Sets, functions and binary relations

H.C
10 novembre 2024

1 Sets, sets operations

1.0.1 Definitions and notations
Definition 1.0.1 A set is the mathematical model for a collection of different things (objects) ;
a set contains elements or members, which can be mathematical objects of any kind : A class of
students, numbers, symbols, points in space, lines, other geometrical shapes, variables, or even
other sets.
The notation a ∈ A stands for the statement a belongs to A (a is an element of A). The negation
of a ∈ A is denoted by a ∈
/ A.

1. If A is finite, the cardinality of A is the number of its elements denoted by cardA.

2. A particular set is the empty set, denoted ∅ which is the set containing no element.
Here’s another way to define sets : A collection of elements that satisfy a property. We then
write :
E = {x, P (x)} .
Example 1.0.1
{x ∈ R/ − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1} = [−1, 1] .

Example 1.0.2 1. The set of (positive, negative and zero) integers by

Z = {m − n/m, n ∈ N} . = {· · · , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, · · · } .

n o
2. The set of rational numbers (ratios of integers) by Q = pq : p, q ∈ Z and q 6= 0 .
3. The set of complex numbers : C = {x + iy : x, y ∈ R} .
Where we add and multiply complex numbers in the natural way, with the additional
identity that i2 = −1, meaning that i is a square root of −1. If z =px + iy ∈ C, we call x
the real part of z and y the imaginary part of z, and we call |z| = x2 + y 2 the absolute
value, or modulus, of z.

Axiom 1.1 (Axiom of extension)Let A and B be sets. Then, A = B if and only if for all
x, (x ∈ A if and only if x ∈ B).

Thus, two sets A and B are equal if they have same members. Two equal sets are treated as same.

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1.1 Inclusion
Definition 1.1.1 Let A and B be sets. We say that A is a subset of B (A is contained in B
or B contains A) if every member of A is a member of B. The statement Ais a subset of B is
the same as the statement : For all x(if x ∈ A, then x ∈ B). The notation A ⊆ B stands for the
statement A is a subset of B. Thus, A = B if and only if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A. The negation of
A ⊆ B is denoted by A * B it stands for the statement : There exists x/ x ∈ A and x ∈ / B.

1. Every set is a subset of itself, because : For all x(if x ∈ A, then x ∈ A) is a tautology
(always a true statement).
2. By convention, for any set E we have ∅ ⊂ E.

Cardinality of ∅ = |∅| = 0.
3. If A ⊆ B and A 6= B, then we say that A is a proper subset of B. The notation A ⊂ B
stands for the statement A is a proper subset of B.

Proposition 1.1.1 If A ⊆ B and B ⊆ C, then A ⊆ C.

1.2 Power set of E.

Definition 1.2.1 Let E be a set. We call Power set of E, the set denoted P(E), defined by :

P(E) = {X, X ⊆ E)

By definition we have : ∅ ∈ P(E) and E ∈ P(E).

For example if E = {1, 2, 3} , P(E) = {∅, {1} , {2} , {3} , {1, 2} , {1, 3} , {2, 3} , {1, 2, 3}) .

Remark 1.2.1 1. We have {a} ⊂ E and {a} ∈ P(E).

2. If card E = n, then card P(E) = 2n .
For E = {1, 2, 3} , P(E) have 23 = 8 parts.
3. The cardinality of P(∅) = 1.

1.3 Partition
We call partition of a set any family F ⊂ E such that :
1. The elements of F are disjoint two by two (see example 1.4.1).
2. F is an overlay of E.

Example 1.3.1 1. E = N, P = {2k/ k ∈ N}, I = {2k + 1/ k ∈ N}.

F = {P, I} is a partition of E.
2. E = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}. Then the subsets : {0, 1, 2}, {3, 5, 7}, {4, 6} and {8} consti-
tute a partition of E.

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1.4 Set Complement

Definition 1.4.1 Let A be a subset of E. We call Set Complement of A in E, and we note {A
E,
the set of elements of E which do not belong to A.

{A
E = {x ∈ E| x ∈
/ A} .
We also note E \ A and just {A if there is no ambiguity (and sometimes also Ac orA).

Example 1.4.1 Let A = N and E = Z, then {A

E = {−x/ x ∈ N} .

1.5 Difference of Sets ( Difference between Two Sets)

The difference of the sets A and B in this order is the set of elements which belong to A
but not to B. Symbolically, we write A − B and read as “ A minus B”.

A − B = {x ∈ A/ x ∈
/ B} .
Clearly, A − B is a subset of A.

1.6 Operations on sets

1.6.1 Intersection
Let A and B be sets. The set {x ∈ A/ x ∈ B} is denoted by A ∩ B and it is called the
intersection of A and B. Thus, x ∈ A ∩ B if and only if x ∈ A and x ∈ B.

Proposition 1.6.1 Algebraic properties of the intersection

Let A, B, C be sets. We have the relationships :
1. A ∩ B = B ∩ A [Commutativity].
2. A ∩ B ⊆ A and A ∩ B ⊆ B.
3. If [C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B] , then C ⊆ A ∩ B.
4. A ∩ A = A.
5. If A ⊂ B, then A ∩ B = A.
6. A ∩ ∅ = ∅ [absorbent element].
7. A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C. [Associativity] (we can therefore write A ∩ B ∩ C without
ambiguity).
If we have A ∩ B = ∅, we say that the sets A and B are disjoint.

Example 1.6.1 ]−1, 1] ∩ ]0, 2] = ]0, 1] . √ 

{x ∈ R, x2 ≥ 5} ∩ {x ∈ R/ x2 − 4x + 3 < 0} = 5, 3 .

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1.7 Union
For A, B ⊂ E. The set A ∪ B = {x ∈ E/ x ∈ A or x ∈ B} is called the union of A and
B. Thus, x ∈ A ∪ B if and only if x ∈ A or x ∈ B.
The "or" is not exclusive : x can belong to A and B at the same time.

Proposition 1.7.1 Algebraic properties of the union.

Let A, B, C be sets. We have the relationships :
1. A ∪ B = B ∪ A [Commutativity].
2. A ⊆ A ∪ B and B ⊆ A ∩ B.
3. If [A ⊆ C and B ⊆ C] , then A ∪ B ⊆ C.
4. A ∪ A = A.
5. If A ⊂ B, then A ∪ B = B.
6. A ∪ ∅ = A [Identity].
7. A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C. [Associativity].

Example 1.7.1 1. E = R, A = ]−∞, 3] , B = ]−1, 5[ . Then

A ∩ B ]−1, 3] , A ∪ B = ]−∞, 5[ A − B ]−∞, −1]

2. E = R, A = [−3, 3] , B = [0, 1] . Then

A \ B = [−3, 0[ ∪ ]1, 3] .

B \ A = ∅.
3. We call symmetric difference of A and B, and we denote by A∆B the set defined by :

A∆B = (A ∪ B) \ (A ∩ B) = (A \ B) ∪ (B \ A).

We clearly see that the symmetric difference of the sets is not commutative.

1.8 Calculation rules

Let A, B, C parts of a set E. We have :
1. A ⊂ B ⇔ A ∩ B = A.
2. A ⊂ B ⇔ A ∪ B = B.
3. A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C), A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C).
4. {{A
E = A and so A ⊂B⇔ {B
E ⊂ {A
E.
5. {E = {A
A∩B B
E ∪ {E .
6. {A∪B
E = {A B
E ∩ {E .
(5 and 6 Morgan’s Laws).

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1.9 Cartesian product of sets

Let E and F be two sets. The Cartesian product, denoted E × F , is the set of all ordered
pairs (x, y) where x ∈ E and y ∈ F . Hence,

E × F = {(x, y)/ x ∈ E ∧ y ∈ F }

Example 1.9.1 [0, 1] × R = {(x, y)/ 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, y ∈ R)

2 Function
Definition 2.0.1 A function f : E → F between sets E, F assigns to each x ∈ E a unique
element f (x) ∈ F . Functions are also called maps, mappings, or transformations.
A map or function of E in F associates with every element of E a unique element of F
denoted f (x).
If f is a map from E to F , and (x, y) an element of E × F verifying the relation f , we write
f : E→ F
x 7→ y
Example 2.0.1 The identity function idE : E → E on a set E is the function idE : x 7→ x
that maps every element to itself.
Let E = R+ and F = R.
We consider the relation f1 given by :

(x, y) ∈ E × F vérifiesf1 ⇔ y 2 = x
√ √
For given x there exists y1 = x and y2 = − x, then f is not an application.
1. The element f (x) ∈ F is called the image of element x ∈ E through application f .
2. E on which f is defined is called the domain of f and the set F in which it takes its
values is called the range. f is an application defined on E with values in F.
3. The graphic of the application (function) f : E → F denoted by Gf :

Gf = {(x, f (x)) ∈ (E × F ) /x ∈ E} .
4. The equality of applications. Two applications f, g : E → F are called equal if and
only if they have the same domain, the same codomain, the equality f = g is equivalent
to say : for all x ∈ E, f (x) = g(x). We then note f = g.

Definition 2.0.2 The range, or image, of a function f : E → F is the set of values

ranf = {y ∈ F : y = f (x) for some x ∈ E} .

A function is onto if its range is all of F ; that is, if for every y ∈ F there exists x ∈ E such
that y = f (x).
A function is one-to-one if it maps distinct elements of E to distinct elements of F ; that is,
if x1 , x2 ∈ E and x1 6= x2 implies that f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 ).
An onto function is also called a surjection, a one-to-one function an injection, and a one-
to-one, onto function a bijection.

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Example 2.0.2 Consider the maps f, g and h given by :

f : R → R+ g : R− → R
, .
x 7→ x2 x 7→ x2

1. Let x1 , x2 ∈ R such that f (x1 ) = f (x2 ), then x21 = x22 and so |x1 | = |x2 |.
For x1 = −2 6= x2 = 2, we have f (−2) = f (2) = 4, then f is not an injection.
√
2. For all y ∈ R+ , ∃x ∈ R, x = y, such that y = f (x) = x2 .
Thus, the map f is a surjection.
3. Let x1 , x2 ∈ R− such that g(x1 ) = g(x2 ), then x21 = x22 and therefore |x1 | = |x2 |, i.e.
−x1 = −x2 and therefore x1 = x2 . Thus g is an injection.
4. For y = −1, the equation −1 = g(x) = x2 has no solution. Thus, the map g is not a
surjection.

2.0.1 Bijection
Definition 2.0.3 f is bijective if it is injective and surjective. This is equivalent to :
For all y ∈ F there exists a unique x ∈ E such that y = f (x). In other words :

∀y ∈ F, ∃!x ∈ E/ y = f (x)

The existence of x comes from surjectivity and the uniqueness of injectivity. In other words,
every element of F has a unique antecedent by f .

Composition and inverses of functions

The successive application of mappings leads to the notion of the composition of functions.

Definition 2.0.4 The composition of functions f : E → F and g : F → G, is the function

g ◦ f : E → G defined by
g ◦ f (x) = g (f (x)) .

The order of application of the functions in a composition is crucial and is read from right to
left.
The composition g ◦ f can only be defined if the domain of g includes the range of f , and the
existence of g ◦ f does not imply that f ◦ g even makes sense.

Example 2.0.3 Let X be the set of students in a class and f : X → N the function that maps
a student to her age. Let g : N → N be the function that adds up the digits in a number e.g.,
g(1729) = 19. If x ∈ X is 23 years old, then (g ◦ f )(x) = 5, but (f ◦ g)(x) makes no sense,
since students in the class are not natural numbers. Even if both g ◦ f and f ◦ g are defined,
they are, in general, different functions.

Let f be a map from E to F . Then f is bijective if and only if there exists a unique map g
from F to E such that g ◦ f = IE and f ◦ g = IF . Further, then g = f −1 . The application g is
called the reciprocal bijection of f

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Example 2.0.4 f : R → ]0, +∞[ defined by f (x) = exp(x) is bijective, its reciprocal bijection
is g : ]0, +∞[ → R defined by g(y) = ln(y). We have exp (ln(y)) = y, for all y ∈ ]0, +∞[ and
ln (exp(x)) = x, for all x ∈ R.

Proposition 2.0.1 Let f : E → F and g : F → G be bijective maps. The map g ◦ f is bijective

and its reciprocal bijection is
(g ◦ f )−1 = f −1 ◦ g −1 .

Example 2.0.5 1. Let us define f, g thus :

f : ]0, +∞[ → ]0, +∞[
1
x 7−→ x
.
g : ]0, +∞[ → R
x−1
x 7−→ x+1
.
Then g ◦ f : ]0, +∞[ → R :
1
−1
 
1 x 1−x
g ◦ f (x) = g (f (x)) = g = 1 = = −g(x).
x x
+1 1+x

2.1 Image, Inverse image

Let f be a map from E to F . Let A ⊂ E and B ⊂ F . The subset

f (A) = {f (x)/ x ∈ A} .

of F is called the image of A under the map f .

To say that f is surjective is to say that f (E) = F .
The subset
f −1 (B) = {x ∈ E/ f (x) ∈ B} .
of E is called the inverse image of B under f .
What are f −1 (F ) and f −1 (∅) ?

Proposition 2.1.1 Let f be a map from E to F and A ⊆ E. Then A ⊆ f −1 (f (A)). Also

A = f −1 (f (A)) for all A ⊆ E if and only if f is injective.

Proof (See tutorial series)

Proposition 2.1.2 Let f be a map from E to F and B ⊆ F . Then f (f −1 (B)) ⊆ B. Also

B = f (f −1 (B)) for all B ⊆ F if and only if f is surjective.

Proof (See tutorial series)

Proposition 2.1.3 Let f be a map from E to F . Let A1 and A2 be subsets of E. Then

1. f (A1 ∪ A2 ) = f (A1 ) ∪ f (A2 ).
2. f (A1 ∩ A2 ) ⊆ f (A1 ) ∩ f (A2 ).
Further, in (ii), equality holds for every pair of subsets A1 and A2 of E if and only if f is
injective.

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Lemme 2.1.1 Let f be a map from E to F . Let A1 and A2 be subsets of E, Let B1 and B2 be
subsets of F . Then
A1 ⊂ A2 ⇒ f (A1 ) ⊂ f (A2 ) ,
B1 ⊂ B2 ⇒ f −1 (B1 ) ⊂ f −1 (B2 ) .

Proposition 2.1.4 Let f be a map from E to F . Let B1 and B2 be subsets of F . Then

1. f −1 (B1 ∪ B2 ) = f −1 (B1 ) ∪ f −1 (B2 ).
2. f −1 (B1 ∩ B2 ) = f −1 (B1 ) ∩ f −1 (B2 ).

Example 2.1.1 Define f : R → R by f (x) = x2 .

1. A = ]−2, 2[ f (A) = [0, 4[
2. B = ]0, 4[ f −1 (B) = ]−2, 0[ ∪ ]0, 2[.
3. C = ]−4, 0[ f −1 (C) = ∅.

Example 2.1.2 We consider the map f given by :

f : R∗ → R
1
x 7−→ 2+ x2
.
1. Consider A = [−1, 0[, then the image of A under the map f is :
 
1
f (A) = 2 + 2 / x ∈ [−1, 0[ = [3, +∞[ .
x
1
Indeed, for −1 ≤ x < 0 we have 2 + x2
≥ 3.
2. Consider B = [3, +∞[, then the inverse image of B under f is :
 
−1 ∗ 1
f (B) = x ∈ R / 2 + 2 ∈ [3, +∞[ = [−1, 0[ ∪ ]0, 1] .
x

1 1
Indeed, for 2 + x2
≥ 3 we have ≥ 1 which leads to x2 ≤ 1 and so x ∈ [−1, 0[ ∪ ]0, 1] .
x2
Example 2.1.3 We consider the map f : R → R given by :

f (x) = x2 ,

Let A = [−1, 4] .
1. The image of A under f :

f (A) = f ([−1, 4]) = {f (x) ∈ R/ − 1 ≤ x ≤ 4} .

however [−1, 4] = [−1, 0] ∪ [0, 4], then

f ([−1, 4]) = f ([−1, 0] ∪ [0, 4]) = f ([−1, 0]) ∪ f ([0, 4]),
It’s clear that −1 ≤ x ≤ 0 ⇒ 0 ≤ x2 ≤ 1 et 0 ≤ x ≤ 4 ⇒ 0 ≤ x2 ≤ 16.
So f ([−1, 4]) = [0, 1] ∪ [0, 16] = [0, 16] .

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2. The inverse of A under f .

f −1 ([−1, 4]) = f −1 ([−1, 0]) ∪ f −1 ([0, 4]) .

however
f −1 ([−1, 0]) = {x ∈ R/ − 1 ≤ f (x) ≤ 0} = {0} ,
and
f −1 ([0, 4]) = {x ∈ R/ 0 ≤ f (x) ≤ 4}
It is clear that 0 ≤ f (x) ≤ 4 ⇔ 0 ≤ x2 ≤ 4 ⇔ 0 ≤ |x| ≤ 2 ⇔ −2 ≤ x ≤ 2.
So
f −1 ([0, 4]) = [−2, 2]
From where
f −1 ([−1, 4]) = {0} ∪ [−2, 2] = [−2, 2] .

3 Binary relations
Definition 3.0.1 A binary relation R on sets E and F is a definite relation between elements
of E and elements of F . We write xRy if x ∈ E and y ∈ F are related. If E = F , then we
call R a relation on E.

Example 3.0.1 Suppose that S is a set of students enrolled in a university and B is a set of
books in a library. We might define a relation R on S and B by :
s ∈ S has read b ∈ B. In that case, sRb if and only if s has read b. Another, probably inequivalent
relation is : s ∈ S has checked b ∈ B out of the library.

For sets, it doesn’t matter how a relation is defined, only what elements are related.
Let us give some examples to illustrate this definition.

Example 3.0.2 1. For E = R, consider the property R1 defined by :

(x, y) check property R1 if y = x2 Thus, we do have R1 (2, 4) and R1 (−2, 4) but we do
not have R1 (2, 2)
2. For E = N consider the property R2 (x, y) defined by :
(x, y) checks the property R2 if x divides y, this means that there exists k ∈ N such that
y = kx. Thus, we have R2 (0, 0) and R2 (2, 0) , but we do not have R2 (0, 2)

In a set E, when a pair (x, y) satisfies a relation R , we write R(x, y) or xRy.

This last notation is adopted for the following, we then say that : “x is related to y by the
relation R”.

Example 3.0.3 Let P (E) be the set of all parts of a set E. We define the relation R in P (E)
by :
∀A, B ∈ P (E), ARB ⇔ A ⊂ B,
∀A ∈ P (E), ∅ ⊂ A, then ∀A ∈ P (E), ∅RA.

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Definition 3.0.2 The graph GrR of a relation R on E and F is the subset of E × F defined
by :
GrR = {(x, y) ∈ E × F/ xRy}
This graph contains all of the information about which elements are related.

Example 3.0.4 In E = R, we define the relation R by :

xRy ⇔ x2 + y 2 < 1

Then, GrR = {(x, y) ∈ R2 / x2 + y 2 < 1} is the inside of the unit disk.

3.1 Properties of binary relations in a set

Let E a set and let R a relation defined on E. The binary relation R is called
1. Reflexive, if ∀x ∈ E, xRx.
2. Symmetrical, if ∀x, y ∈ E, xRy ⇒ yRx.
3. Transitive, if ∀x, y, z ∈ E, (xRy) ∧ (yRz) ⇒ xRz.
4. Anti-symmetrical, if ∀x, y ∈ E, (xRy) ∧ (yRx) ⇒ x = y.

Example 3.1.1 1. Equality in any set is reflexive, symmetrical and transitive.

2. The inclusion in P (E) is reflexive, non-symmetrical, anti-symmetrical and transitive.
3. In R, the relation "...≤..." is reflexive, non-symmetrical, antisymmetrical and transitive.

3.2 The equivalence relation

Definition 3.2.1 The binary relation R on a set E is called equivalence relation if it is re-
flexive, symmetrical and transitive.

Example 3.2.1 In the plane P, the relation "...is parallel..." is an equivalence relation.

Let R be an equivalence relation on set E. For each element x ∈ E, the set

x = Rx = {y ∈ E/ xRy}

is called the equivalence class of x modulo R (or in relation to R), and the set
E/R = {x/ x ∈ E} is called a factor set (or quotient set) of E through R.
The properties of the equivalence classes. Let R be an equivalence relation on set E and
x, y ∈ E. Then, the following affirmations have effect :
1. x ∈ Rx ,
2. Rx = Ry ⇔ xRy ⇔ y ∈ Rx
3. Rx 6= Ry ⇔ Rx ∩ Rx = ∅,
4. tx∈E Rx = E.
Partitions on a set. Let E be a non-empty set. A family of subsets {Ei / i ∈ I} of E is
called a partition on E (or of E), if the following conditions are met :
1. i ∈ I ⇒ Ei 6= ∅,

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2. Ei 6= Ej ⇒ Ei ∩ Ej = ∅,
3. ti∈I Ei = E.

Théorème 3.2.1 For any equivalence relation R on set E, the factor set E/R = {Rx / x ∈ E}
is a partition of E.

Example 3.2.2 We define on set E = Z the binary relation R according to the equivalence

∀a, b ∈ E, aRb ⇔ ∃k ∈ Z : a = b + kn,

where n ∈ N∗ , n fixed.
1. Prove that R is an equivalence relation on Z.
2. Determine the structure of the classes of equivalence.
3. Form the factor set Z/R.
Application : n = 3.
We have :
1. Reflexivity : ∀a ∈ Z, ∃k = 0 ∈ Z : a = b + kn = a + 0n, so aRa.
2. Symmetry : ∀a, b ∈ Z, aRb ⇔ ∃k ∈ Z : a = b + kn so ∃(−k) ∈ Z :
b = a + (−k)n and so bRa.
3. Transitivity : ∀a, b, c ∈ Z, (aRb ⇔ ∃k1 ∈ Z : a = b + k1 n) ∧ (bRc ⇔ ∃k2 ∈ Z : b=
c + k2 n) ⇒ a = b + k1 n = (c + k2 n) + k1 n = c + (k2 + k1 )n = c + k3 n so aRc.
From 1 - 3 it follows that R is an equivalence relation on Z.
Let’s determine the class of equivalence of an element x ∈ E :
The class of equivalence of x ∈ Z will be denoted Rx or x and given by

x = {y ∈ Z/ yRx}

x = {y ∈ Z/ y = x + kn, k ∈ Z}
x = {x + kn ∈ Z/, k ∈ Z}
In the case n = 3, let us give the classes of equivalence of x = 0, x = 1and x = 2 , their
respective classes of equivalence are 0, 1and 2 and are given by :
0 = {3k/ k ∈ Z},
1 = {3k + 1/ k ∈ Z},
2 = {3k + 2/ k ∈ Z}.
Definition 3.2.2 The relation R defined above is called a congruency relation modulo n
on Z, and class a = Ra is called a remainder class modulo n and its elements are called
the representatives of the class.
The usual notation :
aRb ⇔ a ≡ b(mode n)
(a is congruent with b modulo n),and

E/R = Z/nZ.

Then 
E/R = Z/nZ = 0, 1, · · · , n − 1 .

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3.3 Order relations

Definition 3.3.1 A binary relation R on the set E is called an order relation on E, if it is
reflexive, anti-symmetrical and transitive. Usually, the relation R is denoted by "≤".

With this notation, the conditions that "≤" is an order relation on the set E are written :
1. reflexivity x ∈ E, x ≤ x;
2. asymmetry (x ≤ y ∧ y ≤ x) ⇒ x = y;
3. transitivity (x ≤ y ∧ y ≤ z) ⇒ x ≤ z.
The pair (E, R), where E is a set and R an order relation, is called an ordered set.

Definition 3.3.2 Let (E, R) be an ordered set. The relationship R is called a total order
relation if any two elements of E are comparable i.e. For all x, y ∈ E we have either xRy, or
yRx :
∀x, y ∈ E, (xRy ∨ yRx)
We also say that E is totally ordered by the relation R. Otherwise, the order is said to be
partial.

Example 3.3.1 1. A primary example of an order is the standard order · · · ≤ · · · on

the natural (or real) numbers. This order is a linear or total order, meaning that two
numbers are always comparable.
2. Another example of an order is inclusion · · · ⊂ · · · on the power set of some set ; one
set is " smaller" than another set if it is included in it. This order is a partial order
(provided the original set has at least two elements), meaning that two subsets need not
be comparable.
So, if E = {a, b}, the inclusion in P (E) is a partial order relation. In fact we have
{a} * {b} and {b} * {a}
3. On R × R, we define the relation R by

∀(x, y), (x0 , y 0 ) ∈ R × R, (x, y)R(x0 , y 0 ) ⇔ ((x ≤ x0 ) ∧ (y ≤ y 0 ))

It is easy to show that R is an order relation. the order is not total order.
Indeed, for (x, y) = (1, 2) and (x0 , y 0 ) = (3, 1), we have 1 ≤ 3 and 2  1 therefore
(1, 2) is not related to (3, 1), similarly we find (3, 1) is not related to (1, 2).

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