. It is in direct contact with the food and is responsible for preserving
its quality and integrity. Primary packaging materials must be safe, non-toxic, and
compatible with the food they contain. Examples include bottles, cans, blister packs,
etc.
• Secondary Packaging: Secondary packaging is the outer packaging that holds the
primary packages together. It provides additional protection during transportation and
storage, ensuring the integrity of the primary packages. Examples include cardboard
boxes, shrink wrap, etc.
• Tertiary Packaging: Tertiary packaging involves packaging multiple secondary
packages into larger units for efficient handling and distribution. It is commonly used in
bulk shipments. Examples include pallets, stretch wrap, shipping containers, etc.
4. Environmental Impact
• Sustainable Packaging: Materials designed to minimize environmental impact, such
as biodegradable or compostable materials, recyclable materials, etc.
• Non-sustainable Packaging: Materials that have a higher environmental impact,
such as non-recyclable plastics, mixed materials, etc.
5. Barrier Properties
• Oxygen Barrier: Materials that protect against oxygen permeation, such as certain
plastics or metalized films.
• Moisture Barrier: Materials that provide resistance to moisture, such as coated papers or
films.
• Light Barrier: Materials that block light transmission, often used to protect light-
sensitive products.
• Aroma Barrier: Materials that prevent the transmission of odours or flavours.
6. Packaging Format
• Bottles and Jars: Commonly used for liquids, powders, or small solid items.
• Cans: Used for beverages, food, or aerosol products.

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• Bags and Pouches: Flexible packaging formats often used for snacks, confectionery, or
powders.
• Cartons and Boxes: Rigid containers, typically made of paperboard, used for various
products.
• Blister Packs: Transparent plastic packaging used to display and protect individual
items.
Advanced Packaging Techniques
1. Reduced Oxygen Packaging
a. Vacuum packaging: It involves removal of air from a food package before it is
sealed, creating a vacuum environment. This process offers numerous benefits, such as
preventing oxidation or spoilage and extending the shelf life of perishable food.
b. Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP): Involves altering the composition of the
atmosphere inside the package to extend shelf life. Example: Replacing oxygen with a
mixture of gases like nitrogen and carbon dioxide.
c. Controlled Atmosphere Packaging (CAP): It is a technique used in the food
industry to extend the shelf life of perishable products by modifying the atmosphere
surrounding the food within the packaging. The goal of CAP is to create an optimal gas
composition that helps maintain product quality, inhibit microbial growth, and slow
down deterioration processes. Unlike in MAP, the gas composition is adjusted and
monitored throughout the storage period in CAP to ensure it remains within the desired
range for optimal product preservation. The packaging materials used for CAP should
have appropriate barrier properties to maintain the desired gas composition and prevent
gas exchange with the external environment.
d. Cook-chill & Sous-vide packaging: Cook-chill is a technique where food is cooked,
rapidly chilled, and then packaged in airtight containers. This process helps to extend
the shelf life of prepared meals while maintaining their taste and quality. The chilled
meals can be reheated later, making it convenient for busy individuals or establishments
that require quick service. On the other hand, sous-vide packaging involves vacuum-
sealing food in a bag and cooking it in a precisely controlled water bath. This method
allows for precise temperature regulation, resulting in even cooking and enhanced
flavours. By sealing the food in airtight pouches, the natural juices and aromas are
retained, resulting in tender and succulent dishes.
2. Active Packaging: Incorporates active substances to interact with the food and extend
its shelf life. Examples include oxygen scavengers, moisture absorbers and
antimicrobial agents.
3. Intelligent Packaging: Uses sensors and indicators to monitor the condition of the
product during storage and transportation. Example: Time-temperature indicators to
detect temperature abuse.
4. Aseptic Packaging: Aseptic packaging involves sterilizing both the food and the
packaging separately and then filling the sterile food into the sterile containers. This
technique ensures the elimination of harmful microorganisms while maintaining the
food's nutritional value.

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Quality Evaluation and Testing of Packaging Materials

Physical Tests
o Mechanical Strength Testing: This assesses the physical strength and durability
of packaging materials through tests like tensile strength, puncture resistance,
and tear resistance.
o Flexibility and Rigidity Testing: It examines the flexibility or rigidity of
materials to determine their suitability for specific packaging applications.
o Barrier Performance Testing: This evaluates the ability of packaging materials
to resist the transfer of gases, moisture, light, and odour.
o Seal Integrity Testing: It verifies the quality and effectiveness of seals to ensure
they are properly formed and capable of maintaining product freshness and
preventing leakage.
o Compatibility Testing: It examines the interaction between packaging materials
and the packaged product to avoid chemical reactions or alterations in quality.
Chemical Tests
o Migration Testing: This analyses the potential migration of substances from
packaging materials into the food, ensuring compliance with safety regulations.
o Chemical Resistance Testing: It determines the resistance of packaging
materials to various chemicals, preventing contamination or degradation of the
packaged product.
o Volatile Organic Compound (VOC) Testing: This identifies and quantifies the
release of volatile organic compounds from packaging materials, ensuring
compliance with environmental and health regulations.
Microbiological Tests
o Microbial Growth Testing: It assesses the ability of packaging materials to resist
microbial growth, preventing contamination and extending the product's shelf
life.
o Sterility Testing: This ensures that packaging materials intended for sterile
products are free from microbial contamination.
Regulatory Requirements
Food packaging is subject to various regulations and standards to ensure its safety and
compliance. These regulations vary across different regions and cover aspects such as labelling,
material composition, and hygiene practices.
Conclusion
Food packaging technology plays a vital role in preserving the quality and safety of
food products. It encompasses various techniques and materials that ensure the integrity of the
food throughout its journey from production to consumption. From primary to tertiary
packaging, each step is carefully designed to protect against physical, chemical, and biological
hazards. With the emergence of sustainable solutions and innovative packaging techniques, the
future of food packaging looks promising, catering to both consumer needs and environmental
concerns.

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Advanced food packaging techniques and quality evaluation of packaging materials