MINE PLANNING AND EQUIPMENT SELECTION 2000

PROCEEDINGS OF THE NINTH INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON MINE PLANNING

A ND EQUIPMENT SELECTION/ATHENS/GREECE/6-9 NOVEMBER 2000

M ine Planning and

Equipment Selection 2000
Edited by
G. N. Panagiotou & T. N. M ichalakopoulos
National Technical University of Athens, Greece

Taylor &.Francis
Taylor Si Francis Croup

LONDON AND NEW YORK

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 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, ISB N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Table o f contents

Foreword xvn
Organization XIX

1 Design and planning o f surface and underground mines

Assessment o f vibration measurements due to blasting o f the hard formations 3
at the South Field Lignite Mine, Ptolemais, Greece
Z.AgioutantiSy CKavouridis, S.Bozinis & KTsampis
The transportation planning to the new panel of the longwall mechanized equipment 11
in Tunçbilek Coal Mine
H.Akda§y M.Yavuz & R.Çelik
N ew design approaches for mine ore passes based on reduced-scale laboratory testing, 15
field experiments and computer modehng
MJ.Beus & S. Iverson
Assessment o f explosive performance by detonation velocity measurements in Turkey 21
ABilgin & S.Esen
A contribution to a better design and control of surface blasting 27
ABortolussi, R.CiccUy S.Forte & B.Grosso
Investigation o f interrelationship o f internal and external factors and parameters 33
o f ‘opencast’ system
D.G.BukeikhanoVy B.D.LermaUy RGGabdullin, S.Zh.Galiyev & V.ESiedin
Geological modeling and mine planning for dimension stone quarries 39
ACaranassioSy G.de Tomi & N.Senhorinho
Planning nuggety vein-gold operations: Underground exploration, bulk sampling 45
and resource reporting
S.C.Dominyy BMCuffley & G KJohansen
EOLAVAL, a mine ventilation planning tool 51
K. FytaSy S. Perreault & B. Daigle
The influence o f strategic development options on the long-term quality variation 57
o f mined lignite - The case o f the South Field Mine in Ptolemais, Greece
M.Galetakis & ZAgioutantis
Open stope cavity monitoring for the control o f dilution and ore loss 63
A RJarosz & L. Shepherd
Methane safety o f coal mining 67
KO, Kaledina
Analyses o f valley fill stability and spoil handling techniques in mountainous areas 71
S R B .K olli& A W K hair
The minimum total cost approach to optimum pit slope design 77
R A Lilly
Drivage o f a new incline with a roadheader at Ombilin Coal Mine, Indonesia 83
KM atsui, KShimada, M.Ichinose, S. Kramadibrata, K ZA nw ar & KFurukawa
Design process and equipment selection for auxiliary ventilation systems 89
D. G. Mirakovski & B. Krstev
Conceptual solution o f the excavation method in ‘Biochki stan’ mine in Niksic, Yugoslavia 95
SMitic, D.Milojevic & D.Zlatanovic
Optimization of toe in bench blasting - A practical view 99
C. B.Navalkar
Selection of fan or fan location in ventilation of long drivages 105
M.Onder
Prediction of Sarcheshmeh copper mine blasting operation effects on nearby structure 111
M.GOsanloo, AJavaherian & H.Bakhshandeh
Development o f the decentralized control mathematical model for the potash mine 117
transport system
GRivnyak & VTkachov
Estimation o f the situation in the mining output area 121
RI. Ronomarenko & A A Askarov
Optimal development o f the quarry’s working zone by the complex deposits exploitation 123
B.Rakishev, B.Gurjevsky & ABegalinov
A combined method for the analysis o f mine ventilation networks 127
S. Sarac & C. Sensogut
Water balance and genesis o f the inflows to some mines in Poland 131
J. Sawicki
Measurement base for mine ventilation flow rate control-acoustic choice 137
SZShkundin, S.L.Klimov & V.VSobolev
Geolog - Integrated system for the mining industry 145
D. Stdnescu, LMacoviciuc.ADadu, L.Diaconu, L.Drdgdnescu & V.Georgiu

VI
Mine design changes at Silver and Baryte’s bauxite operation 151
P. Stregas & N. Christou
Planing the safety in mines 155
K ZUshakov
Technological wells schemes and location parameters optimization for uranium 157
geotechnology
VG.YazikoVy Y./.Rogov &AY.Rogov

2 Mining geostatistics and mine optimisation

Indicator kriging approach to hazard definition ahead of coal mine development headings 163
E. YBaafi
Geostatistical simulation: A framework to forecast fluctuations during mining 167
F. S. BonatOy J. E C. L. Costa & J. C. Koppe
Estimation o f volumes o f stripping and winning operations at opencasts 173
using solid graphs
D.GBukeikhanoVy M.Zh.ZhanasoVy V.ESyediriy B.Zh.Bekmurzayev & S.D.Bukeikhanov
Propsects for Zn-Pb ore mining in Poland with regard to ore quality in discovered deposits 177
J. Cabala
Changes o f selected parameters o f coal quality in fault zones in the Upper Silesian Coal 183
Basin, Poland
S.R.Cmiel & A E Idziak
Linear programming model applied to scheduling o f iron ore production at the Kiruna Mine, 187
Sweden
KDagdeleUy ETopal & M.Kuchta
Geostatistical ore reserves estimation in deposits o f variable dip. Application 193
on a manganese deposit
D.Drymonitis
Resource and reserve analysis o f Hasangelebi Iron Ore deposit, Turkey 199
B. Elevliy A Demirciy A Dogan & G Onal
Geostatistical characterization o f thermal impacts from floodplain mining 203
D. R.Hack
GEMNet II - An alternative method for grade estimation 209
I. K. KapageridiSy B. Denby & D. Schofield
Open pit design optimisation o f a lignite deposit 217
W. Kawalec & J. Specylak
Indices o f mineral raw materials use by different technological processes 223
B.R.RakisheVy EB.Rakishev & Zh.R.Imashev
Geostatistical analysis and interpretation o f the geotechnical properties o f rock massif, 227
Ceara State, Brazil
E. N. Santos y T. R. Gopinath & A A Lima

VII
A statistical approach to the thermogravimetric characteristics o f Turkish coals 233
C. Sensoguty O. S.Yildiriniy I.Cinar & AH. Ozdeniz

3 Geotechnical stability in surface and underground mines

LAMODEL - A boundary element program for coal mine design 239
Z.Agioutantis & K A H easley
An improved approach to the room and pillar design: A case study from Zambia 247
M.J.Appolinary & R. Krishna
A primary stress state within deep shaft lining based on numerical modeling 253
J.Butra & W.Pytel
Determination o f capacity o f powered supports for a longwall face o f a thick coal seam 259
S.K.Das
Some aspects about the prognosis o f the ground deformations for the ore deposits 267
KDimUy O.Herbei & KFissgus
Room and pillar design o f Istanbul-Yenikoy coal field using finite element method 271
S. G.Ergelebi & K N asuf
Geomechanical situation at horizontal working connection 277
T. M. ErmekoVy M.A Kayupov & S. S. Uysimbayeva
Determination o f behaviours o f loads distribution on pillars when overlapping ledges mining 281
T.M.ErmekoVy KKh.NugmanoVy Yu.I.Chabdarovay AABukin & S.K.Japayev
Influence o f blast on stability o f elements of mine methods when repeated mining o f deposits 285
T.M.ErmekoVy KKTulebaeVy Sh.ADildabayev & S.Z.Uisimbaeva
Geotechnical features for quarrying abandoned underground marble voids: 289
The Monte Altissimo example, Apuane Range
M.FornarOy R.Gennaro & C.Oggeri
Stabihty analysis o f Maydook Copper mine 295
KG.Goshtasbi & M.Hosseini
The effect o f shock load on the stability of tunnels 299
KG.Goshtasbi & M.Mohamadi
Geomechanical analysis using simulated 3D natural joint networks 303
J.Hadjigeorgiou & M.Grenon
Practical applicability o f steel wire cable sensor for rock fall detection 309
M.Komazakiy KHiramay F.ItOy M.Ujihiray Y.Kawamura & T.Tokunaga
Definition o f the roof strata movements in longwall mining method 315
G.Konaky AH.Onury HKosCy O.Turgay & Q.Tatar
PREGAL - A program for choosing rockbolt support systems 319
T.Koriniy G.N.Panagiotou & V.Jorgji
Plastic zones within the rock mass as a function o f the shaft lining resistance 325
S.Krstovic

VIII
High density spatial data collection for monitoring o f steep wall movements 327
D. D, Lichti, M. Stewart & M. Tsakiri
Highwall mining system with backfilling 333
KMatsuiy H.Shimaday TSasaoka^ MJchinose & S. Kubota
The geomechanics and mine planning: A case study 339
H.M.Vega & L.A Ayres da Silva
DB-BASE: A geomechanical database for destress blasting applications in hard rock mines 343
H. S Mitri & J. Marwan
A method for analyzing and designing frictional rock bolting systems 349
in room-and-pillar mining
N. Nikolaev & VParushev
An appUcation o f integrated measuring technique for rock pressure determination 355
in coal mines
TOnargan
A case study for an open pit coal mine induced slope failure affecting an industrial 359
plant in Turkey
AKOnWy G.Konaky H. Rose y Y.Kocay H.Yenice & D.Karaku§
Optimisation of longwall face advance rate 365
K O raee
Major causes o f accidents in tailing dam due to geological and geotechnical factors 371
LSoareSy ELVasquezArnez & W.T.Hennies

The importance o f interlayer friction on the stability of underground bedded roofs 377
Al.SofianoSy RRNomikos & CKTsoutrelis
Distribution o f discontinuities in Jakubcovice mine, South West o f Ostrava City, 381
Czech Republic
H.Tavakoliy VPetros ¿cM.Romana
Stability monitoring of open pit mines in Australia using GPS 387
M Tsakiri & M. Stewart

Modelling o f discontinuity surface roughness by digital photogrammetry 391

and geostatistical methods
M Unaly B. Unver & E,Tercan

A critical assessment o f an exploration pilot tunnel in adverse geological conditions: 397

A case study
B. Unver & EAygar
Finite element modeling o f underground openings in bedded rock 403
/. Vicenzi & H. S. Mitri

Methods computer modelling and analysis of geomechanical processes 409

M.AZhuravkoVy U. N Lazurenko yLSNevelson dcNADakuko
Geotechnical investigations during underground taihng storage 415
S,N.Zhurin

IX
4 Mine evaluation - Financial and management issues
Management o f underground mine economy in the period of mining activity damping 421
J.Dvordcek
Optimizing a project’s true rate o f return 425
M. M, Hajdasihski
The prospects for the development o f the Georgian coal mining industry: 431
Comparison with alternative energy resources
CVKavourideSy LRNikolaides & AJ.Logothetis
Owner versus contract mining 437
LJ.Kirk
The case study o f Greek-EU relations and their effect on Greek mining 443
S.Kyriakou ScLPretorius
Selected aspects o f restructuring hard coal mining sector 449
R. Magda
Innovative tools for performance improvement in CVRD mines 453
I. M. Menezes & FA G. Magalhdes
System parameters modeling while planning the mining development program 459
I.T. Morozov &RI. Ronomarenko
Albanian mineral industry and its trends in the future 461
I.NakOy V.Jorgji &ABakiu
Ways o f electric power saving at the coal mines of Ukraine 467
G. G Rivnyak & S. I. Vypanasenko

Perspectives o f mining stock improvement under crisis economics 471

VV. Radchenko
Problems o f resource management at unprofitable mines 473
V. I. Sally ¿c R. I. Yurovsky
How historical costing causes mine inefficiency A ll
A Savva
The system o f complex appreciate o f anthracite mines 483
A I. Sharov & V.AChmihun
Planning for mine safety and the management of risk 485
N. Terezopoulos
Productivity measurement at the sectoral level: The case of Greek lignite mining 491
LE.Tsolas

5 Mine equipment selection

A computer program for open pit mine equipment selection: TruckMac 499
M.Aksoy & E.Yalgin
Experimental research o f a soft start-up process of armoured face conveyor equipped 505
with a water flow-controlled hydrodynamic coupling
J.Antoniak
Determination o f economic life o f heavy earth moving machinery in mines 511
R.Arora & S,Nakra
Rippability assessment studies at Tuncbilek Coal Mine: A case study 515
KBasariVy C.Karpuz & T.Bozdag
Safety in quarrying ornamental stones by using diamond wire 521
RBerry/y G.ABlenginiy S,Fabbri & VATafaro
The valuation o f power efficiency o f mining-transport systems work of open-pits 527
D.G.BukeikhanoVy S.Zh.Galiyev, D.Sh.Akhmedov,AKhJaxybayev & T.GGabdullin
Overview o f roadheader applications in Turkish mining and civil construction industries 533
H. Copur
High-performance rock destroying tool from modified solid alloy 539
R.RDidyky YV.Savchenko & M.V.Rogoza
Dynamic model o f a shearer’s cutting system 541
M Dolipskiy MJaszczuky R CheluszkUy R SobotOy E. Kusak & M. Kurek

Review o f surface mining equipment selection techniques 547

SGErgelebi & CKirmanli
Problem with cracking o f the rope disc welds 555
Z Folta & H. Rrecek

Determination o f tractive capacity o f the drum o f a multirope hoisting machine 559

with due account o f flexibility of its elastic liner
V.RFranchuk & VVFranchuk
The complex decision o f a problem o f open-pits excavator-automobile systems reproduction 563
SZh.GaliyeVy AKhJaxybayeVy AABoyandinovay B.D.Lerman & T.GGabdullin
The impact o f multi-element external coal transportation on reliability o f the system 569
and on environment
M.M.GrujiCy M.M.Grujic & M.D.Ivkovic
Contribution to the study o f cutting mechanism of Capao Bonito Granite, 573
Sao Paulo State, Brazil
WTHennies & A Stellin Jr
The methodology o f the selection o f auxiliary mechanisation for the open pit mines o f lignite 577
D.IgnjatoviCy IRistovic & M.Stojakovic
Selection o f current collection operation mode and power circuit design 583
A B. Ivanov
The conveyor belt wear index and its application in belts replacement pohcy 589
LJurdziak

XI
The effect o f conveyor belt load upon belt durability 595
LJurdziok & M. Hardygora
Effect o f cutting tool angle on failure mechanism o f rock in rock-tool interaction 601
AWKhair, S.Addala & CPezowicz
Prediction o f roadheader performance: A geotechnical assessment scheme 607
M.AKirkbride
Computer simulation o f the open pit transportation systems 613
B.Kolonja, N.Vasiljevic & R.Stante
Assessment o f the performance o f raise boring 73 RM-DC at the Pongkor gold mine, 619
West Java
SKramadibrata, M.ARai, SDarmawan, LArif, D.ASumanagara, AArdianto,
K. Matsui & H. Shimada
Rock technological parameters useful to water jet cutting systems 625
CT.Lauandy G.R.Martin C , W.T.Hennies ¿cR.Ciccu
Cost estimation o f earthmoving done by hydraulic shovels and trucks in mines 631
M.Leontidis & B. Patmanidou
Application o f LCC techniques in selection o f mining equipment and technology 635
T. Markeset & U. Kumar
Abrasives in water jet cutting systems 641
G.R.Martin C, C.T.Lauand^ W.T.Hennies &R.Ciccu
Engineering ceramics for wear-protection o f mining and mineral processing equipment 647
E.Medvedovski
Application o f pre mixed abrasive water jet for maintenance of oil and gas ducts 653
M.L.AMendeSy LSoareSy W.T.HennieSy R.Ciccu & ABortolussi
Aspects regarding the determination o f the volume o f the silo-wagons 657
S. MihailescUy I. DumitrescUy N. S. Ungureanu & L. Mihailescu
Investigation o f the relationship between cutting angles and wearing on beads in diamond 661
wire cutting method
Y.Ozgelik & SKulaksiz
Performance and efficiency measures for mining equipment 667
J. Paraszczaky S. Planeta & J. Szymanski
Basic factors estimation which define rotary blast hole drill production 673
R.Y.Poderni
Wirtgen Surface Miner - New machine development and project experience 679
B. Schimm
Factors affecting loading performance o f the excavators in Garp lignite enterprise 685
M.Taksuk & KErarslan
Equipment replacement considerations 691
P. D. Tomlingson

XII
Rock cutting resistance prognosis at the Libous model mining site based on newly 695
developed method
J.Zdarsky & V.Kremlacek

6 Innovative mining systems - Machine automation

Alternative access, mining and hoisting for underground deposits 703
K B iegaj
Evaluation o f mining equipment automation including process considerations 709
and sensitivity analysis
R.A Hall & L. K, Daneshmend
I-SiTE - Laser scanning revolutionises site survey 715
/. K. Kapageridis
The combined power is the technology of the 21 st century 721
O. V. Kolokolov & N. M. Tabachenko
Truck driver assisting devices to increase safety and productivity 727
V.A Kononov
Steep angle conveying for material transportation in open cut mines 731
M.D.Kuruppu & T.G.Golosinski
Reflective seismic tomography to identify anomaUes impacting underground developments 735
D. M Nelly M.J. DeMarco yA D. Rock & J. M. Descour
The powerful excavator-dragline’s control for automatic accurate bucket positioning 743
LD.Pevzner
Automatic control interface for underground atmosphere parameters 747
A Poanta & D. Dojcsar

Software control for a drilling mining robot 751

E. Popy M. Pop & M. Leba
Innovative solutions for the overburden handling system of P.T Freeport Indonesia 755
D L. Schröder
Tests o f experimental specimen o f robotized unit for continuous blasting o f hard ores 763
A M . TkatchenkOy V.KVoronenkOy O.GKremer & AT.Buneyev
New type o f transport for deep open pits 765
Ye.KYedygenov

1 Information technologies in mining

3D modeling and reserve estimation of a coal deposit using neural networks 773
KAkcakocOy N.Qelebiy AGPasamehmetoglu & K.Erarslan
Visual Basic implementation o f the Maximum Value Neighbourhood algorithm 111

to optimise stope boundaries

M.Ataee-pour & E.Y.Baafi

XIII
Multicriteria choice o f a lignite field for mine development and power plant construction 783
FABatzias & C.P.Roumpos
Pattern recognition software for quality evaluation of mining machines 789
VCokorilo & V.Milisavljevic
A simulation algorithm for material flow from open pit mine to power plant: A case study 793
K. Erarslan
Computer design and operation o f quarries for non-metallic mineral industries: 799
Case study at Lafarge Limestone Deposit in Turkey
H.Ergin & M.Basaran
Development o f mining management information system for Soma Open Pit Mines 805
M Ersoy & N.^elebi

Object modelling o f a belt conveyor 811

LGladysiewicz & W.Kawalec
A mine planning and information system merging specialized planning data 815
with conventional office-files and process data via a three-dimensional model
o f underground mines
G. K. Heim & R. Hunefeld
Production information system o f the Pljevlja coal mine 821
B. Kolonja, R. Stankovic & EVukovic Filip
Digital face mapping to assist mining operations 827
CJ.Kolovos
Computer assisted planning for extraction of ornamental granite 833
A de Andrade Lima, M.R.Kalvelagey G.de Tomi &N.Senhorinho Silva
The use o f geometrical-technical planning systems for support - A prerequisite 835
for high-performance longwall operations
SMoellerherm & RN.Martens
Reliability assessment o f mining equipment using genetic algorithms 841
T.Nuziale & N.Vagenas
Using animations o f mining operations as presentation models 847
IR.Sturgul
Application o f genetic algorithms for the layout of openings in mines 851
Q.X.Yun, K.M.Huang &M.Z.Lian

8 Mining and the environment

Economical aspects o f possible pollution decreasing in mining industry o f Kazakhstan 859
AYeAikynbayev & GLYedilbayeva
The ecological rehabihtation o f the Banat-Oravita area 863
SArady VArady D.Cosmay T.IuhaSy AM.Cosmay D.Cosma & D.Cocar

XIV
Environmental impact characterization o f a tin mine in the northwest of Argentina 865
J. C.Avila & AS.Fogliata
Mine planning and closure issues in the 21 st Century 871
S. Bandopadhyay & E. C. Packee Jr
Noise o f belt conveyors 879
W.Bartelmus & WSowicki
Monitoring o f clay mine waste for utilization in the non-soil reclamation 885
o f mine waste dumps
Z.Bzowski
Geochemical studies to characterize the complex sulfur mineralogy at Red D og Pb-Zn Mine 891
S D a y G.ACoulter & M.Falutsu
Some aspects regarding the Romanian open pit lignite mining impact on soil 899
D. Fodor y G.Baican &M. Lazar
Eliminating negative environmental impacts of large opencast mining equipment 905
LHanuska
Mining aerology - Factor o f ecological safety of environment 907
SA K aliev ¿cVVOglov
The system o f control o f the general absorbed doze of a dust and definition o f possible 909
risk o f disease mining worker
B. Kirin
Critical factors affecting rehabilitation o f abandoned phosphogypsum stacks 913
K. Komnitsas
Radon dispersion air modeling in Banat mining area 919
G. O. Madeary E. Traista & I. Pop

Reclamation and development o f voids in the raw material industry in Lower Silesia, Poland 925
J. Malewskiy J. Szwed-Lorenz & S. Slusarczyk
Acoustic warning signals and design o f restricted working areas in noisy environment 931
GMassacciy V.Dentoni &ACamboni
The radiological protection during mining radioactive raw materials in the Czech Republic 935
B.Michdleky PNavrdtil & PVinkler
The environmental management o f the coal mining activity in the Jiu valley 941
M.Radulescu & B.Grigore
Disposal o f jarosite slurry in a lined tailings pond, Hindustan Zinc Limited, India 947
VRajaraniy UChughy S. Malik & R.KBansal
Air quality control in quarries o f technical stone 951
B.Salopek & G.Bedekovic
Seed germination in Ruby Dock Rumex vesicarius (Fam. Polygonaceae) 957
A Schatral & J. M. Osborne

XV
Evaluation and modelling of haul road dust palliatives 961
RJ.Thompson & AT.Visser
Underground gold-extracting plant 967
ALYedilbayeVyALYakunin & VS,Muzgina

Author index 969

XVI
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Foreword

The Mine Planning and Equipment Selection series of symposia is an annual event recognized by the
mining society as a leader in promoting international technology transfer in the fields o f mine
planning, mining systems design, equipment selection and operation techniques.
Organizers o f the 9th International Symposium on Mine Planning and Equipment Selection
(MPES 2000) are: Department o f Mining Engineering & Metallurgy, National Technical University
o f Athens, Greece; Department o f Mines and Metallurgy, University of Laval, Canada; Dipartimen­
to di Geoingegneria e Tecnologie Ambientali, Università degli Studi di Cagliari, Italy; Universidad
PoUtechnica de Madrid, Spain; Atihm University, Ankara, Turkey; National Mining University of
Ukraine, Dnipropetrovsk, Ukraine; WH Bryan Mining Geology Research Centre, The University of
Queensland, Australia; Western Australian School of Mines, Curtin University of Technology,
Australia; International Journal o f Surface Mining, Reclamation and Environment; World Mining
Equipment; American Society for Surface Mining and Reclamation; World Mining Association of
Soil and Water Conservation; CENTER - International Training and Development Centre, Lulea
University, Sweden; Faculty o f Mining and Geology, VSB - Technical University, Ostrava, Czech
Republic; Gluckauf Mining Reporter.
MPES 2000 aims to provide a forum for the presentation, discussion and criticism of state-of-the-
art and emerging technologies in the fields o f mine planning and mining equipment selection, as we
move into the new millennium. MPES 2001 will be held in India, MPES 2002 in the Czech Republic
and MPES 2003 in Australia.
The symposium’s call for papers attracted more than two hundred and forty abstracts, o f which
one hundred and eighty two papers were accepted and submitted for presentation. These high quality
papers from thirty one countries representing Europe, North and South America, Australia, Asia and
Africa, are included in this volume of proceedings arranged in eight major topics: Design and
Planning o f Surface and Underground Mines; Mining Geostatistics and Mine Optimisation;
Geotechnical Stability in Surface and Underground Mines; Mine Evaluation - Financial and
Management Issues; Mine Equipment Selection; Innovative Mining Systems - Machine Automa­
tion; Information Technologies in Mining; Mining and the Environment.
The papers o f this volume are listed in an alphabetical order, by first author’s last name, for each of
the eight major topics o f the symposium, in order to facilitate the locating of specific papers during
presentations.
The organization and success o f such a symposium is due mainly to the efforts of many
individuals, authors included. Dr Raj K.Singhal, chairman o f the International Organising Commit­
tee, and all committee members have contributed greatly. The support o f the MPES 2000 sponsors
and exhibitors, plenary session speakers and technical session chairs is gratefully acknowledged.
Particular recognition is accorded to Niki Gargassoula o f FREI S.A. Travel-Congress and her team
for their professional work, Manos Tsiavos, and to our publisher A.T. Balkema.
My greatest appreciation goes to Theodore Michalakopoulos for his dedication and timeless work
in organizing the symposium and editing this volume o f proceedings.

George N. Panagiotou
MPES 2000 Chairman

XVII
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Organization

INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZING COMMITTEE

Symposium Chairman
Dr George N. Panagiotou, National Technical University o f Athens, Greece

International Committee Chairman

Dr Raj K.Singhal, University o f Laval, Canada

Members
Dr Zacharias Agioutantis, Technical University o f Crete, Greece
Dr Newton Amegbey, University o f Science and Technology, Ghana
Prof. Keith Atkinson, University o f Exeter, United Kingdom
Dr Zbigniew Bzowski, Central Mining Institute, Poland
Prof. Raimondo Ciccu, Digita - University of Cagliari, Italy
Dr Euler M .D e Souza, Queens University, Canada
Prof. Roussos Dimitrakopoulos, University o f Queensland, Australia
Prof. Michel Duchene, Ecole Nationale Supérieure des Mines de Paris, France
Mr Magnus Ericsson, Raw Materials Group, Stockholm, Sweden
Prof. Selim EEstefan, Research Centre, Cairo, Egypt
Mr Laureano Fueyo, Rocas Y Minerales, Spain
Dr Kostas Fytas, University o f Laval, Canada
Dr Lidia Gawlik, Mineral and Energy Economy Research Institute, Krakow, Poland
Prof. Mircea Georgescu, Technical University of Petrosani, Romania
Dr Uta Gerlach-Laxner, Köln (Rodenkirchen), Germany
Prof. Donald Graves, University o f Kentucky, USA
Dr John Hadjigeorgiou, University o f Laval, Canada
Prof. Martin Haigh, Oxford Brookes University, United Kingdom
Prof. Monika Hardy gora. Technical University of Wroclaw, Poland
Prof. Wildor T.Hennies, University o f Sao Paulo, Brazil
Prof. Michael Karmis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University, USA
Dr Vladimir Kebo, VSB - Technical University of Ostrava, Czech Republic
Dr Thoma Koiini, Polytechnic University of Tirana, Albania
Dr Uday Kumar, Stavanger University College, Norway
Prof. Peter A. Lilly, Curtin University of Technology, Australia
Dr Ing. Andrei Magyary, Technical University of Petrosani, Romania
Prof. Pier Paolo Manca, Digita - University of Cagliari, Italy
Dr Hani Mitri, McGill University, Canada
Ms Maria Morelli, Buenos Aires, Argentina
Dr Vera Muzgina, Institute o f Mining, Kazakhstan
Prof. Joan Osborne, Curtin University o f Technology, Australia
Mr Sven Erik Österlund, Lulea University, Sweden

XIX
Prof. Pedro Ramirez Oyanguren, Universidad Politechnica de Madrid, Spain
Prof. Lèvent Özdemir, Colorado School of Mines, USA
Prof. A.Günhan Pasamehmetoglu, Atilim University, Turkey
Prof. Vladimir Paylovic, University o f Belgrade, Yugoslavia
Prof. Gennadiy G.Pivnyak, State Mining University of Ukraine, Ukraine
Prof. Roman Y.Podemi, M oscow State Mining University, Russia
Dr Richard Poulin, University o f Laval, Canada
Prof. L. Puchkov, Moscow State Mining University, Russia
Dr Bayan R.Rakishev, Kazakh National Technical University, Kazakhstan
Prof. Shunsuke Sakurai, Kobe University, Japan
Mr Bhaskar P Singh, LNJ Bhilwara Group, India
Ms Mona Singhal, International Journal o f Surface Mining, Reclamation and Environment,
Netherlands
Dr Thomson Sinkala, University o f Zambia, Zambia
Prof. Vladimir Strakos, VSB - Technical University of Ostrava, Czech Republic
Prof. John R.Sturgul, University o f Idaho, USA
Dr Masuyuki Ujihira, Hokkaido University, Japan
Dr Nick Vagenas, Laurentian University, Canada
Mr Tsolo Voutov, Geotechmin - SVS Ltd., Bulgaria
Dr Marie Vrbova, R-Princip MOST s.r.o., Czech Republic
Dr Alaphia E. Wright, University o f Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe
Prof. Yun Qing Xia, Xian University o f Architecture & Technology, China
Prof. Michael Zhurakov, Belarus State University, Belarus

XX
1 D esign and planning o f surface and underground m ines
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

A ssessm ent o f vibration m easurem ents due to blastiug o f the hard form ations
at the South Field L ignite M ine, Ptolem ais, G reece

Z. Agioutantis & KTsampis

Department o f Mineral Resources Engineering, Technical University of Crete, Hania, Greece
C. Kavouiidis & S. Bozinis
Lignite Center of Ptolemais-Amydeon, Public Power Corporation, Ptolemais, Greece

ABSTRACT: Drilling and blasting procedures are utilized for removing various types of overburden hard
formations at the South Field Lignite Mine, at the Lignite Center of Ptolemais-Amydeon, operated by the
Greek Public Power Corporation. This paper presents the results and experiences from a blast vibration
program that was recently initiated in order to ensure that the surface blasting operations do not affect a
powerplant as well as a village that are located in close proximity to the surface mining operations.
Additionally, results of this program were utilized to redesign the blasts to achieve lower vibration levels.

1 INTRODUCTION formations which are encountered in the overburden

strata.
Greece is the fifth largest producer of soft brown The South Field Mine, can be considered unique
coal in the world and the second largest in the regarding the mining conditions and the technologies
European Community, producing about 61Mt of used to exploit the orebody. More specifically,
lignite per annum. The Lignite Center of Ptolemais- benches la, 11a, lb, 2a, 2b and 3 excavate over­
Amydeon (LCP-A), operated by the Greek Public burden, while benches 4, 5, 6a, 6b and 7 excavate
Power Corporation (PPC), is located in northern the lignite seams. The mine uses 65 conveyor belts
Greece, about 110km west of the city of Thessalo­
niki. The lignite deposits under exploitation cover an
area of 120km^, including 4000Mt of proven
geological reserves and 2500Mt of exploitable
lignite under current economic and technological
criteria. Today, the LCP-A manages four large active
mining units, which produce lignite to cover 62% of
the power generation in Greece. At the present rate
of extraction, 50Mt of lignite are produced annually
(comprising about 80% of the total lignite extraction
in Greece), by moving a total of 250Mm^ of earth
material.
The South Field Mine is the largest of the four
operational surface mines at the Lignite Center of
Ptolemais-Amydeon, covering an area of 24km^
(Fig.l). The original lignite deposit in the area was
estimated at 1.2 billion tons of lignite. Mining
operations commenced in August 1979 and currently
the mine operates on ten benches, using mainly the
continuous mining method, which employs bucket
wheel excavators (BWEs), conveyors and stackers.
Also conventional mining equipment including big
trucks, front end loaders, electric rope and hydraulic
shovels, dozers are utilized for mining the hard rock
lignite bearing Ptolemais - Amydeon valley.
Figure 2: Typical cross-section o f overburden material. Red-brown clay Cemented gravel
Calcareous brecciated
conglomerates Gray-yellow sand
with a total length of 100km. Mining depth is Red-brown clay w/ m i Gray-green sand
expected to reach 200m. The scheduled annual conglomerates
Gray-yellow/green
lignite production at the South Field Mine reaches Gray clay
18-20Mt lignite, while overburden removal operat­ Gravel Organic clay
ions produce annually 47-53Mm^ of bank material, Gray-yellow clay w/ 1^1 Lignite and clay
to achieve total annual excavations of 90Mm^ of mudstone
earth material. Gray-green clay w/
1^ Xylite
mudstone
Approximately 25-30% of the overburden consists Sand and sandstone J Fault
of hard and semi-hard formations, which are
Conglomerated
removed using conventional mining methods. Since sandstone
the beginning of mining operations to the end of
1999, 917Mm^ of total earth material were moved
and 200Mt of lignite were produced with an average
exploitation ratio of 3.75:1. South Field Mine, are presented and critically
As early as 1981, it was decided to use large evaluated regarding surface blast design and
scale explosives to loosen the hard rock formations implementation. It should be noted that, currently,
and use conventional load and haul equipment to maximum vibration levels as well as air-blast levels
move it. are below the limits set by DIN 4150 and OSMRE.
In 1996 a blast vibration monitoring program was
initiated in order to ensure that the surface blasting
operations would not affect in any way a powerplant 2 OVERBURDEN LITHOLOGY
as well as a village that were located in close Overburden strata consist of fine and coarse clastic
proximity to the mine face. Additionally, since blast sediments such as clays, mails, gravel, conglo­
design guidelines for blasting the hard formation merates with embedded hard layers of sandstones,
lenses, which occur within softer overburden cemented conglomerates and mudstones (Figure 2).
materials, were not available, results of this program The average in site specific weight of the overburden
were utilized to redesign the blasts to achieve lower is 19.62kN/m^ (2ton/m^) and the average bulking
vibration levels. factor ranges fi-om 1.4 to 1.5. The average thickness
Results of the blast vibration program at the of overburden material in that area is 90m. Table 1
shows the range of the mechanical and physical
Table 1. Physical and mechanical properties for the Originally blasting was accomplished utilizing
hard formation material. ANFO mixes with either ammonia dynamite (extra
Parameter Range value dynamite) products or gelatin dynamite (30% weight
strength) for boosters. Wet holes were loaded with
Uniaxial compressive strength (MPa) 15-143
30% weight strength gelatin dynamite.
Tensile strength (MPa) 2.4-11.2 In 1995, South Field Mine engineers used for the
Density (ton/m^)__________________ 2.4-2.T first time a special mix of ANFO and emulsion
called Heavy ANFO (H-ANFO), which is prepared
properties of the hard rock formations, while Table 2 in situ by mixing emulsion (nitrate salts dispersed as
shows the approximate extend of each formation in small droplets in a continuous oil base), and porous
the South Field Mine. Table 3 summarizes the ammonium nitrate. Several mixing ratios were
conventional equipment used in overburden evaluated for the specific application at the South
removal. Field before the optimum conditions were selected
(Agioutantis & Kavouridis, 1998). This mixture has
a relatively high bulk strength, a higher critical
3 BLASTING PROCEDURES diameter (over 150mm), but good blasting
characteristics in wet blastholes. Hence, currently
Currently, five blasthole rigs (Tamrock C50 K3L) ANFO is used in dry holes and H-ANFO in wet
are utilized, drilling over 1000 m of blastholes per holes. Ammonia dynamite is used as a booster to
day at 7 and 9 in diameter for 4x5m or 6x6m ANFO and gelatine dynamite as a booster to H-
blasthole grids. About 1600 tons of explosives are ANFO or ANFO loaded blastholes.
consumed annually by detonating about 700 shots. The hard formation removal operations employ
That corresponds to 2-3 blasts per day with an about 240 people in 3 shifts and are responsible for
explosives load of 1-8 tons per blast. Drillheads are moving approximately 13-14Mm^ of overburden
air-cooled tricones (lADC 622), with embedded material annually. Additional material is excavated
carbide bids. by subcontractors.

Table 2. Extend and dimensions of each overburden formation group (Papageorgiou & Pakas, 1997).
Rock type Rock description Area Average Volume Percent
(W ) thickness (m) (Mm^) (%)
Hard material conglomerates, sandstone 24 11 264 13
conglomerates, breccia 10.5 10 105 5.2
Semi hard material clay, sandstone, gravel 10.5 10 105 5.2
Loose material clay 24 61 1464 72.3
sand, gravel 22 4 88 4.3
Total 24 - 2026 100

Table 3. Equipment used for hard formation removal.

Equipment type Equipment manufacturer Available First year of Characteristics
units operation
Drills Tamrock C50 K3L 5 1990 rotary blasthole drills
Shovels Liebherr R 994 3 1990 diesel hydraulic, 13.5 m bucket
Demag H185 S 1 1997 diesel hydraulic, 13.5 m^ bucket
P&H 2100 BLE 2 1986/87 electric
Backhoes Liebherr R 984 1 1994 diesel hydraulic, 5.5 m^ bucket
Dozers Komatsu D475-A2 5 1991 770 HP
Motor graders Komatsu GD 825-A2 2 1991 280 HP
Trucks Terex 33 HE 14 1992 85 ton
Terex 3308E 14 1996 50 ton
Unit Rig 3000 6 1997 136 ton
Wheel loaders Marathon L-1000 2 1994 13 m^ bucket capacity
Mobile crushers KSK Stroj export 2 1988/89
Explosive mixers Amerind 2 1993
Table 4: Annual consumption of explosives at LCP-A.
Year Gelatin Ammonia ANFO Heavy Total Blasted Powder
dynamite dynamite ANFO material factor
(kg) (kg) (kg/m^)
1990 59375 60225 462660 - 582260 2008000 0.290
1991 122635 85545 473495 - 681675 2435000 0.280
1992 199700 115135 494925 - 809760 2945000 0.275
1993 249150 24650 867840 - 1141640 4228000 0.270
1994 421450 51600 664090 - 1137140 4211000 0.270
1995 371700 113500 594500 208800 1288500 5154000 0.250
1996 275800 43400 684200 637400 1640800 6697000 0.245
1997 60600 52500 836900 478200 1428200 5830000 0.245
1998 78500 9600 820100 624300 1532500 6280000 0.244
1999 109400 0 701200 482200 1292800 5364000 0.241
Total 1948310 556155 6599910 2430900 11535275 45152000

Table 5: Summary of blast data (Tsampis, 2000).

GD AD AN Burden No
Fuel Hole No of Diam. Water Dist. tc►Bench
(k g ) (k g ) (k g ) (m) Delays Length holes
Oil (in) Level Target
(It) (m) (m) (m)
y 7/8
1 1500 5 6 2.5 80 2 400 2b
2 100 3000 210 5 3 8 52 9 500 11a
y 7/8
3 1000 70 5 4 8 28 100 2b
y 7/8
4 1150 5 9 2 100 2 350 2a
5 100 3000 210 5 6 8 57 9 500 2b
6 1575 5 6 4 80 9 3 350 2b
y 7/8
7 423 2000 155 5 11 2.5 140 400 lb
y 7/8
8 75 1000 80 5 4 4 40 400 lb
y 7/8
9 800 5 5 4 40 2 400 2b
y 7/8
10 1500 5 4 6 60 2 350 2b
y 7/8
11 1750 5 4 5 70 2 650 2b
y 7/8
12 200 200 4000 288 5 5 8 78 450 2b
13 300 3000 210 5 5 8 58 9 1 200 lb
14 1750 5 6 3.5 100 9 3 350 2a
15 1375 5 5 4 65 9 2 500 2b
16 350 6000 430 5 9 8 120 9 400 lb
y 7/8
17 750 5 5 4 50 2 400 2b
y 7/8
18 1000 5 3 3 70 2 550 2a
19 1000 5 3 5 40 9 2 300 2a
20 250 2000 150 5 1 5 80 9 300 2a
21 250 2000 215 5 1 8 55 9 250 11a
y 7/8
22 1200 5 1 3 65 250 2b
23 800 5 1 8 18 9 2 350 2b
24 1500 5 1 8 34 9 2 350 2b
25 1500 5 1 6 68 9 3 350 2b
y 7/8
26 500 5 6 2.5 40 2 300 2b
GD: Gelatin Dynamite, AD: Ammonia Dynamite, AN: Ammonium Nitrate

Table 4 presents the annual consumption of 1. An overall increase in the annual consumption of
explosives at the South Field Mine since 1990 as explosives
well as the corresponding hard formation material 2. A steady increase in the use of H-ANFO in the
blasted per year. This data shows: recent years and a corresponding decrease of the

6
 use of gelatin dynamite and ammonia dynamite. nearby structures (Jimeno, et a l, 1995).
3. The powder factor ranges from 0.24 to 0.29 The distance from the blasts has a large
kg/m^, steadily decreaing in recent years. influence on the magnitude of vibrations. As the
distance increases, vibrations diminish according to
a power law such as:
4 PARAMETERS AFFECTING VIBRATION 1
V OC ---------
CHARACTERISTICS

In homogeneous and massive rock masses the where D is the distance and b a positive number
vibrations are propagated in all directions; but in related to the rock.
complex geological structures, the wave propagation
can vary with the direction and, consequently, give
different attenuation characteristics or propagation Table 7: Overpressure data sorted by ascending
laws. Soil in the overburden usually results in lower detonating cord length.
wave propagation velocity, lower vibration Blast No Overpressure Noise Cord
frequency but higher displacement. The magnitude level length
of the vibrations, however, decrease rapidly with (psia) (Pa) (db) (m)
distance due to the energy dissipated as friction 23 0.004 32.3 124 300
between the soil particles. In addition, the surface 3 0.026 181.9 139 350
materials modify the wave trains making them last 1 0.006 40.7 126 400
longer and have lower frequencies, therefore,
increasing the response and potential damage to 8 0.026 181.9 139 400
9 0.006 45.7 127 400
17 0.016 114.8 135 400
Table 6: Scaled distance and particle velocity data,
19 0.011 81.3 132 400
sorted by ascending PPV values.
26 0.009 64.5 130 450
Blast no Scaled PPV PPV Bench
distance (in/sec) (mm/sec) 18 0.009 64.5 130 600
(kg/m''^) 22 0.02 162.2 138 600
12 14.696 0.135 3.438 2b 21 0.026 181.9 139 650
26 32.863 0.173 4.398 2b 13 >0.029 >200 * 700
5 21.288 0.217 5.504 2b 10 0.006 45.7 127 750
1 25.298 0.228 5.785 2b 15 0.0002 1.4 97 750
23 12.374 0.237 6.018 2b 20 0.009 64.6 130 750
8 23.540 0.239 6.081 lb 4 0.011 81.3 132 800
3 6.114 0.245 6.210 2b 5 0.018 128.8 136 800
14 20.494 0.261 6.625 2a 11 0.004 28.8 123 800
15 30.151 0.273 6.923 2b 24 0.026 45.7 127 800
19 16.432 0.279 7.098 2a 2 0.004 28.8 123 850
20 6.124 0.285 7.239 2a 25 0.019 144.5 137 900
2 15.053 0.291 7.389 la 6 0.013 91.2 133 1000
9 31.623 0.336 8.540 2b
7 0.026 181.9 139 1000
21 5.035 0.366 9.305 la
12 0.011 81.3 132 1000
11 31.076 0.395 10.043 2b
14 0.014 102.3 134 1100
4 30.963 0.399 10.128 2a *
16 >0.029 >200 1500
25 9.037 0.471 11.951 2b
6 21.602 0.564 14.327 2b
10 18.074 0.627 15.916 2b The seismic waves generated in blasting are
7 26.129 0.673 17.094 lb body and surface waves. It is well established that
18 30.125 0.724 18.385 2a the peak particle velocity (PPV) of ground particles
24 9.037 0.811 20.601 2b due to blasting, is related to the scaled distance
17 32.660 0.836 21.241 2b which is a function of the total amount of explosives
22 7.217 1.326 33.672 2b detonated per delay and the distance from source
(i.e. the blast location) to target (i.e. the location of
13 7.549 1.340 34.047 lb
interest). When measuring vibrations, each of the
16 14.574 1.353 34.365 lb three components (e.g. transverse, longitudinal and
vertical) of the velocity vector can be measured
independently. These values can also be combined to
establish the total particle velocity vector:
ppv

Research has shown that the larger amplitudes are

produced by the surface waves, such as the Rayleigh
(in the vertical component) and the Love waves (in
the transverse component) as well as the horizontal
shear waves (in the transverse component), (Jimeno
etal., 1995).

5 CONTROLLING OF BLAST EFFECTS

Direct regulation or specification of effects, rather

than design, is the most effective control from a Figure 3: Safe vibration limits set by the United
regulatory point of view, because effects are very States (OSMRE, 1983) and German (DIN 4150)
dependent on details of shot geometry, overburden regulations.
characteristics as well as shot initiation sequence.
Such dependency renders control impossible by
simple regulatory specification of two or three shot
T ra n s v e rs e
design parameters. Present regulatory control limits +

X V e r tic a l
in many countries are below those levels at which
cosmetic cracking may appear. There are two o L o n g itu d in a l OSMRE, 1983

principal reasons for such tight restrictions. First,

1,00
regulatory limits are influenced heavily by human
response to blast induced vibration and noise. Since 8
humans are approximately 10 times more sensitive
than structures to vibration, low regulatory limits are Ü
understandable. Secondly, many regulations appear
to have been adopted without the documented
experimentation necessary to determine the vibration
levels that cause cracking. (Dowding, 1992).
It is also acknowledged that the frequency of
vibration should also be taken into account when Safe Vibration Limits

examining potential damaging vibrations. Low 0.01

frequency vibrations usually correspond to lower 1.00 10.00

PPV values, while higher frequency allows for Frequency (Hz)

higher PPV limits (Sisking et al., 1980). Figure 4: Plot of vibration measurements.
Figure 3 presents the safe vibration limits
proposed by the United States Office of Surface summarizes the characteristics for each of these
Mining, Reclamation and Enforcement (OSMRE), blasts. For each blast, the maximum of each velocity
and the limits adopted by the German regulatory component was plotted against the corresponding
organization (DIN 4150), which includes three frequency (Figure 3). Also, a 27^^ shot was set up to
distinct levels for different type structures. As it can measure, with the target being about 2000m away, at
be noted, DIN 4150 has stricter limits for residential a nearby village, but no ground vibration or airblast
structures. data were recorded.
Table 6 presents the scaled distance value in
m/kg*^^, and the value for the particle velocity vector,
6 RESULTS OF THE VIBRATION MONITORING which is calculated as the vector sum of the particle
PROGRAM velocity components, for each blast. The vector sum
is calculated using the following formula:
In 1996 a blast vibration monitoring program was Note that the data in Table 6 were sorted by
initiated, in an effort to assess blasting practice at the ascending PPV values in an effort to correlate PPVs
South Field Mine. Vibrations resulting from 26 shots to blast location. In order of decreasing hardness, the
were recorded using a portable seismograph system, hard formations in the benches at that time are as
which was moved from location to location. Table 5 follows: 2b, 2a, lb, 11a.
 Table 7 presents the overpressure data and Mining Engineering Handbook, H.L Hartman Sr Editor,
noise level for each blast as well as the SME, 1992.
corresponding length of the detonating cord used in Jimeno, C.L., E.L. Jimeno & F.J.A. Carcedo, Drilling and
blasting o f Rocks, Balkema, 1995.
each case. The data are sorted in order of increasing
OSMRE, Federal Register, Part III, Vol. 48, No. 46, 1983
cord length. Papageorgiou, C. & Z. Pakas,"The hard rock removal in the
overburden o f South Field Lignite Mine o f Ptolemais,
Greece", Proceedings, 2. Konferenz zur Mobilen
7 CONCLUSIONS Gerdtetechnik, Leipzig, September 17-19,1997
Siskind, D.E., M.S. Stagg, J.W. Kopp & C.H. Dowding,
Surface mining operations at the South Field Mine at "Structure response and damage produced by ground
vibrations from surface blasting", RI 8507, USBM, 1980.
the Lignite Center of Ptolemais-Amydeon use
Tsampis, K., Vibration measurements at the South Field
considerable amounts of explosives per annum. In an Mine, Ptolemais, Greece, Diploma thesis. Technical
effort to optimize blasting with respect to ground University o f Crete (in Greek), 2000.
vibrations and noise, the PPC has initiated a number Tsoutrelis C.E., N. Gikas & P. Nomikos, "Safe levels o f
of vibration monitoring programs. This study Blasting vibrations for structures - A proposal to amend
presents the results from the first such monitoring the relevant article o f the Greek Mine and quarry
program, which was completed in 1996. From these regulation. Mineral Wealth, Vol. 114, pp. 33-44 (in
results the following conclusions can be drawn: Greek), 2000.
• The depth of the blastholes and the presence of
water in the holes do not seem to affect ground
vibrations.
• Higher vibrations seem to correspond to
blastholes loaded with gelatin dynamite.
• PPV values do not correlate well with scaled
distance. This can be attributed to the highly
inhomogeneous overburden material, where
hard and semi-hard materials alternate with soft
soils (Figure 2). As a result, waves originating
from the source may cross a multitude of hard /
soft interfaces, thus producing a variety of
reflected and/or refracted waves. Also, it is possible
for a particular wave to be trapped in a "soft
channel" between two hard formations (or in a hard
channel between two softer formations), which may
act as a wave guide, thus resulting in higher particle
velocities at the target location. Clearly more
measurements are needed.
• The magnitude of the airblast does not show any
significant correlation to cord length or other
blast parameters. It should be noted that weather
parameters have not been quantified in this
study, to allow for a possible correlation with
air-blast data.
• In all cases the maximum PPV value was about
34mm/s, i.e. below the limit of 50mm/s set by
the Greek and the US regulations (Tsoutrelis, et
al., 2000). Also, most of the recorded values are
below the limits set by the German regulations
for industrial buildings.

REFERENCES

Agioutantis, Z. & C. Kavouridis, "Technological enhance­

ments in the drilling and blasting procedures for
removing hard formations at the South Field Lignite
Mine, Ptolemais, Greece", Proceedings, 7^ International
Symposium on Mine Planning & Equipment Selection,
1998, Calgary, Alberta, pp. 173-177.
Dowding, C.H., Monitoring and control o f blast effects.
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

The transportation planning to the new panel o f the longw all m echanized
equipm ent in Tungbilek Coal M ine

H iiniyet Akda§ & Mahmut Yavuz

Mining Engineering Department, Osmangazi University, Bademlik, Eski§ehir, Turkey
Recep ^elik
GLI Omerler Coal Mine, Tungbilek, Kutahya, Turkey

ABSTRACT: Tun9bilek Lignite reserve located at west part of Turkey is one of the important lignite de­
posites. Recently, pilot fiill mechanized longwall application has started to increase production in Omerler
Coal Mine in this district. The mechanized longwall equipment was transferred to the new panel because first
panel was mined out. In order to follow all activities during face move, the Critical Path Analysis was used to
evaluate the transportation project. The transportation of the mechanized system was completed in 84 work­
days as total duration time. Fifteen activities were defined as critical activity. It could be concluded that the
longwall face move would be completed shorter duration time by effective planning of all activities and pre­
move organization in this mine for füture.

1 INTRODUCTION 10 m in thickness. Immediate roof layer is a soft

limestone (50 cm thick) and main roof layers consist
Coal production from longwall stops when one panel of marl and limestone formations. Coal seam has
has been completed for coal extraction. All mecha­ 1.44 tW average density and 2500-4500 Kcal/Kg
nized system in extracted panel should be moved to calorific value. Produced coal is consumed at power
the next planned panel. Before the old panel extrac­ station for electricity in same district. Future plans in
tion is completed, the new panel must be ready in Tungbilek underground mines are to increase the
terms of roadways, move plans, transportation production by mechanized longwalls for deeper
equipment, planning jobs etc. In order to keep unin­ thick coal seams. Therefore, six coal panels have
terrupted production, it is possible to have an extra been planned to application of pilot mechanized
set of mechanized longwall system. This extra set longwall in Omerler Coal Mine. First panel called
also provides sufficient time to check out the me­ Ml was mined out in 1998 (Figure 1). Applied min­
chanical system members for repair, management ing method is a retreating fUll mechanized longwall
and organization. Because an extra set of mecha­ with sub-level caving. This method is applied to ex­
nized longwall system is expensive investment, most tract coal seam with a 5 m of thickness or more
companies can not use the extra set and generally is (Figure 2). The Length of panels is 450-600 m as
not economical investment in most cases. Therefore, limited by major faults. Longwall face includes 58
mechanized longwall system used the old panel will support units which are lemniscate shield type and
be moved to the new panel within possible short longwall is 90 m in length.
time. Detailed planning and organization bring eco­
nomical and safety operations about mechanized
longwall equipment. 3 FACE EQUIPMENT
It is obvious that face move procedure, duration and
planning may change in local conditions. The object The face powered support is important equipment
of this paper is to present obtaining results of for fully mechanized longwall for thick coal seams.
mechanized longwall face move that were per­ The face support has three hydraulic legs. One of the
formed first time in Omerler Coal Mine in Turkey. legs which is in the middle of the support unit oper­
ates the groove (1750x800mm) to recover the roof
2 TUNgBiLEK-OMERLER COAL MÍNE coal. These powered supports are arranged along the
coal mining work face with 1.5m of the center dis­
Omerler Coal Mine of the Western Lignite of State tance between each two supports. A telescoping
Coal Agency started the production in 1985. Coal forward canopy with 600 mm of the full stroke is
seam with the inclination gently varying 0-8^ has 8- provided to upkeep the newly - exposed roof seam

11
 safety working space, maintaining conveyor head &
stage loader and recovery of roof coal in the back of
roadway (2).
Face conveyor (1500x730x222 mm) has 800 t/h ca­
pacity. Shearer type is EickhoffEDW-150-2L which
has some technical features such as 25 t weight, 1.8
m the diameter of shearer head, 0,7 m the depth of
cutting, 3.5 m maximum cutting height etc.

4 AUXELLARY EQUIPMENT

In Omerler Coal Mine, some additional transporta­

tion equipment has been installed for coal produc­
tion and material handling. One of the transportation
equipment is the rope haulage trapped rail transpor­
tation system to use moving the heavy materials.
Figure 1. Plan of mechanized panels in Omerler The rope monorail transport system installed to roof
Underground Coal Mine (not scale). -I- steel profile supports is utilized for the transpor­
tation of necessary materials to the longwall face via
roadways. In addition to have stage loader, belt con­
veyor and electrical equipment, automatic commu­
nication and monitoring systems have been serving
for mine personnel.

5 PLANNING AND ORGANIZATION OF

LONGWALL FACE MOVE

Figure 2. Mining method in Omerler Coal Mine. Generally, the longwall face move can be divided
into the four steps; pre-move preparation, move
preparation, move and installation (3).
by extending the telescopic canopy before coal wall Pre-move preparation includes the preplanning,
is to spoil off. Some technical features of the face manpower organization, preparation of supplies,
powered supports are as following (2) : tools and equipment. In addition to selection of
transportation route, all possible problems should be
Support height.................... 1.2-3.2 m discussed. Move preparation consists of the erection
Support width..................... 1.434-1.5 84 m of a recovery room, selection of the type face move,
Center distance................... 1.5 m and inspection and repair of the face equipment.
Support density...................0.865Mpa (2800mm)
Setting load....... ................. 2804kN (2800mm)
Yield Load.......................... 3300kN (2800mm) Table-1. Manpower organization for longwall face
Floor contact specific pres.. 1.48 Mpa move.
Conveyor Push Force........ 291 kN Manpower Panel Ml Panel M2
Support Pull force...............462 kN Supervision 1 1
Support working height......2700-2900 mm Dismantling for shield 1 1
Support applicable angle.... <10^ support
Overall size of support..... 5450x1500x1900mm Dismantling for support 5 -

Load on the tip of forward canopy 157 kN Installation for support - 4

Pump station pressure.........300 bar Winch operator 1 1
Support weight.................. 16.2 ton Mechanic 2 2
Security 4 -
Face end supports are installed at the end of long- Pump station 1 1
wall. They are layed out between the end of working Electrician 2 2
face and roadway. Additionally, they can supply an 4
Move and load of supports
enough large space for conveyor head except the
functions of working face support (2). Cleaning and inspection of 4
A powerfiil face end support with tlwee sets upkeeps supports
the roof seam of the coal face end in roadway. This Operator 1
unit (6400x3000x2000 mm) supplies operators a Monorail operator 1

12
Table 2, Activities and estimated duration times for Longwall face move in Omerler Coal Mine.
Ac­ Estimated
Activity tivity duration TF
Code (day) ES LS EF LF
Opening area with 4,5x2,9 m cross section in face and
0-1 25 0 0 25 25 0 •
supporting by ■■I -steel profiles
Withdrawal the chain conveyor and face supports to
1-2 2 25 25 27 27 0 •
opened area
Preparation for shearer and transferring the shearer to
2-3 5 27 27 32 32 0 •
surface shop
Set up the shunting trolley 3-4 1 32 32 33 33 0 •
Dismantling of belt conveyor 4-5 1 33 34 34 35 1 -

Dismantling of face chain conveyor 4-6 3 33 33 36 36 0 •

Dismantling of stage loader 5-6 1 24 35 35 36 1 -

Installation of monorail in the M2 panel tailgate 3-7 2 32 51 34 53 19 -

Installation of another chain conveyor to Ml panel 6-8 3 36 36 39 39 0 •
No activity 8-9 0 39 49 39 49 10 -

No activity 8-10 0 39 49 39 49 10 -

Belt conveyor move and setting up its tail parts in M2

panel 9-13 4 39 49 43 53 10 -
Stage loader move and installation 10-13 3 39 50 42 53 11 -

Opening area with 2,7 m width along the face for mov­
8-11 10 39 39 49 49 0 •
ing supports
Dismantling of trapped rail system from Ml and
installation in M2 11-13 3 49 50 52 53 1 -
Installation of loading platform and set up I profile-
11-12 2 49 49 51 51 0 •
cancret applications
Installations of three winches and rail installation in the
12-13 2 51 51 53 53 0 •
tailgate of Ml
Dismantling the face-end-support with three sets, move 13-14 4 53 53 57 57 0 •
Installation of hydraulic pump and two winches, placed
wood on floor and installation of shunting trolley 7-13 4 34 53 38 57 19 -
Installation of face chain conveyor in M2 and get ready 14-15 10 57 66 67 76 9 -
Move, inspection, repair, maintenance and setting up
14-16 19 57 57 76 76 0 •
powered supports in panel
No activity 15-16 0 67 76 67 76 9 -

Preparation works for shearer in M2 and dismantling of

16-17 4 76 76 80 80 0 •
tail section of chain conveyor
Move shearer to M2 and installation on conveyor 17-18 2 80 80 82 82 0 •
Installation of the tail section of face conveyor and get
18-21 1 82 82 83 83 0 •
ready
Connection of the tail section of stage loader with face-
end-support 14-19 2 57 74 59 79 20 -
Adjustments for stage loader and belt conveyor 19-20 3 59 76 62 79 17 -

Move and installation of all electricity systems 16-21 5 76 78 81 83 2 -

Maintaining works of belt conveyor system and con­

trolling 20-21 4 62 79 66 83 17 -
Move and installation of main hydraulic pump 17-21 2 80 81 82 83 1 -

Starting the trial works 21-22 1 83 83 84 84 0 •

ES: Earlier starting time, EF: Early finishing time, LS: Latest starting time, LF: Latest finishing time.
TF: Total float time, • Critical activity.

13
Move procedure includes the removal and transport ate roof on powered support is coal seam. This
of the shearer and powered supports. The shearer means that immediate roof is weak and unstable.
move method and auxiliary used equipment should Therefore, new techniques should be developed for
be determined. Especially, during the removal of the better roof control in terms of saving duration time,
powered face support, it is important to control the safety requirements and easy withdrawal operations.
roof and to prevent the caved fragments in the roof The completion of the all transportation activities
and gob from entering into the face area. Some addi­ has been calculated 83 workdays as total duration
tional materials such as cribs, individual hydraulic time. Realized transportation were totally 84 work­
props, wire mesh, steel beams etc. could be used for days which is very close as in planned. But it is
removal the face support (3). known that total duration time is long for this kind
Before installation of the equipment, some prepara­ of operations. On the other hand, mine personnel
tions are necessary to have easy installation such as have gained great experience and training.
smooth floor, the straightness of the face line, auxil­ Move procedures of all face equipment except pre­
iary individual hydraulic props, wood posts, cribs, move preparations took 54workdays. Some devel­
ect. in new longwall face. All equipment to be as­ opments can be done for equipment transfer proce­
sembled must be inspected in terms of their per­ dures too.
formance and specifications in underground or sur­ Finally, it is strongly believed that all face equip­
face workshop. ment move could be reduced 20-25 % in total dura­
tion time for future moving projects.

6 APPLICATION OF THE CRITICAL PATH

REFERENCES
METHOD
Uzuner, M. 1999. Tun^bilek Omerler Bolgesinde
The Critical Path Method (CPM) is very common
Mekanize Uzunayagin Yeni Panoya Ta§inmasmin
method for transportation project scenes. In order to
Planlanmasi, Yiiksek Lisans tezi, O. U. Fen Bilim-
evaluate transportation scenes of longwall mecha­
leri. Enstitiisu (Turkish).
nized system, the critical activities and whole trans­
portation duration, the CPM which is a deterministic Materials of Longwall Equipment supplied to Tur
approach to the determination of task duration has key. Volume 1-10 CME, China National Coal
been selected and applied. CPM provides the mine Mining, April 1996.
manager with information to aid transportation plan­ Peng, S. S.& Chiang, H. S. 1984. Longwall Mining,
ning and controlling. Description, classification, se­ John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Arioglu, E. & Biron, C. 1983. Design o f Supports in
quence of the all activities and schedule manpower
Mines, John Wiley & Sons Inc.
are necessary to determine and organize for success­
Eskikaya, §. 1979. Tam mekanize Ayaklarda
ful transportation of longwall mechanized equip­
Yuriiyen Tahkimatin “S6kum-Qekim-Ta§ima” i§-
ment. All transportation activities and estimated du­
leri, Tiirkiye Madencilik Bilimsel ve Teknik 6.
ration times for each activity are defined. Due to
first time longwall face move in this mine, special Kongresi, 19-23 §ubat 1979, Ankara (Turkish).
attention has been given for safety in operations and
training for mine personnel. Therefore, some dura­
tion times could not been optimistic in this transpor­
tation project. Table-1 shows the scheduled man­
power in longwall face move. All defined activities
and estimated duration times are given in Table 2 as
summary in Omerler Underground Coal Mine.
Also, all activities during the transportation project
scenes have been followed by using L. H. Gantt
chart which is not given in this paper.

7 CONCLUSIONS

The longest critical tasks (30 workdays) in transfer­

ring the face equipment involve pre-move prepara­
tions in mined out panel. It is necessary to develope
pre-move preparations in order to reduce total dura­
tion time.
Second longest critical activity is the withdrawal and
move powered support in mined out panel. Immedi-

14
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, ISB N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

N ew design approaches for m ine ore passes based on reduced-scale

laboratory testing, field experim ents and computer m odeling

M.J.Beus & S. Iverson

National Institutefor Occupational Safety and Health, Spokane Research Laboratory, Wash., USA

ABSTRACT: This paper describes results o f research at the Spokane Research

Laboratory (SRL) o f the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)
to assess hazards and improve design criteria for ore passes in underground mines.
A nalysis o f M ine Safety and Health Administration (M SHA) accident statistics has
identified ore pass hazards as a significant safety problem in U.S. underground metal
mines. Dynam ic loads induced by large, falling masses o f ore or waste rock and removal
o f blockages by blasting can cause structural or functional failures in control gates and
chutes. Existing design standards for ore passes are essentially rules o f thumb based on
simplified equilibrium analyses, model experiments, empirical observations, and
experience. The overall goal o f this project is to prevent injuries and fatalities through
assessments o f ore pass hazards, experimental and computer analyses o f current designs,
and laboratory and field measurements o f loads and structural responses in ore passes.

1 INTRODUCTION truck loadout with integrated storage

capability.
Mine openings constructed within the The hazards related to the operation
rock mass for the purpose o f vertical o f ore and waste rock passes
transfer o f ore and waste rock from
stopes or development headings are
com m only referred to as ore passes.
They function as a mining structure to
deliver material to a lower haulage level
or to a shaft loading pocket for hoisting
to the surface. Ore passes serve two
important purposes — transport and
storage. Components o f the ore pass
system include the ore pass itself
connecting the two or more levels in a
mine, “top-end” facilities incorporating
material size and volum e control
mechanisms such as grizzlies, crushers
and surge chambers, and “bottom-end” Figure 1. Typical mine ore pass with tmck
structures to control material flow and loadout and LHD dump.
enable loadout. Figure 1 shows a
typical ore pass for LHD loading and

15
have been identified as a significant design involves evaluation o f the
safety problem in underground metal stability o f the ore pass itself and
mines in the United States. Applicable incorporating appropriate factors o f
ore pass safety and design criteria are safety into the transition structure (i.e.
defined in the Code o f Federal chute or hopper) and control gates at the
Regulations 30 CFR parts 57.9310 and bottom o f the ore pass. Structural
9309. The most significant hazards are integrity o f the chute, hopper, and
associated with ore or waste rock hang­ control gate or feeder system at the
ups collapsing spontaneously or during bottom o f the ore pass are dependent on
freeing operations. Dynamic loads the static and dynamic loads from ore
induced by large falling m asses o f ore or and waste material. The Janssen
waste rock and removal o f blockages by equations, (1895) to determine internal
blasting can cause structural or pressure from the contained material in
functional failures in control gates and bins and silos, may be used to calculate
chutes, resulting in accidents during the static stress normal to the control gate o f
loading-unloading cycle. Other hazards a vertical or inclined ore pass is as
include structural failures within the ore follows:
pass itself, blocked gates causing
spillage o f large volum es o f material, = ^Nmaxt ^ '^Nmax]» (1)
and water and mud inundation. Falling
muck from a released hang-up can cause and <^Nmax ^ yRsin[3/Ktan5 (2)
excessive loads and damage from an air
blast. Water flow ing into an ore pass where
can result in catastrophic muck flows
ajsj = normal pressure on
and inundation.
Evaluation o f Mine Safety and a^max ^ maximum normal pressure
Health (M SHA) statistics related to ore
passes, particularly narratives from R = hydraulic radius
investigative reports, are useful for
K = lateral-to-normal stress,
identifying the underlying cause o f
accidents, and have been integrated into Y = unit weight of rock
design considerations.(Beus et.al. 1998)
For example, M SHA data indicates that z = height of ore above gate,
75% o f injuries related to pulling or
freeing o f ore pass chutes for the twenty P = ore pass inclination, and,
year period 1975-1995 are related to the
6 = angle of friction between
use o f hand tools and falls o f broken the wall of the ore pass and the ore.
rock, including hangup removal.
Solutions to determine dynamic load
factors are typically based on solutions
2 ORE PASS DESIGN derived by Gere and Timeshenko (1997)
and found in most engineering
Ore pass design may be conveniently handbooks. It can be shown that
divided into structural and functional dynamic stress (ad) produced in a
considerations, with one often affecting structural member resulting from the
the other and vice versa. Structural impact o f a falling body from a height

16
(h) is greater than the static stress (ast) facility utilizes a 18.3-m hoist tower to
and static deformation (5 st) produced by simulate the headframe and shaft (Figure
the same body applied as a static load in 2). A 5.5 m deep underground "shaft"
the ratio o f lined with concrete sections houses a
loading pocket and measuring cartridge.
^ = i . ( i . 2 h / 5 , r (3) A 1.3 m diameter-corrugated culvert
simulates the ore pass, which can be
It is assumed that the energy losses o f inclined up to 65 deg. from vertical in 5
material falling down an orepass are deg. increments. Design o f the chute
very high and therefore, the dynamic support frame, I-beams, hanger bolts,
stress on the chute gate in an empty ore and saddles are identical to an ore pass
pass can be approximated by a case o f and chute/control gate assembly which
sudden loading (h=0), which results in was instrumented in one o f the field
dynamic stress higher by a factor o f 2 tests. Ore or waste material is loaded
over static stress. through a grizzly and into the skip for
Functional design considerations, hoisting. The skip hoists the ore to
ensuring mass flow o f the mined the top o f the headframe where it is
material and minimizing malfunctions in discharged into a hopper and chute
flow such as hangups, piping, and funnel assembly, which routes it to the top o f
flow, relate primarily to maintaining the “ore pass”.
adequate ore pass opening and material Initial testing utilized standardized
size relationships. Ore and waste test material to minimize test variables.
material can be w ell graded or com posed Tests results for a vertical “ore pass”
o f a large and highly variable particle using minus 3/8 pea gravel indicated a
size distributions, is irregular in shape peak dynamic load o f up to 1.4 o f the
and angularity, and is subject to a wide static load. Figure 2 is representative o f
range o f moisture content, deformation some o f these tests. Several large
modulus, strength. Aytaman 1960;
Jenike 1961; Pariseau 1966; and others)
indicate ratios o f ore pass diameter to
maximum particle diameter o f 3 to 5 to
insure against boulder arch formation. It
may be acceptable then that a ratio o f ore
pass diameter to maximum particle size
o f 5 will very likely result in flow in the
ore pass proper, while a ratio o f less than
3 is very likely to result in hang-ups.

3 ORE PASS TESTING FACILITY Figure 2. Loads measured with the test ore pass
facility.
A reduced scale laboratory ore pass
testing facility has recently been “plugs” o f material were also dropped,
simulating a large boulder or released
completed to facilitate ore pass testing in
a controlled environment. (Beus and hangup directly impacting the control
Ruff, 1996). This fully automated gate. These tests resulted in dynamic

17
load o f up to nearly 3 Ox the static load. cleaning up the drift and weighed about
A full-scale mockup o f the 270 kg each.
reduced scale chute and gate assembly The weight o f material dumped in
was also constructed, based on design o f the ore pass was in excess o f 27,300 kg;
an actual ore pass chute and gate used in however, a maximum static load o f only
a mine. Dynamic tests consisted o f 6,800 kg was measured. This load was
dropping a load o f mine waste rock approximately the weight o f waste
ranging from about 800 to 1400 kg from material required to fill the chute. The
a height o f 183 cm into a 2.4-m -wide, rest o f the static load was carried by
steel-reinforced container sitting on the timber adjacent to the chute assembly
mockup chute assembly. A front-end and the ore pass walls. Dynamic load
loader equipped with a clam shell bucket ranged from 1.06 to 1.33 o f the static
was used to drop the material into the load on the chute and gate assembly and
container. After each drop, the container were reduced significantly because the
and material were lifted and weighed. chute was offset from the ore pass.
Results o f three tests indicated a A second field test at a different test
maximum dynamic load o f 2.2. site involved monitoring gate support
Blight and Haak (1994) also bolt loads on a chute and gate support.
conducted impact tests on vertical and During the experiment, the ore pass was
inclined ore pass models. Their data consistently “hung-up” and required
indicated that the impact factor, which blasting directly in the chute at the
they define as the ratio between peak bottom o f the ore pass to free the
pressure measured on the control gate material. Data indicated large dynamic
and pressure at equilibrium, ranged from components from blasting and ultimately
1.09 for a 50 degree inclined “ore pass” , nearly 90% o f the initial gate support
and that peak impact load factors may bolt load was lost. Maximum dyamic
exceed 4x the static load in vertical ore loads from release o f blasted material is
passes. unknown. Data indicated that the
shockwave from blasting had more
effect on chute structural integrity than
4 FIELD TESTING rock impacts. Limited test results in a
mine by Blight and Haak (1994)
An initial field test was conducted at indicated a peak dynamic impact factor
a deep mine site in N. Idaho, USA. o f 1.58 o f the static load.
Tensile strains produced from strain-
gauged Dywidag rock bolts which
supported the ore pass chute and gate 5 COMPUTER MODELING
provided a measurement o f the total
vertical force acting on the structure as Computer modeling is being used to
material was dumped into the ore pass. simulate dynamic and static forces
Fourteen loads o f damp waste rock from measured in the field on the chute gate,
load-haul-dump (LHD) units at 1.53 m^ as well as overall particle flow
per load were dumped into an empty ore phenomena and the potential for hang­
pass. Twelve o f the dumps averaged ups. Two- and three-dimensional
from 2,270 to 2,730 kg o f material; two particle flow codes PFC^^ and PFC^^
o f the dumps were material from (Itasca Consulting Group, Inc., 1995b)
were used to simulate flow and compute

18
dynamic loads in the ore pass test particle rotations were achieved. An
facility as w ell as the ore pass and truck improved impulse curve compared well
chute instrumented in the field tests. with actual dynamic load data from the
Computer modeling to compare ore pass test facility. Figure 4 illustrates
computer results with field the dynamic load response on the chute
measurements show the effect o f 40 gate over the impact period. Note that
the first particle impacts have very high
dynamic loads while the later particle
arrivals are cushioned by the initial
material.

1000

Figure 3. Measure and computed results from 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
initial field test. Time, seconds
Figure 4. PFC3d model of dump of tetrahedral
loads from an LHD o f about 7 mt o f particles showing impact load on gate.
material each for a total weight o f about
280 mt. The rate o f increase in gate Comparison o f measurements and
loads dropped dramatically after about computer results using particle flow
one-third (10 to 15) o f the LHD loads codes indicate that several difficulties
had been delivered. The accumulated remain before realistic determination and
control gate forces resulting from the modeling o f the dynamic effects during
first 14 loads are compared to the actual particle flow in ore passes and impact
results from the field test (Figure 3). loads on the gates can be achieved.
Analysis indicates that dynamic loads Computer analyses can overestimate the
were a factor on the control gate only dynamic impact from the rock compared
during the first three to five dumps. to impact loads measured in field tests if
Single dumps in a PFC^^ model o f the energy losses during impact are not
1/3 scale ore pass were compared with account for in the simulation. Obviously
load data collected at the ore pass test uniformly graded, smoothly rounded
facility. Shaped particles and particles used in the PFC codes are not
appropriate stiffness and friction found in a freshly blasted muck pile
properties were used from Larson, et.al. which is transported to the ore pass The
(1998). A damping constant was shape and particle size distribution
included to account for energy loss affects all of the behavioral
during particle impacts. The particles characteristics o f the falling muck
were formed by clumping four balls column. Incorporating more realistic
together in a tetrahedral geometry. rock particle shape and distribution o f
Realistic impact rebound trajectories and particle sizes in numerical models will

19
improve rocklike characteristics during Beus, M.J., Iverson, S.R. and Stewart,
fall and impact. Other factors difficult B.M. (1998). Design Analysis o f
to model are rock durability, angularity, Underground Mine Ore Passes: Current
and rebound characteristics following Research Approaches. Presentation at
impact. 100^*^ Can. Instit. Min., Metall., and
Petro., Montreal, PQ, May 2-8, 1998, 8
6 CONCLUSIONS pp. Available on CD-ROM from CIM,
Montreal, PQ.
The simplified dynamic relationships to
maximum static load greatly simplify the Blight, G.E. and Haak, B.G. (1994). A
determination o f loading conditions to Test on Model Underground Ore Passes.
which the structure w ill be subjected. Bulk Solids Handling, Vol. 14, No. 1. pp
However, the impact loads can exceed 77-81.
the static weight o f the material by a
factor significantly higher than what is Gere, J. M. and S. P. Timoshenko (1997)
generally accepted. Based on Mechanics of Materials. PWS
experimental results and computer Publishing Co., N .Y., pp 658-660.
modeling, currently used design
relationships for dynamic design loads Itasca Consulting Group, Inc. (1995).
acting on ore pass chutes and gates need PFC^^ (Particle Flow Code in 3
refinement. Research results by the Dimensions), Version 1.1, Minn., MN.
authors and others indicate dynamic load
factors ranging from approximately the Janssen, H. A. (1895). On the Pressure
same as the static load to nearly 30 time o f Grain in silos. Inst. Civ. Engr., vol
the static load. Considering the highly 124, pp 553-555.
variable structural and functional
conditions between different mining Jenike, A. W. (1961) Gravity
scenarios, and even within the same Flow o f Bulk Solids. Utah Engr.
mine, significant uncertainties are Exp. Sta. Bull. 108, 309 pp.
evident in terms o f safe ore pass design Pariseau, W. G. (1966) The Gravity
procedures. To accommodate this Induced Movement o f Materials in Ore
uncertainty, high safety factors are Passes Analyzed as a Problem in
commonly assigned to the chute and gate Coulomb Plasticity. Ph.D. Theses.
infrastructure. University o f Minnesota, 218 pp.

Pariseau, W. G. (1983) Rock Flow in

REFERENCES
Ore Passes. In: Guidelines for Open-pit
Ore Pass Design. Vol. I: Final Report
Aytaman, V. 1960. Causes o f
U.S. Bureau o f Mines. Contract
hanging in ore chutes and its
J0205041. Engineers International, Inc.
solution. Canadian Mining
259 pp.
Journal. Vol. 81. pp 77-81.
Beus, M. and Ruff, T.L. (1996).
Developm ent o f a Mine Shaft and Ore
Pass Research Facility, U.S. Bur. Mines
R I9 6 3 7 , 12 pp.

20
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

A ssessm ent o f explosive perform ance by detonation velocity measurements

in Turkey

A .B ilgin & S .E sen

Department of Mining Engineering, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey

ABSTRACT: Real performance of an explosive can be determined by conducting continuous velocity of

detonation (VOD) measurements in full scale blast environments. This paper presents and discusses the res­
ults of continuous VOD measurements of five different blasting agents carried out at three mines in Turkey.
The results show that VOD of a blasting agent varies depending on mainly the rock properties (confinement),
presence or absence of sensitizer (chemical formulation), blasthole diameter, and type of primer. The method
of continuous VOD measurement is an indispensable and invaluable tool in explosive and primer selection.

1 INTRODUCTION specific rock and test conditions. Since VOD is a

direct measurement of the source function, it can
Blast optimization studies attract more attention than provide valuable information with respect to shock,
before due to increasing economical pressures. stress waves, kinetics, ground vibration, airblast,
Inadequate blast designs besides environmental fragmentation and undesirable noxious fumes. If
hazards can cause decreased efficiencies in loading, VOD is not monitored and an explosive product is
hauling, crushing and grinding cycles and lead to assumed to perform as specified, the interpretation
increase in the unit cost of overall operation. A blast of other measurements (if any) could be erroneous
design implemented according to the site specific when product malfunction occurs. Thus, it is
conditions and mine objectives may decrease overall important to correlate the product’s VOD
operation cost together with provision of safety and characteristics to the rock environment, blast design,
elimination of environmental hazards. and other measurements (Chiappetta 1993 & 1998).
With new PC based blast monitoring Field VOD measurements were performed with a
instrumentation systems and recently introduced continuous VOD recorder (VODR-1) developed by
new analytical methods of analysis, the operator can EG&G and BAI. The VODR-1 is a commercial
easily eliminate most of the guess work involved in version of the CORRTEX system, which was
designing efficient blasts and in evaluating explosive originally developed by Los Alamos National
performance in any mining environment (Chiappetta Laboratory (USA) to measure shock wave
1998). propagation in nuclear tests to determine nuclear
Within the scope of a research and development explosive yield. In the measurement of explosive
project on explosives and blasting techniques, over performance, a coaxial cable is placed in an
70 continuous VOD measurements were conducted explosive filled borehole with the far end of the
at seven different blasting sites till now. However, cable taped on the primer. Operation is similar to
this paper presents a summary of continuous that of RADAR where a pulse of radio waves is sent
velocity of detonation (VOD) measurements out and an echo or reflected pulse is returned to give
conducted at only three mines. It is intended to ranging information. The VODR-1 uses standard
investigate the performance of five different blasting coaxial cables to carry a fast rise time electrical
agents in full scale in three mines having different pulse back and forth every 5-200 ps. Displacement
rock types and its impact on the blast results. versus time data can be obtained for the entire length
of explosive column and the stemming region to
determine explosive VOD, cap timing, shock wave
2 VOD INSTRUMENTATION transmission, etc. (Chiappetta 1993, Bilgin & Esen
1999).
Velocity of detonation of an explosive can be used
to evaluate the performance of a product under

21
3 CASE STUDIES Displacement, m

Three case studies are included in this paper. These

are Etibakir Küre Copper Mine which is an open pit
mine, Ba§ta§ Limestone Quarry and Yeniköy Open
Cast Coal Mine. Continuous VOD measurements in
these full scale blast environments are presented.
Five different blasting agents namely ANFO,
ELBAR-5, BARANFO 50, ELBAR-100 and
BARANFO 100 are tested. ANFO is a locally
prepared one using porous prills of ammonium
nitrate (AN), whereas the other four are produced at
factory. ELBAR-5 is a slightly sensitized ANFO.
ELBAR-100 is a water resistant ANFO that contains
some sensitizer and water proofing agent.
BARANFO 50 is produced partly by using porous
prills and partly by crushed AN. BARANFO 100 is
consisting completely of porous prills of AN. These
blasting agents are basically ANFO having different
ammonium nitrate size and type and/or sensitizer. Time, ms
Figure 1. Zoomed-in raw VOD record for ANFO.
3.1 Etibakir Küre Copper Mine
VOD measurements were conducted while blasting - the start-up VOD at the hole bottom is 2525 m/s
massive copper ore which was classified as high (Fig. 2).
strength rock. Performances of four blasting agents low order detonation at the hole bottom results
(ANFO, ELBAR-5, BARANFO 50 and ELBAR- from poor priming and causes toe problem,
100) are evaluated by these measurements. Blast average VOD of ANFO is 4141 m/s.
design parameters are given in Table 1. - poor fragmentation is observed by qualitative
ANFO and Powergel Magnum (an emulsion visual analysis of the muckpile. It is due to the
explosive, 90x200 mm) were the blasting agent and poor detonation performance of ANFO at the
primer respectively in the first test. A single hole is hole bottom, and improper drilling pattern. Later,
monitored by VODR-1 system. A zoomed-in raw by changing the drilling pattern to 3.5 m x 5.5 m,
VOD record is illustrated in Figure 1. fragmentation is improved by blast optimization
The following results were obtained by analyzing studies (Esen et al., unpubl.).
the single hole record and from observations: - bad muckpile profile resulting from the blast
run-up distance (the length of explosive column causes difficulties in loading operation.
detonating at low velocity and measured from a few number of electronic noise in the VOD
the point of initiation to the point where steady record shown in Figure 1 indicates quite clearly
state VOD is reached) is 1.47 m. that the rock mass surrounding the length of the
explosive column was quite intact with very
minor structural discontinuities and no soft
Table 1. Blast design parameters at Etibakir Küre formations.
Copper Mine. VOD measurements for ELBAR-100, BARANFO
50 and ELBAR-5 were carried out to select the best
Blasthole diameter 159 mm blasting agent for the mine. These explosives were
Bench height 12 m charged into 3 different holes in the order given
Hole depth 13.5 m above. These were primed by Gelatinous Dynamite
Burden (B) 3m (90x100 mm) and initiated by shock tube. A single
Spacing (S) 3m row consisting of three holes is prepared for VOD
Stemming length 4.5 m measurements and a different blasting agent is
Blasthole inclination Vertical charged into each hole. The results of the
Charging configuration Bottom priming, measurements are given in Table 2.
continuous charging The following results were obtained from three
Blasthole pattern Square hole, one row shot VOD record and from
Initiation system used Shock tube observation;
- high VOD recorded at hole bottom in each blas­
Initiation pattern Square V
thole indicates good priming of ANFO. So,
Delay between rows 25 ms
Gelatinous Dynamite is a suitable primer.

22
 VOD, m/s

Time, ms
Figure 2. VOD-time graph of raw VOD record for locally prepared ANFO.

Table 2. Comparison of VOD results at Etibakir the explosive column, but the decrease is not
Küre Copper Mine. much and seems acceptable.
- The minimum reduction in VOD is obtained for
ANFO EL­ BAR­ EL- the explosives BARANFO 50 and ELBAR-100
BAR- ANFO BAR-5 (Table 2).
100 50 Explosives having high VOD and low attenuation
Density, 0.810 0.994 0.928 0.803 in VOD are generally preferred for massive high
g/cm^ strength rocks. So, the most suitable blasting agent
Primer Power- Gel. Gel. Gel. for this blast environment is BARANFO 50 and/or
ELBAR-100. Since ELBAR-100 has higher VOD,
gel M. Dyn. Dyn. Dyn.
density and unit price, it may be utilized as bottom
Average 4141 5041 4832 4184 charge, whereas BARANFO 50 may be used as
VOD,
column charge. ANFO consisting completely of
m/s
porous ammonium nitrate prills is not recommended
VOD at 2525 5163 4859 4379
hole bot­ as a blasting agent for this mine as it has lower VOD
tom, m/s and density and much greater reduction in VOD
VOD at 3810 along the explosive column.
4871 4782 3983
the top of A research study conducted by Esen et al. (2000)
explosive has shown that coarser fragmentation is obtained by
column, utilizing ANFO containing only porous AN prills in
m/s hard rock environments due to its lower shock
energy. Blasting agents with high shock energy
(high VOD and density) such as BARANFO 50 and
ELBAR-100 are recommended in these blast en­
Due to high VOD at hole bottom, no toe problem
vironments. Blasting agent selection based on the
was observed during and after mucking.
VOD measurements agrees well with the findings of
Figure 3 shows VOD-time graph for the second
Esen et al. (2000).
hole where BARANFO 50 was the blasting
agent. VOD is not constant and decreases along

23
 VOD, m/s

Time, ms
Figure 3. VOD-time graph of BARANFO 50 at Küre Copper Mine.

3.2 Ba§ta§ Limestone Quarry records are evaluated, high VOD at the hole bottom
Performances of blasting agents ELBAR-5, is observed showing good priming of the blasting
BARANFO 50 and ELBAR-100 are evaluated by agents tested. ELBAR-100 and BARANFO 50 are
conducting VOD measurements also at Ba§ta§ suggested for parts “as” and “uy” respectively by
Limestone Quarry at two different blasthole considering the measured velocities (Table 3).
diameters (89 mm, 165 mm) and at two separate Proper selection of blasting agent and primer have
parts of the quarry coded as “as” and “uy” which led to good fragmentation and elimination of toe
were classified as high strength and medium strength problems at the quarry.
rocks, respectively. Results of the VOD meas­
urements are shown in Table 3.
3.3 Yenikoy Open Cast Coal Mine
It is proven once more that VOD of a commercial
explosive material varies depending on hole VOD measurements were also conducted at Yenikoy
diameter and confinement (Table 3). When the VOD Open Cast Coal Mine to evaluate the performances
of ELBAR-5, BARANFO 50 and BARANFO 100 in
weaker rock environments. Measurements were
Table 3. VOD results at Ba§ta§ Limestone Quarry. conducted at Ikizkoy District of the mine where
stripping operations were carried out. Marl is the
Blasting Hole Dia­ Rock Average principle rock type blasted during overburden
Agent meter, mm Definition VOD, m/s loosening which is subsequently removed by shovel
Elbar-5 89 as 3240 truck combination. It is classified as low strength
165 as 4268 rock. Blasthole diameter, burden, spacing and hole
165 uy 4171 length are 235 mm, 9 m, 9 m and 9.6 m,
BAR- 89 as 3735 respectively. 100 kg blasting agent is charged into
ANFO 50 165 as 4588 each blasthole. Blasting agents tested were primed
165 uy 4229 by either 100x90 mm Gelatinous Dynamite or
Elbar-100 89 as 4017 90x150 mm Powergel Magnum cartridges. Results
165 as 4900 of the VOD measurements are given in Table 4.
165 _____ UY___ 4749

24
Table 4. Results o f the VOD measurements at 4 CONCLUSIONS
Y enikoy Open Cast Coal Mine.
1. VOD of a blasting agent depends heavily on
Blasting Primer Average Run-up formulation characteristics, rock properties
Agent VOD, Distance, (confinement), blasthole diameter and priming.
m/s 2. A VOD record can provide excellent information
ELBAR-5 Gelatinous 4550 on the integrity, structural and geomechanical
Dynamite condition of the surrounding rock mass.
ELBAR-5 Powergel 3895 35 3. When an explosive is primed adequately, VOD
Magnum at hole bottom is high and decreases towards the
BARANFO Gelatinous 4675 end of the explosive column. So, VOD of a
50 Dynamite commercial explosive is not constant.
BARANFO Powergel 4350 62 4. Low VOD at the hole bottom indicates poor
50 Magnum priming of blasting agent. Inadequate priming
BARANFO Gelatinous 4175 creates low order detonation resulting in poor
100 Dynamite explosive performance at the hole bottom. It
BARANFO Powergel 3811 38 leads to hard toe (difficult digging) and coarse
100 Magnum fragmentation.
5. BARANFO 100 is the most suitable explosive
for the low strength rocks of Yenikoy Open Cast
Bulk densities of ELBAR-5, BARANFO 50 and Coal Mine. BARANFO 50 is the most proper
BARANFO 100 are 0.803, 0.928 and 0.714 g/cm^ explosive in blasting medium strength rocks.
respectively. Higher VOD (higher shock energy) and higher
The following conclusions are drawn both from density explosives such as ELBAR-100 and
Table 4 and field observations: BARANFO 50 having low attenuation in VOD
no run-up distance is measured when blasting are proven to be suitable for blasting operations
agents are primed by Gelatinous Dynamite in hard rock environments such as seen in
showing adequate priming. The initial high VOD Etibakir Küre Copper Mine.
at the hole bottom proves that Gelatinous 6. Since performance of primer and blasting agent
Dynamite is a suitable primer, affect blasting results, selection of explosives
run-up distances were measured only when should be made properly for each blasting site.
Powergel Magnum (an emulsion explosive) is VOD measurement carried out at full scale is an
used as a primer. Therefore, Powergel Magnum excellent and indispensable tool for the selection.
is not as good as Gelatinous Dynamite as a 7. VOD measurements conducted during full scale
primer. blasting certainly offers important information to
presence of run-up distance indicates poor be used in blast design optimization and the
performance of the blasting agent at the hole bot­ detection of low order detonation, deflagration
tom. For example, run-up distance of and misfire.
BARANFO 50 due to poor priming is 62 cm,
that is, about 25 kg explosive is wasted during
detonation. REFERENCES
low VOD at the hole bottom causes low
productivity in excavation during stripping Bilgin, H.A. & Esen, S. 1999. Assessment of the
operation. The result is an economical loss for performances of some commercial explosives in
the mine. blasthole at Ba§ta§ Quarry. The 2nd National
- type of primer affects the detonation velocity Aggregate Symposium, Istanbul, Turkey: 157-168
even if the explosive type, the rock type, the (in Turkish).
diameter of the hole and the initiator are the Chiappetta, R.F. 1993. Continuous velocity of deto­
same. Average VOD’s of BARANFO 50, nation measurements in full scale blast
BARANFO 100 and ELBAR-5 primed by environments. Proceedings o f the International
Gelatinous Dynamite are 4675, 4175 and 4550 Congress on Mine Design, Kingston, Ontario,
m/s, respectively. That of these explosives Canada: 759-785. Rotterdam: Balkema.
primed by Powergel Magnum are 4350, 3811 Chiappetta, R.F. 1998. Blast monitoring instrumen­
and 3895 m/s, respectively. tation and analysis techniques, with an em­
Explosives having low VOD and density are phasis on field applications. FRAGBLAST-
generally preferred in low strength rocks. Therefore, International Journal o f Blasting and Fragmenta­
BARANFO 100 is selected for stripping operations tion, Voi. 2, No. 1: 79-122. Rotterdam: Balkema.
of the mine due to its low VOD and density. Esen, S., Bilgin, H.A., Erko9, Ò.Y., tpek, T. & Al­
das, G.G.U. 1999. Report on experimental blast-

25
 ing studies at Etibakir Küre Copper Mine. An­
kara, Turkey. 10 pages (unpublished report in
Turkish).
Esen, S., Bilgin, H.A. & BoBo, T. 2000. Effect of
explosive on fragmentation. The 4^^ Drilling and
Blasting Symposium, Ankara, Turkey: 63-72 (in
Turkish).

26
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

A contribution to a better design and control o f surface blasting

A.Bortolussi
Mineral Science Study Centre, National Research Council, Cagliari, Italy
R.Ciccu, S. Forte & B.Grosso
Department of Geoengineering and Environmental Technologies, University of Cagliari, Italy

ABSTRACT: Bl2isting data from a number of Italian quarries involved in the production of raw materials for
cement manufacturing and characterised by different conditions (kind of material, structural features of the
rock and site location) have been properly processed in order to put into light the relationships existing
between the various issues. Through the study of statistical correlation a straight linear function has been
found to exist between the specific consumption of explosive and a global parameter accounting for the rock
properties, the blasting geometry and the type and loading conditions of the explosive used, in which all the
pertinent variables appear as factors to a fractional power. The influence of individual issues according to the
model is discussed and the outcome is explained on scientific grounds. The reliability of the model appears
very good to the extent that it can provide the base for a predicting tool in blast design and control.

1 INTRODUCTION 2 ANALYSIS OF BLASTING DATA

The accurate design of drilling and blasting is of a The information collected in the field concerns the
capital importance in modem quarries which are various parameters and variables of bench geometry,
characterised by high production levels, implying the drilling pattern, explosive used and loading
use of larger blastholes, taller benches and wider configuration, firing sequence, rock mass excavated
drilling grids, in presence of severe environmental as well as the blasting results obtained in typical
constraints. rounds, including the size distribution of the product.
Although surface blasting has been the object of a Data used in the present investigation have been
great number of studies and investigations [1, 2], a collected in ten quarries located in different regions
reliable comprehensive model capable of describing of Italy and are the average values of long-period
the rock-explosive interaction is not yet available, records (more than two years, corresponding to at
with the consequence that blasting results are least 100 blasts). A variety of explosives are used:
difficult to predict, due to the complexity of the - Bottom charge: Slurry (Tutagex 211 in 6 quarries.
system, the great variability of the conditions Dynamite (Gelatine 1 or 2) in 3 quarries and a
encountered as well as the difficulty of defining in granular explosive (Triammite) in the last one;
advance some of the influencing parameters, - Column charge: Granular explosive (Cava Extra 2,
especially those related to the characteristics of the Geostak or Cava 1) in 6 quarries and ANFO
rock. In practice, the optimum blasting plan for a (ANFO 5 or EURANFO 77) in the other 4.
given quarry is always the result of a series of field The parameters taken into consideration can be
trials leading to the constmction of empirical distinguished into “measured”, i.e. directly obtained
relationships between variables and parameters [3,4]. from the blasting plan, and “calculated”, through the
The present investigation is founded on the elaboration of crude data.
statistical analysis of blasting results obtained in a
number of Italian quarries involved in the 2.1 Measured parameters
production of limestone and marl for cement Conventional parameters for bench basting
factories. In these quarries the blasting plan has been geometry, charging configuration, explosive
refined by the daily practice and it can be considered properties and rock characteristics are reported in
as optimal for the particular site conditions. table 1.

27
Table 1. Measured parameters of bench blasting geometry.
Bench Geometry Loading, configuration Explosive properties Rock characteristics
Hole diameter O [mm] Top stemming Bs [m] Bulk density 6e [kg/dm^] Volumic mass pr [kg/dm^]
Bench height K [m] Intermediate stemming Bi [m] Charge diameter Oe [mm] Compr. strength Oer [Mpa]
Hole length H [m] Total charge Q [kg] Detonation velocity Vd [m/s] P-wave velocity c [m/s]
Burden V [m] Total charge height Lc [m] Specific energy 8ev [MJ/kg] Work Index W, [kWh/t]
Spacing E [m] Column charge load Qc [kg] Explosive impedance L = 5e Vd Rock impedance Ir=PrC
Subdrilling U [m] Column charge height Lee [m] flO^kg/m^sl [lO’kg/m^sl
Hole inclination i° [ °] Bottom charge load Qb [kg] Blastability constant s
Bottom charge height Leb [m]

The results of bench blasting are defined by qualitative evaluation. Moreover, the system is
considering the size of the broken material, in greatly complex and the significance of the many
particular its top dimension (Dmax [m]) and the variables and parameters is not univocal. In these
values Dgo [m] and D50 [m] of the size distribution, conditions predictive models are not easy to build,
which have been obtained from the records taken at whereas a deterministic approach to the problem
the crushing plant. may not be realistic.

2.2 Calculated parameters

Some of the crude data of bench blasting collected in
the quarries have been elaborated by calculating the
conventional parameters and indexes commonly
used for evaluating the efficiency of the blast, such
as;
Blasthole productivity [m^/hole]: ratio between
the total blasted volume and the number of
blastholes in the round;
Specific drilling S [m/ m^]; drilled metres per
cubic metre of rock;
Specific charge q [g/ m^] or [g/t]: explosive BLASTHOLE DIAMETER F [mm]

consumption per cubic metre or ton of rock; Figure 1. Bench Height vs Blasthole Diameter
Decoupling ratio : ratio between the
diameter of explosive charge and that of
drillhole;
Bottom charge concentration Ib [kg/m]: weight of
explosive per metre of bottom charge;
Column charge concentration Ic [kg/m]; weight
of explosive per metre of column charge
Ratio between rock and explosive impedances.
For all the quarries taken into consideration the
measured and calculated parameters have been
found to fall within the range suggested for similar
situations, confirming that the blasting plans adopted
are generally adequate. The points representative of BURDEN / DIAMETER RATIO

each quarry are given in figures 1 to 4 within the Figure 2. Relationship between Burden and Blasthole
lines delimiting the field of variation reported in the Diameter
literature [5, 6].
The solution proposed in the present work
3 STATISTICAL CORRELATION consists in a comprehensive mathematical model
where all the relevant variables and parameters
The various issues influencing the outcome of bench characterising the different issues involved in the
blasting are different in origin and often the process are taken into consideration. The model
numerical values assigned to them are the result of a enables to evaluate their relative influence on

28
 type of such factors and their mathematical form
have been evaluated by considering each issue and
its theor etical influence on specific charge.
The model has been built trough a trial-and-error
procedure based on best fitting of field data
collected in the quarries [7]. Based on the results
obtained from such analysis, the following issues
have eventually been taken into consideration:
Rock related parameters
- Work index: Wi
Figure 3. Blasthole Spacing vs Burden - Volumic mass [kg/m^]: Pr (2.40)
- Blastability constant: S (0.536)
Size of the product [m]: Dgo (0.38)
Variables o f bench blasting geometry
- Hole diameter [mm]: O (108)
- Specific drilling[m/m^]: s (0.066)
- Burden/spacing ratio: V/E (1.04)
- Bench height [m]: K (14.7)
- Hole inclination [°]: i° (20.5)
Explosive-related parameters
- Specific energy: 8ev
Energy transmission efficiency indexes
- Decoupling ratio: Oc/O (0.8)
SPECIFIC DRILLING [m/m3]
- Impedance ratio: lÆ (2.34)
Their average value for the set of quarries taken
Figure 4. Specific Drilling vs Blasthole Diameter into consideration is shown between brackets.
The exponent appearing in each factor of the
blasting results, under the hypothesis that collected expression of P has been determined by maximising
data are obtained from optimal blasting plans. the correlation coefficient of the linear regression
Specific charge, i.e. the amount of explosive analysis of the field data, excluding the anomalous
consumed for each cubic metre of rock has been point representing a quarry with a very low specific
considered as the most significant parameter of charge (181 g/m^), on the grounds that in this
blasting, from both technical and economical point particular case the quantity of explosive is limited by
of view. In fact the knowledge of specific charge for environmental restrictions (vibrations) and
each field of application of the explosives excavation is carried out according to a combined
(production blasting either at surface or method of blasting and drag scraper.
underground, tunnelling, trenching, presplitting, etc.)
provides an immediate evaluation of the efficiency 450
♦
of the blast, when compared with the corresponding 400
values obtained by the experience or reported in the 350
literature. y = 0,4 35x + 207,62
300
Therefore, in the construction of our model it has S
D-
= 0,9941

been assumed that specific charge could be 0) 250

O)
expressed as a linear function of a suitable global ra 200
sz
K*r
Ü
o
parameter accounting for the various relevant issues •>i= 150

of the blasting plan. Accordingly, the general form 1CO 100

of the relationship searched is the following: 50
q = kiP + k2 (1) 0
where ki and k2 are constants typical of the field of 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
application and P is the global parameter. Global param eter p

It has also been assumed that the various issues Figure 5. Correlation line o f Specific Charge as a
are represented in the global parameter P as factors function o f Global Parameter P for the quarries
to a fractional power to be determined through a examined.
statistical analysis of available data. The number and

29
 The equation obtained with a high correlation
coefficient (r^ = 0.994) is the following:

q = 0.405P + 207.6 (2)

where;
P = [(W.p ,) ' s-'D8o' 1 [0'^S'^(V/E)'^K-'^(siniy]
[8ev-^(d)e/0)-"(yie)"1 (3)

The correlation line of specific charge as a

function of the global parameter P is shown in
Figure 5.

4 DISCUSSION Figure 7. Specific Consumption vs. Blastability Constant

The mathematical expression (3) found for

parameter P enables to evaluate the influence of the
various issues on the blasting process. This is shown
in figures 6 to 16 where specific charging as a
function of each variable or parameter is calculated
for the average value of the remaining ones.
Among rock-related parameters, the work index
referred to the unit volume of rock Wipr has a great
influence on specific charge, which increases
considerably with it, thus corroborating the blasting
theory based on energy balance. In fact the work
index, commonly used in the design of mineral
comminution machines, represents the specific Figure 8. Specific Consumption vs Product Size Dgi
energy required to crush the material from a given
feed size to a given product size. The higher that
value, the larger is expected to be the amount of
explosive needed to fragment the rock to a given
reference size Dgo-
The influence of the work index is in some way
balanced by the blastability constant s which
describes the structural features of the rock. A
homogeneous compact rock with no fractures (s <
0.4) requires much more explosive than a very
jointed and fissured rock (s > 0.6) for achieving the
same product size.
Blasthole diameter F [mm]
Figure 9. Specific Consumption vs. Hole Diameter

Figure 6. Specific Consumption vs. Bond Index

Figure 10. Specific Consumption vs Bench Height

30
 The size Dgo of the blasted material, obtained
from the size distribution curve at 80% undersize
cumulative frequency, is the conventional parameter
for assessing the quality of the blast product. Of
course smaller quantities of explosives are required
the coarser the fragments to be obtained.
Concerning bench blasting geometry parameters,
hole diameter and bench height appear in the
formula with a negative exponent, indicating their
positive influence (the higher their value the lower
specific charge will be), while specific drilling and Specific energy [MJ/m^]
burden/spacing ratio seem to have a negative
Figure 13. Specific Consumption as a function o f the
influence on specific charge all the other conditions
explosive Specific Energy
being the same, as it is well known from the blasting
practice. A decrease in hole inclination with respect
to the horizontal plane is always favourable provided
that drilling accuracy is maintained.

Figure 14. Specific Consumption vs Specific Drilling

B la s t h o l e in c lin a t io n i“ [ “]

Figure 11. Specific Consumption vs H ole Angle

Figure 15. Specific Consumption vs Decoupling Ratio

Figure 12. Influence o f drillhole Grid Shape on Specific Regarding the parameters of energy transmission
Consumption efficiency, the value of decoupling ratio should be
kept high and impedance ratio as small as possible
(close to 1) in order to reduce specific charge. Bulk
Explosive is characterised by its specific energy
density of the explosive loaded into the blastholes
by mass,, which has a positive influence on specific
and detonation velocity are incorporated in this latter
charge, decreasing when a more powerful explosive
parameter.
is used. This is a clear physical effect (more energy
The indications given by the model are in perfect
contained in a smaller mass).
agreement with the well known thumb rules for the
safe handling and best use of explosives.

31
 The proposed model linking the specific charge to
the other various blasting parameters and variables has
shown a statistical validity confirmed by a high
correlation coefficient. Their individual influence has
been quantitatively defined through the analysis of the
factorial power values appearing in the mathematical
expression of the global parameter.

5 CONCLUSIONS

R o c k / E x p l o s i v e I m p e d a n c e r a tio l/ U The model here described represents a valid tool for

Figure 16. Influence o f Impedance Ratio
survey purposes in well established quarrying activity
and a useful instrument in blasting design.
Although the reliability of the relationships found
The model here proposed can be adopted either is only proven for the set of quarries examined in the
for survey purposes or as a predictive tool. present study, it is believed that their applicability can
In the first case, the information defining a be extended to other quarries of the same kind with a
blasting plan under evaluation are introduced into good level of confidence. Moreover, the validity of
the model as input data for calculating the the model can be generalised by adding new data
theoretical specific charge to which the real specific collected at other surface mining operations into the
consumption is compared. If the difference between statistical process, although at the expense of
the two values is within acceptable limits, the accuracy.
blasting plan can be considered optimal. However if The methodology followed can be applied to other
that difference is statistically significant, this means instances of rock blasting, in order to define the
that one or more parameters of the blasting plan are specific models having the same mathematical
likely to be out of their optimal range, and structure but different constants.
consequently some technical or/and economic
drawbacks are suffered, calling for suitable ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
adjustment measures. The advantage of such survey
derives from the need to define clearly all aspects The work has been carried out according to the
involved in the blasting process. research programme of CNR (National Research
In the second case, the model can be applied as Council) and MURST (Ministry for University and
the starting point of a predictive procedure according Scientific and Technological Research). The co­
to which each one of the variables of the system is operation of Italcementi S.p.A. is highly appreciated.
calculated taking into account the characteristics of
the rock (fixed data), while the other variables are
set at their average value. This kind of procedure can REFERENCES
provide a very important information on the
combined influence of the various issues, indicating, 1. Langefors, U. & Kinlstrom, B. 1963. The modern
through a specific sensitivity analysis, their optimal technique o f rock blasting. Stockholm: Almquist
range of variation. & Wiksell.
Moreover it also enables to put into light the 2. Seguiti, T. 1969. Le mine nei lavori minerari e
sensitivity of the blasting outcome to each of them, civili. Roma: Ed. “LTndustria Mineraria”.
considered individually. 3. Berta, G. 1983 L'esplosivo e la roccia. Milano:
In a next step of the research in course, a larger set Italesplosivi
of quarries of the same kind will be considered in 4. Berta, G. 1985 L'esplosivo strumento di lavoro.
order to improve the reliability of the model. Further Milano: Italesplosivi
on, the model will be applied to rocks having 5. Atlas Powder Company. 1987. Explosive and rock
different characteristics aiming at extending its blasting. Dallas, USA.
applicability to all instances of surface mining 6. TAMROCK: Surface drilling and blasting (J.
operations. Naapuri Ed.)
Finally it the research can be addressed to other 7. Bortolussi, A., Ciccu, R., Forte, S., Grosso, B.: A
field of application of explosive blasting, including blasting survey in limestone quarries.
underground excavation. Proceedings of the International Mining
Symposium Beijing 1999

32
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Investigation o f interrelationship o f internal and external factors

and parameters o f ‘opencast’ system

D.G.Bukeikhanov, B.D.Lerman, T.G.Gabdullin, S.Zh.Galiyev & V.F.Siedin

Kunaev's Institute o f Mining, National Academy of Sciences, Almaty, Kazakhstan

ABSTRACT: On the basis of system approach the factors are classified and their influential in a system «open-
pit» are taken into account. The creation of model of a system «open-pit» grounded on principles of construct­
ing and operation of open systems, the pattern ensures which one continuous changes of aircraft attitude end
augmentability of a system for its adapting to varying conditions of open-pit operation.

INTRODUCTION - automation of process of forming of current and

Diversity of deposits of solid useful minerals, perspective plans of mining operations.
their distinctions and parameters which are immedi­ Organization-technical systems of computer-aided
ate objects of mining, variety of ecological require­ design and planning of mining operations will
ments of natural surroundings to opencast’s operat­ ensure:
ing, constantly normative-legislative basis of min­ - increasing of quality of plans of mining operations
ing industry and also dynamism of supply and de­ and technical decisions when timely, current and
mand, prices of consuming materials, transport and, perspective planning at the expense of optimization
production, producing at opencast, state problem of of mining-transport operations;
investigation of interrelationships and interaction of - cretion of high-developed marketing, directed on
internal and external factors and parameters of getting of maximum profit when deposit mining.
«Opencast» system for creation of scientific- Modem opencast is a complex technological sys­
methodical basis of system of computer-aided de­ tem continuously developing in time and in a space
sign and planning of mining operations and its data earth strata which includes deposit of useful miner­
bases. als. It shows high variety of elements, aggregates
And it should lay emphasis on the following and subsystems of different nature, which are in­
principles: cluded in it, polyfactoral and multychannel interre­
- selection and maximization of technologically
lationship between them and complex character of
stable periods within shifts, twenty-four-hour
their interaction. Besides, elements, aggregates and
periods, months, years and so on which allow to
subsystems of «Open-cast» system interact actively
concentrate auxiliary works in common small time
with parameters of external mediums, including pa­
intervals, and productive operating of the key rameters and indexes of geographical, geological,
mining-transport equipment - without interferences financial-economic, market, ecological and norma­
in more long period; tive-legislative mediums (Bukeikhanov, D.G. and
- forming of rocks and ore fiows by all the others, 19). These interrelationships it is neces­
technological zones (lines) of opencast with sary to take into account when determine of
miimum qualitative and quantitative losses of useful boundaries of open-pit fields and the main parame­
minerals when carrying out of processes of ters of open-cast s, when taking decisions about
loosening, extraction and loading, transportation to mining methods, direction, intensity, regime and
storehouses and consumers, storing and re-loading calendar planning of mining operations at open-
with ensuring of stability of characteristics of ore casts; when choosing technology and structure of
arriving for processing; complex mechanization, methods of opening-up and
- minimisation of expenses for mining-transport working levels preparation; and also when creating
operations and ensuring technical and ecological of organizing-technical system of planning and con­
safety; trol by production processes (fig.l).

33
Fig.l Scheme o f interrelations o f internal and external subsystems and elements o f “Open-cast” system
 Fig. 2 Structural scheme of open-cast’s designing

At the Kunaev’s Institute of mining methods were and also geometry of forming opencast; placing of
worked out of simulation and search of optimal de­ production objects at a day surface and in opencast
cisions on open mining of useful minerals deposits with due account of dynamics of processes of open­
(fig.2). ing-up and working levels preparation. The fourth
They are realized in a form of program-functional complex includes simulation of processes of form­
complexes, being an interacting sat of programs of ing of production quality when carrying out of drill­
mining-geometrical analysis of deposits and open- ing and blasting operations. Here the process is
pit fields, simulation of mining-transport complexes studied from the point of view of expediency of
operation, placement of objects and service lines at complete and selective blasting of ore and overbur­
open-cast and at a day surface, control by produc­ den rocks. And location of contacts of ore and en­
tion quality. The first complex solves problems of closing rock in mass and in bulk is taken into ac­
choice of final and intermediate boundaries of open­ count.
cast, development of mining operations, determina­ With due account of these positions complete and
tion of production capacity by useful mineral and selective technology of extraction-loading
stripping and calendar planning of deposit mining. operations is simulated. Besides the complex ensure
The second program-functional complex represents simulation of processes of stabilization of
drilling, blasting, extraction and loading, transport production quality in ore flows at loading
and dumping processes by different technological storehouses and also in a process of primary ore
schemes by the way of their simulation. It includes processing.
blocks of programs of schemes of forming of rail­ Using of worked out models and also models of
way propagation; placing of connective service ecological estimation of decision taking allowed to
lines at benches and mining and transport equip­ study problems of interaction of variety of factors
ment at dump; evaluation of utilization of techno­ having on effect in behaviour of “Open-cast” sys­
logical transport communications, analysis of inter­ tem.
vals of movement of movable transport units with Systematization of factors, affecting the interac­
freight and without it with due account of pass of tion of parameters of open-casts and mining-
household equipment and auxiliary equipment; de­ transport complexes with subsystems and elements
termination of energy effectiveness of current and of external mediums and having an effect on min­
timely plans of mining operations and also numeri­ ing-transport complexes operation is presented on
cal proportion of mining and transport equipment, figure 2. It based on the following. Factors are clas­
which is in operation. sified into internal within boundaries of mining-
The third complex supposes a creation of neces­ transport complexes and external, and the last fac­
sary technological lines on the basis of investigation tors- into common to the open-cast, connecting with
of forming and operating open-cast freight flows mining technology and parameters of open-cast, and
and purposeful selection of technological zones out of open-cast, connecting with parameters of ex­
with due account of geographical and geological ternal surroundings and markets. Systematization
characteristic properties of mine take and deposit. of factors was formed by groups of internal and

35
Fig.3. a) The system of internal factors, b) the system o f external factors.

36
external (subclasses common to open-cast and out decentralized making decisions on every separate
of open-cast) factors, ftxrther distribution was car­ problem or a complex of problems, including in a
ried out by classes and sub-classes types and sub- flow; hierarchical multi-level and modular
types in accord with the main principles of classifi­ organizing of systems, structures of which are
cation. In is necessary to note then in connection maximum independent and have functionally closed
with different. Nature of factor being among groups separating parts, ensuring increase of reliability of
of internal and external factors, a cause for their function of the system, its sub-systems and
comparable distribution is absent. That is why elements; possibility of using not fully, not rigorous
aforenamed groups are distributed on structural information resources; maximum aggregativeness
elements of systematization by different basis unification and typification means of the system,
(fig. 3). compatibility and continuity of formed organizing
Besides, creating system must interact with ele­ and realization of process of decisions making.
ments and subsystems of external mediums: geol­ Besides, the model of system ensures ability to
ogy, geography and climate, technical, technologi­ control by processes and actions for forming of de­
cal, organizing and technical-economic, ecological- signing and planning decisions - possibility of re­
surroundings and normative-legislative medium duction of problems and objects from any current
(fig.l). condition to given or preferable conditions, includ­
In these models interrelationship and interaction of ing return to earlier achieved and passed and also
elements of system, its sub-systems and aggregates assumed their conditions; possibility to observation
with external mediums is carried out by their pur­ fixing information about intermediate and achieved
pose, target-orientation and functions, and proper­ conditions of objects in assigned points of the proc­
ties of internal organization cause integrity of their ess, making decision of computer-aided design and
boundaries, which characterizing by composition, planning; target-orientating-forming pronounced
the main, including system-forming properties of target- oriented orientations of objects for given
components, structures of sub-systems and compo­ purposes.
nents. They ensure organizing and realization of
given set of inter- component relationships in the CONCLUSIONS
system.
As a whole, model of “Open-cast” system is pur­ Worked out program-functional complexes for
poseful assemblage of objects of complex, forming simulation of «Open-cast» system and mining-
complete unity, every object of which has property geometrical analysis of deposits and open-pit fields
to carry out or organize one of units of activity for allowed not only study basic properties, essence and
forming of decision or its fragments, to realize ser­ interaction of phenomenon and process of open
vicing process of the system, in which computer is mining operations, but allowed to create scientific
used a means, and models of objects are used as basis of development of present-day and perspective
items. System-forming relationships between them open-casts, ensuring production of competitive
are carried out by computer. This allows to find sta­ products in conditions of carrying out of economic
ble reproducing organization and realization of reforms, resources and ecological limits; to study
technology of forming and function of open-cast effectiveness of creation of new types of high-
complexes ensuring computer-aided design, plan­ production mining-and-transport equipment, to
ning and control by mining operations, including work out theory of computer-aided design, planning
technological processes at open-casts, with receiv­ and control by mining-and-transport operations.
ing interacted optimal technical and technological
decisions.
When this model creating we proceeded from REFERENSES
principles of construction and function of open
systems, structure of which ensures continuos l.Bukeikhanov.D.G., Galiev. S.Zh., Akhe-
evolution and ability of the system to expendtion for dov,D.Sh., Dzhaksybaev,A.Kh. Investigation of in­
its adaptation to changing conditions of open-cast ternal and external interrelationships and interaction
operation; forming of a set of solving problems, of parameters of mining-transport systems of open-
their identification registration and exception; casts /Proceedings of Academy of Sciences the Re­
planning of flow of problems, solving in parallel public of Kazakhstan. 1999.JSfo 2 P.63-69.
and and step-by-step, and possibility of

37
2. Bukeikhanov. D.G., Galiev. S.Zh., Tsoi, G.,
Dzhaksybaev,A.Kh. Concept of imitative simula­
tion of extraction-and-loading operation in a system
of excavator-railway complex of opencasts. Actual
problems of modem science and technique. Col­
lected volume. Part 1: Almaty. 1994. P. 150-155.
3. Bukeikhanov. D.G., Sjedin, V.,F., Schekin, V.K.,
Goryunov, N.,V. CAD of open mining of deposits
of mining-chemical raw materials. Mining Journal.
1989.JVo5 P.19-21.

38
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

G eological m odeling and m ine planning for dim ension stone quarries

A.Caranassios
CETEM, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
G.de Tomi & N.Senhorinho
Departamento de Engenharia de Minas, EPUSP, Sao Paulo, Brazil

ABSTRACT: The paper describes the development and implementation of a sequential process for geological
modeling, resource estimation and mine planning for dimension stone quarries. The methodology was
specifically developed for a multi-site dimension stone project, which involved 8 different quarries located in
the state of Ceara in Brazil, and it included quarry output, market projections and cost analysis for different
production and equipment scenarios.

1 INTRODUCTION dimension stone mine planners in their tasks of

geological resource modeliug, evaluation, mine
During the last few years, mining sofl;ware has planning, production scheduling and mine operation
become increasingly more popular among medium (Lima, 1998 and Caranassios, 1990).
and small-scale mining companies and operations.
The expression mining software is commonly used to
describe integrated computerized systems used in 2 PROJECT BACKGROUND
mining operations.
Typical applications of mining software include This paper describes a comprehensive evaluation
field data handling and processing, mine surveying, project carried out for a Brazilian dimension stone
geology, mine planning, production scheduling and company. A total of eight dimension stone sites for
other aspects such as geotechnical and which the company has exploration and mining rights
hidrogeological analysis. These integrated systems were studied and evaluated. The dimension stone
provide the tools for the mine planner to quickly and under study is granite, which occurs in all eight sites
dynamically build realistic models of the mining in different conditions and aspects, thus are
operation, which will allow simulations and considered different products.
predictions of the geological resource and mine The objective of the project was to assess
production. geological resources and reserves, market projections
Geological and mine models may also be easily and production conditions for each of the products
reconciled with production data and field available. This has enabled the company to apply for
observations, allowing the user to obtain increasingly financing to international investors. All project
better models and better results out of the use of development was documented in a Project Logbook,
mining software. containing descriptions of all information and data
The application of mining software in the exchange with the company, together with details of
dimension stone sector is gradually becoming more the procedures for data entry, processing and
popular. Although the mining concepts and practice modeling.
of this industry are somewhat different than quarries
and metal mines, many control parameters are
equally important for the mining operation, such as 3 GEOLOGICAL MODELING AND
structural features (faults, joints, fractures), EVALUATION
intrusions, and mineralogical patterns. There is,
therefore, a significant requirement for proper Prior to the evaluation of geological resources, a füll
planning in the extraction of dimension stones blocks review of property and official permits was carried
with a view of maximizing mineable reserves out for each dimension stone site. Individual property
(maximize the volume of extracted blocks). Mining location, access and history were also reviewed and
software provide the appropriate tools to assist the registered. Travel distances were registered from

39
each site to Fortaleza, the state’s capital, located at As part of the modeling task, each individual
the seashore. Fortaleza has a port from which the granite structure was geologically identified.
entire granite production can be shipped overseas. According to the literature some of these granites are
The company is planning to build a storage building classified as Pre-Cambrian undifferentiated, igneous
near Fortaleza’s port. granular rocks. The entire area constitutes a variety
Geological evaluation was based on computerized of structures, including monzogranite, an igneous
geological models built for the granite deposits of the rock with holocristalin course structure, with
eight sites being studied. Each deposit was modeled porphyries of feldspar with colors ranging from gray
individually, and the resulting geological models to pink well distributed on a matrix of quartz, biotite
were both regional (for indicative geological and plagioclase, as well as other granites. There are
resources) and local (for both measured and outcrops in several places as massive formations and
indicated resources). A total of 19 three-dimensional boulders.
geological models were built. The general sequence The computerized geological modeling started
of activities followed to build the models is with the digitization of the surface topography of
summarized in Figure 1 below. each site, which were modeled as a triangulated
digital terrain models with the support of
mathematical methods.
Data Validation &
The contacts of the granite outcrops with the
I Data Entry Data Analysis
overburden were then modeled and projected three-
dimensionally downwards. Individual models were
Surface Topography
Data Processing (3D)
built for the regional model and for the local targets.
For modeling purposes, each site was divided into
Geological Mapping
individual local targets, all sharing the same
Geoiogicai interpretation geological context.
and Modelling
All individual models included general topography
Site Information
and granite outcrops. During the period the project
was carried out, some of the local targets were under
Digital Terrain Modelling
Other Sources production, and the actual quarries were modeled
together with the surface topography.
Figure 2 shows a three-dimensional view of one of
Geological the quarries, the granite outcrop and the surface
Resources topography of one of these targets. The extensions of
Figure 1. Sequence of Activities for Geological Modeling. this model are approximately 100 m W-E and 60 m
S-N, with a bench height of up to 4 meters.

Data from maps (geological and topographical)

was entered into digital format through a 3D
digitizer. Information from other sources was added
onto the database. Each individual deposit had its
own database. The original data was carefully
checked and validated before proceeding to the
modeling stage. Data validation and analysis
followed industry standards for due diligence (JORC,
1999). It included statistical analysis to identify
isolated values and graphical validation, especially for
elevation values. The classification of resources into Figure 2. Quarry topography of one of the local targets.
measured or indicated was carried out according to
the principles listed in Table 1 below.
Individual geological models were built for each
site and its targets, using variable dimensions in the
Table 1: Classification of Geological Resources
X, Y and Z-axis. Measured resources for each target
Resource Class Definition
model were computed from the top down to 5 m
Geological resource well defined in
Measured three dimensions below known contacts of granite. For indicated
Reasonably defined in three-dimensions resources, it was considered an additional depth of
Indicated and continuity can be predicted to a 10 m. Geological resources were computed
reasonable degree. according to the standards suggested in the JORC
Code (JORC, 1999), registering measured and
indicated resources, all in m^. All results from the
evaluation of the geological models were compiled

40
into an overall geological resource table for the with bench dimensions of 20 m in length, 9 m in
project. width and 6 m in height.
Front-end loaders and bulldozers will handle the
4 MINE PLANNING AND EQUIPMENT extracted material (both waste and economic blocks).
SELECTION Blocks with acceptable quality are then stored at the
block storage area prior to their loading and
In order to offer the appropriate commercial support transport by truck to Fortaleza.
for receiving and distributing the production from the
quarries in the different project sites, a storage center
was conceived for Fortaleza, near the port. This 5 INVESTMENT AND OPERATING COST
feicility was designed to have approximately capacity ESTIMATES
of 50,000 m^, to include office and maintenance
facilities to support all technical, administrative, The previous section described the mining methods,
marketing and production-oriented activities of the equipment and supplies requirements for the
company. production of granite at each of the eight project
Mine planning and equipment selection was based sites. The overall investment estimates for each site
on the Measured Resource values computed in the also include the following: (1) site preparation for
previous section. In order to establish production production (overburden removal, initial cuts, etc); (2)
levels and equipment to be employed at each site, the production equipment and auxiliary equipment
project team took into account a number of technical (including import duties, taxes and site delivery fees);
and market-oriented aspects, both general and site- (3) building construction and electrical-mechanical
specific. The general details are presented below. set-up; (4) freight, set-up taxes and insurance; and
Equipment selection had the objective to conform to (5) contractors and external consultancy services.
industry standards for current technology with low Investments were estimated for the central site at
cost and high performance profiles. Fortaleza, from where all production will be stored
Production of each product was adjusted to and distributed, and for each of the production sites.
market demand projections and the quarrying method The specific items considered included front-end
adopted would have to be flexible enough to handle loaders, motor-graders, dump trucks, staff and light
that. Therefore, a combination of the mining equipment transport, roto-block storage, rolling
methods of benching and selective mining was bridges, washing units, bulldozers, vertical loaders,
selected. Production will be normally based on drilling equipment, slim-bar type block-cutter units,
vertical panels of approximately 9 m, which will be block-cutter double units, diamond wire machines,
overthrown and selectively cut into blocks. Due to down-the-hole drilling equipment, site roads and
the local conditions, mining recovery should be access preparation, detailed geological mapping prior
relatively low, and in this project it was considered to to mine production, mine preparation, production
be between 40% and 60%. The extension of road base-level preparation (when changes of bench are
and access construction was estimated for each required), contractors and consultancy services
individual site. (legal, environmental, mine planning, technical,
Several faces will be open and ready to mine on production, and staff training).
each particular bench, with quarry advance more Operating costs were estimated for the production
significant horizontal rather than vertical. Due to the sites and for Fortaleza’s central site, based on the
low recovery, placement of quarry waste will have to production requirements, equipment and the
be carefully planned prior to the mining activities. activities taking place at each site. The main
Benching advances horizontally in mono- categories considered were: (1) handling, transport
blocks/benches, allowing different faces in each level. and auxiliary equipment; (2) production equipment
Average dimensions are length 15 m, width 9 m and (drilling and cutting); (3) maintenance; (4)
height 9 m, advancing according to production administration; and (5) marketing.
requirements. Once the vertical panels are isolated, All estimates had costs estimated for a reference
they are overthrown to their sides using the front-end year and a yearly adjustment factor was applied to
loader, hydraulic jacks and crane. There, the panels the calculations. A contingency factor was applied to
are cut into commercial-size blocks using mechanical the yearly investment sub-totals. Net Present Values
induced cuts. of the operating costs were computed using a pre­
Another mining method proposed for some of the defined discount rate. An average yearly operating
sites is contour mining in multiple benches from the cost was calculated for each year for each site, based
outcrops. This enables a high flexibility in production on the total cost and the total production.
and ensures a relief in the “in-situ” stress state, which
in turn may allow for a higher mining recovery than
the expected average. For these cases, mining will be
developed downwards in multiple, articulate benches.

41
 7 DIMENSION STONE MARKETING

The dimension stone industry has a complex

distribution structure, due to the presence of a wide
range of materials, with different prices, looks and
AvBibliil»
Rock1yp*s availability. In general, blocks are carefully selected,
normally on-site, and their commercialization is done
via pre-established channels and, sometimes through
re-sellers.
The emphasis on specific features of each product
is important, and this requires a careful process of
selecting appropriate names for specific products.
Marketing of the products and their names is done
via standard methods. Polished samples are also
Figure 3: Overview o f the Integrated Mine Information normally available. It is becoming popular the
System for dimension stone quarries association of a particular product with a famous
building or construction (such as shopping centers,
museums, etc). One important practical rule is that
6 CASH FLOW AND MARKET ANALYSIS
when the company has a successful leading-product,
the other products of the conq)any normally have a
As shown above, estimates of site investments and
better acceptance. The dimension stone industry has
site operating costs were computed for all sites
a complex distribution structure, due to the presence
studied in the project (eight producing sites and of a wide range of materials, with different prices,
Fortaleza’s central site). These estimates include a looks and availability. In general, blocks are carefully
contingency value and an adjustment factor. selected, normally on-site, and their
With the appropriate estimates and values, the commercialization is done via pre-established
pre-tax NPV for the investment and the operating channels and, sometimes through re-sellers.
costs for each site were computed. Finally, current
prices were projected during mine life for each
specific site, together with sales projections. This 8 MULTI-SITE INTEGRATED INFORMATION
enabled the computation of the pre-tax NPV of sales SYSTEM
of each product. An overall project life of 13 years
was adjusted to all sites. Analyses of the mineable The project also considered an integrated
reserves have determined, however, that production information system to assist the company in
of some of the sites should start after stop before the successfully identifying resources, producing and
end of the 13-year project life. marketing its granite products to customers
Estimates of revenues were computed with worldwide. Detailed models of the project sites
reference on current and projected market prices for quarries, including geology and mine planning will
the different products adjusted annuaUy at a enable the company to show rock quality and
conservative rate of 2%. Sales forecast were based quantities available at any time scale desired by a
upon a detailed market analysis study, carried out for particular client. This integrated system will allow
the different products of the project sites. The access to the computerized models of any of the
forecast considered that dimension stone market production sites at the central site or virtually
prices have a high degree of variation according to anywhere else required.
the destination of the products, either for internal This system will allow customers to access the
consumption and international exports (Vale, 1998). most up-to-date computer model and study the rock-
Worldwide production of dimension stones has types available within a user-defined time-fi*ame, and
increased significantly in the period fi*om the 1920s to select the ones available for purchase according to
to the 1990s, with an average annual growth rate of the customer’s own requirements. The proposed
over 4%. From the mid 1980s, this rate has operational set-up is shown in Figure 3 below.
increased to a level of 7% yearly, considerably higher In addition to volumes, the geological model can
than the average global economy growth. Within the easily and effectively store other regional and local
dimension stone industry, granite is the sector with attributes of the granite, such as visual aspect, grain
the highest production increase rate, above marbles size, color, and many others. These attributes may be
and slates. sampled and estimated for the entire model using
both modem mathematical and geo statistical
methods, commonly used in the mining industry. The
final model may therefore represent not only the
measured and indicated volumes available, but also

42
their detailed quality parameters, allowing the Lima, W.B.C.; Lima, A.A.; De Tomi, G. & Silva, A.H.M.;
customer to select the rock-types required which are 1998. Posicionamento Automático de Blocos de Lavra em
available at the producing faces of the quarry. Rocha Ornamental (in Portuguese). In; Anais VI Workshop
DATAMINE no Brasil^ pp. 63-68, DATAMINE Latin
América (ed), Sao Paulo, Brazil.
9 CONCLUDING REMARKS Vale, E., 1997. Mercado Internacional de Rochas
Ornamentáis (in Portuguese), Volume 4, Instituto E. Lodi
(ed), Fortaleza, Brazil.
The multi-site granite evaluation project included (1)
a detailed review of the legal status of the properties;
(2) field visits by the technical team involved; (3)
data processing and validation using modem
principles of due diligence; (4) geological modeling
using the most advances techniques and
computerized tools; (5) geological resource
evaluation carried out by experts on the subject; (6)
mine planning and production scheduling; (7)
investment and operating costs estimates for blocks
extraction using the most modem and cost-effective
technologies; (8) cash flow analysis, on a site-by-site
and overall basis; (9) market analysis; and (10)
preliminary specifications for an integrated mine
information system.
All estimates used conservative but realistic
factors and parameters. The results obtained were
extremely encouraging, demonstrating a highly
valuable project. For a 13-year project life, the
overall granite production will be over 1.3 million m^
with sales totaling US$ 180 million.
Production and sales will be headed by two
leading-products, which will ensure the proper
development and distribution of other products so a
wide range of qualities will be available to the
customers. It is an observed mle of the market that
when a company has a leading-product, the other
products of the company normally have a better
acceptance. This will enable the company to compete
at an advantageous level with producers in Asia and
Europe.
Complementing the detailed study and the
throughout analysis of local geology, mine planning
and equipment selection, this project also describes
the plan to set up an integrated mine information
system for dimension stones, a pioneering idea to
promote sales using new and efficient technology.
The integrated system will enable remote connection
to the quarry and geological model, allowing the
customer to check quantities and qualities of
particular varieties of granite in a specific site.

REFERENCES

Caranassios, A., 1990. Prospettive di Innovazione Tecnologica

nelle Cave di Granito (in Italian). In Proceedings o f r
Convegno Minerario Italo-Brasiliano, Università di
Cagliari (ed), Italy.
JORC, 1999. Guidelines to the Australian Code for Reporting
o f Identified Mineral Resources and Reserves. The
Australian Institute o f Mining and Metallurgy, Victoria,
Australia, Revision o f September 1999.

43
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Planning nuggety vein-gold operations: Underground exploration, bulk

sam pling and resource reporting

S.C.Dominy
Department of Earth Sciences, Cardiff University, UK
B.W.Cuffley
Reef Mining NL, Tarnagulla, Vic., Australia
G.E Johansen
Bendigo Mining NL, Vic., Australia

ABSTRACT: Nuggety veins are characterized by localized, erratic, high-grades and coarse-free gold. Core
drilling is generally an effective measure of geological continuity, however grade data can only be reliably
obtained from underground development. In general terms it is only likely that an inferred resource can be
estimated from drill data alone. Underground development with closely-spaced in-fill drilling and bulk
sampling will be required to delineate indicated and measured resources. Further closely-spaced development
and trial mining is likely to be the best way to determine reserves. Thus a key part of the evaluation process
will involve exploratory underground development which will often occur prior to formalization of a mine
production plan. Resource tonnages can generally be calculated from diamond drill and development
information with a reasonable degree of confidence. However, grade is much more difficult to define with
confidence because of its erratic and discontinuous nature. Bulk sampling will be required to assess likely
resource grades.

1 INTRODUCTION grade uncertainties is given within the framework of

the Australian JORC (1999) code.
Nuggety deposits are characterized by the presence
of localized high-grade ore shoots and in most cases
coarse-free gold. The quartz-dominated veins show 2 GRADE DISTRIBUTION
variations in width from narrow up to 25 m or more,
and display grade and sometimes-geometrical This style of mineralization is dominated by the
complexities. Run-of-mine grades are generally in presence of coarse gold (100-2000 pm) and often
excess of 8 g/t and can be as much as 30 g/t with very coarse-gold (>2000 um). In many cases 80% or
resource tonnages of a single vein ranging from more of the contained gold is greater than 100 pm in
small (<100,000 tonnes) to relatively large size. The gold is generally locked in quartz and may
(>500,000 tonnes). Classic regions for this style of be associated with sulphides (e.g. gaiena, sphalerite
mineralization include the slate-belt hosted, world- etc.). The geometric nature of gold grains affects the
class Central Victorian Goldfields (e.g. Tarnagulla, nuggetiness of the deposit ranging from individual
Bendigo & Ballarat), Australia (Cuffley et al. 1998; disseminated grains (or specks) from 100-2000 pm
Johansen 1997,1998; Dominy et al. 2000a,c) and the (e.g. Tarnagulla) through to larger masses (nugget­
small Dolgellau Gold-Belt, North Wales, United like) greater than 2000 pm (e.g. Bendigo).
Kingdom (Dominy et al. 1996; Dominy et al. The complex nature of gold grade distribution in
2000a). veins is well known and typically displays strongly
Surface diamond drilling alone is often only able positively skewed populations with an excess of
to define exploration results or an inferred resource nigh values. To add to the complexity, outliers are
(JORC 1999). Underground development is required also very common, i.e. abnormally high values lying
to define indicated and measured resources and beyond and detached from the mam population.
reserves {proven 8c probable). Potentially mineable values are generally related
To investors this style of mineralization is viewed to oreshoots of high-grade mineralization
as high risk, because of the associated high cost of surrounded by barren or low-grade areas. A vein can
evaluation, low confidence in the grade estimate and contain a number of oreshoots, which may coalesce
general paucity of reserves at project start-up. As a to form a larger mass. Individual shoots can contain
consequence it can often be difficult to raise funding from 500-500,000 tonnes of rock and up to 15
for such projects. tonnes of gold.
In this contribution the problems of evaluating
nuggety gold veins are discussed with emphasis
placed on underground development as a critical part 3 EVALUATION PROCESS
of the exploration/evaluation programme. The use of
bulk sampling is discussed and its role as the most The aim of any resource evaluation programme is to
effective way to assess likely mineable grades. The
inherent problems in reporting nuggety resources are f)rovide an effective estimate of grade and tonnage,
n many metalliferous deposits this can be
discussed and a method for better quantifying the undertaken on the basis of moderately spaced (>30-

45
60 m) diamond drill holes. However, for nuggety Underground sampling also involves bulk
systems because of their grade (and often sampling of horizontal and vertical development and
geological) complexities evaluation and exploration trial mining of stopes. These methods provide a
run hand-in-hand. Diamond drilling gives a good better estimate of grade and will be discussed in
indication of vein location and structure, but is not section 6.
an effective measure of grade.
The reliability and accuracy of a resource
estimate is dependent upon manv factors including 4.3 Assay preparation and sample size
geological understanding, assay data quality, sample
density and distribution and method of estimation. Assay data from nuggety veins generally displays a
The most important aspects of nuggety-vein shotgun pattern of extremely poor repeatability, even
evaluation are the understanding of grade and with assays from the same sample pulp. In a
geological continuity. For this reason a key part of comparison of traditional fire assay (TFA), screen
the exploration process is geologicallv controlled fire assay (SFA) and bulk teachable extractable gold
underground development (Dominy et al. 1997). (BLEG) analysis of coarse gold-bearing samples,
Grade estimation techniques for nuggety systems Johansen (1997) found that TFA understated the
are generally based on classical methods (weighted SFA and BLEG assays. A review of the data led to
averages and polygonal and sectional models). the conclusion that the consistent increase in grade
Inverse distance block modelling techniques have with a larger assay charge and the extremely poor
been used in some instances, though generally when repeatability of fire assays was a result of poor
substantial production data is available. Computer- laboratory sample preparation.
based 3D geological and resource modelling is being
applied to this style of mineralization more, and is
particularly useful when attempting to interpret and 4.4 Comparison o f sample types
integrate historical stoping/geological information
with modem data. Johansen (1997) reports a comparison between
surface diamond drilling and bulk sampling and
underground chip-channel and bulk sampling. In
4 PROBLEMS OF SAMPLING AND ASSAYING both cases the results indicated that the drilling and
chip-channel samples consistently understated the
4.1 Drill core sampling bulk sample grades. Studies reported elsewhere
agree with these findings showing that the greatest
Core drilling gives a good indication of vein location understatement of grade comes from surface
and stmcture, but is not an effective measure of diamond drill holes and the least from bulk sampling
grade in nuggety veins. In general it is preferable to (Dominy 1996). In summary:
use the largest core size available, in the attempt to
keep samples larger and more representative and to • assays using small assay charge sizes (25-100 g)
reduce the variance of the database. In some cases consistently understate assays using large assay
companies have sampled the whole core, though this charge sizes (1.5-3 kg);
practice is at odds with industry exploration • wide-spaced drilling results consistently
standards following the Bre-X scandal. Increasing understate close-spaced drilling results;
the size of drill core is generally not enough to • close-spaced drilling results consistently
combat the nuggety nature of the mineralization understate bulk sample results; and
(Bird 1991). In this case to be more representative of • grade control-type sample results consistently
grade, the core is likely to need to produce >25 kg/m understate bulk sample results.
of rock. Surface holes generally use HQ-core («8.4
kg/m), though in practice it is often too expensive The key result of these findings is that bulk sampling
and cumbersome. NQ-core («4.8 kg/m) is usually provides the best way to determine grade in the
the best compromise. Underground drilling typically nuggety gold environment.
utilizes BQ-core («2.7 kg/m). A number of multiple
or twinned holes should be considered to investigate
small-scale grade variability. Drill spacings tend to 5 UNDERGROUND DEVELOPMENT
be in the range 30-60 m, though for nuggety gold
veins <10 m intervals are likely to be more 5.1 Underground development
appropriate.
Underground development allows detailed moping
and sampling, the results of which enable grade and
4.2 Underground sampling geological continuity to be assessed. Development in
Itself permits evaluation of the orebody by batch
The standard grade control-type methods for milling of parcels of rock. Depending upon the
underground vein sampling include channel, linear- geomet^ of the oreshoot and distribution of grade
chip and panel-chip methods. Channel samples are within it, drives and raises can be placed in a regular
enerally more representative (larger size) and of a pattern to block-out ore before stoping. veins
G igher quality. Chip sampling is more common with showing the highest nugget effect will need closely
a more representative sample being gained from a spaced development (potentially 20 m; Dominy et
series of panels. Correct sample size is critical, as al. 2000a) to enable high-grade areas to be
coarse gold-bearing veins require larger sample sizes intersected. The development pattern will also need
than fine-grained gold-bearing types (Dominy et al. to reflect grade anisotropism. Spacing will need to
2000a/b). be balanced with cost and the proposed mining
method.
46
5.2 Underground drilling order to assess the mineralization it is essential to
collect the bulk samples from a number of sites.
Planning underground drilling in nuggety systems is It is therefore important to consider bulk
difficult, as there is rarely (if ever) enough data to sampling both high-grade and low-grade regions of
hilly understand grade range and anisotropy; thus the shoot. It is also important that the bulk sample
effective drill spacing. A pragmatic must be taken permits effective lateral and vertical coverage of the
based on geological experience. oreshoot.
Drilling provides critical information on vein
location and continuity and allows the tonnage
estimate to be uprated. Fan drilling is most likely to 6.3 Sample size
be undertaken from decline access. As the target
area is approached the drill spacing can be reduced. There are principally four types of bulk sample used
In the New Bendigo Project (Johansen 1998) initial when evaluating vein-gold systems (Table 1).
fan drill spacings from the decline are at 120 m, and
will be reduced to 60 and 30 m as the target is Table 1. Types of underground bulk sample (after
approached. This final spacing (in a geologically Dominy 1996). Trial mining is included for
continuous regime) will provide data for local mine completeness, as it represents a large highly
planning. In general terms, the siting of closer
spaced holes (<30 m along strike) and multiple Type Minimum Comment
intersections (<15 m down-dip) will provide better tonnage
information on local grade variability. Drive round 20 Drive and raise
Raise round 10 development
permits lateral and
6 BULK SAMPLING vertical coverage of
the ore zone. Wider
6.1 General considerations coverage than trial
mining
Bulk sampling generally provides the most effective Box-cut 10 Typical in narrow
way to assess grades in nuggety gold veins; round veins, single raise
producing samples in excess of 1 tonne. Compared round fired into
to grade control-type samples, bulk samples are drive back
restricted in scope and are only appropriate to help Trial mining 500 Full-scale mining
evaluate the grade of a particular zone. They will of a stope block
generally not be representative of the whole deposit.
Before bulk sampling commences, the nature of the
mineralization (geological and grade continuity) The size of the bulk sample must be carefully
must be established. If several grade and/or controlled by geological knowledge. John &
geological domains are present then more than one Thalenhorst (1991) suggest a general minimum size
sample will be required. Bulk samples collected of 0.5-1% of a total d^osit, that is 500-1000 tonnes
from sites where the values are lower than the mean of sample per 100,000 tonnes of resource. This
can thus provide erroneous information. These contrasts with the 2-3 tonnes of BQ core that will
considerations show that it may be meaningless to result from drilling a deposit on 25 m centres, or 8-
carry out bulk sampling at only one site. 12 tonnes on 12.5 m centres.
In some cases bulk sample size will be prescribed
by the minimum run required in the pilot plant. This
6.2 Sample location is not good; the plant should be designed for the
sarnie programme and not vice versa.
When placing a bulk sample(s) it is important to ihQ largest individual samples come from trial
consider the size and nature of oreshoots present. stopes that can yield up to 10,000 tonnes. Drive,
Preliminary assessment will usually be from on-vein raise and box-cut rounds typically yield between 10-
development and/or drilling. Bulk samples of 100 100 tonnes, however, combining material from any
tonnes taken from an oreshoot with relatively even number of these sources will increase the total bulk
spaced erratic high-grades is likely to be more sample size. In such cases the choice to use
representative than that of a shoot with erratic development rock as bulk sample should be based
localized extreme highs within a lower-grade careful on geological control involving both
background. mapping and linear/panel sampling. Rounds may
As noted in section 6.1, pre-bulk sampling studies need to be handled separately and stored temporarily
will be concerned with understanding the nature of at surface prior to being sent to the mill.
the geology and grade (this importance of this In general terms the size of the bulk sample will
cannot be over emphasized). This can effectively be be controlled by the nature of the gold distribution.
undertaken by drilling from a parallel drive or The larger the nuggets and lower the concentration,
decline. Detailed drill coverage prior to on-vein the larger the sample size will need to be.
development is critical; allowing the bulk sample
results to be compared to the drill data. The drill
spacing through the bulk sample should be denser 6.4 Sample treatment
than elsewhere in the deposit.
There is a general tendency to bulk sample high- The most effective bulk sample will be treated in a
grade areas, however lower grade areas may well dedicated gravity-based plant. The greatest problem
produce ore that needs to be effectively assessed. In of milling nuggety ores is gold particle lock-up in

47
the grinding circuit (e.g. within ball/rod liners). This • the total mass of sample(s) entering the plant
can be controlled to some extent by flushinjg the mill should be recorded;
through with waste after cleaning the liners and • mill feed, tails and other areas should be
between samples (Dominy 1996T The use of a sampled to ensure valid estimation of both
hammer-type mill will dramatically reduce, if not grade and mill recovery;
eliminate gold lock-up. • ensure that the mill is cleaned between
The reduction of bulk samples to a samplers) batches to minimize trapping of coarse gold
suitable for fire assay is less likely to be in the circuit; and
representative of a nuggety vein due to inherent • ensure that the mill results are realistic and
errors and deficiencies in the process (Bird 1991). In will be reproducible.
some cases bulk samples have been reduced via the
use of a sampling tower system such as that used at
Hoyle Pond Mine, Canada (Labine 1991). In this 6.6 Handling bulk sample data
example, a 16,000 tonne development bulk sample
was reduced to 180 22-kg samples that were further Using bulk sample data to determine a grade for
reduced in weight for assay. An alternative is to resource reporting is deposit dependent and should
reduce the bulk-sample (e.g. 100 tonnes) after be based on the maximum number of samples
crushing, into a smaller bulk-sample (e.g. 10 tonnes) possible (Dominy et al. 2000c). Standard statistical
using a statistically valid in-stream sampler prior to analysis should be undertaken to determine the
treatment. nature of data. It must be remembered that the
The reduction in size of a bulk sample must be variance for such samples would be considerably
carefully considered in the light of the sampling less for drill hole or grade control samples. This
theory of broken rock (e.g. Gy - reported in Vallee difference in support must be noted if trying to
1992). Whatever technique employed, it is critical compare different sample types.
that the bulk-sample size only be reduced after In the simplest case, a series of bulk sample
particle size reduction (e.g. after crushing to -15 grades can be used to calculate a weighted average
mm). grade for a particular resource block(s). The bulk
sample values obtained will give a likely range of
graaes that can be expected.
6.5 Planning considerations Bulk sample results will generally yield a
resource grade that will need to be modified to yield
Bulk sampling requires both appropriate planning a mineable reserve grade. The results of trial mining
and implementation. The planning stage must: will usually provide a reasonable estimate of
mineable grade.
1. Delimit the nature, extent and the grade of
mineralization with development sampling;
2. Characterize ore mineralogy (with respect to free 7 REPORTING IN THE NUGGETY GOLD
and refractory gold); and ENVIRONMENT
3. Define the size oi bulk sample required being
mindful of milling and resource estimation 7.1 Problems reporting in nuggety systems
requirements.
The classification and reporting of reserves and
The bulk-sampling programme will require close resources in a nuggety gold system is not
supervision with the following requiring particular straightforward. In most cases the following
attention: characteristics are observed:
1. Checking of the relationship of bulk sample(s) to • the tonnage of mineralization can be defined
its host grade/geological domain and to the with reasonable accuracy;
overall deposit (detailed geological mapping • gold grade is difficult to determine with the same
etc). confidence as tonnage; and
• drilling and other small volume sampling
2. Systematic sampling, both in relation to the bulk techniques significantly understate bulk
sampling itself and its integration into resource sampling grades and most likely the true grade
estimate: of the mineralization.
• the bulk sample zone should be drilled on a
close grid to allow comparison with the bulk It is arguable that in some cases measured
sample results to allow data to be applied to resources and proved reserves can only be defined
the resource estimate. This is a particularly after mining, or at least after substantial
useful exercise when undertaking a trial underground development. It is likely that only
stope; probcwle reserves can be defined. In some cases it is
• the bulk sample should be accompanied by still impossible to estimate the grade of a block even
grade control-type sampling to compare the when it is fully developed and sampled (Dominy et
results and appropriateness of various al. 2000a). In this case grades from historical
sampling methods; and production data will probably form the basis of the
• comparisons should be made between grade- estimate. It may be possible to estimate a low block
control, broken-rock (e.g. grab samples) and rade with the probability that the true grade will be
the bulk sample(s). figher. The resource can be at hQst-indicated, but
with additional confidence given by the inferred
3. During milling the process should be supervised: continuation of an oreshoot and/or other geological
criteria.

48
 To raise money investors and financiers want to place within a grade range rounded to the nearest
see significant tonnages of measured resources gramme/tonne. Tonnage may be rounded to the
proven reserves. At the commencement of a project nearest 10,000 tonnes. It is felt that this approach
It likely that most of the resource is within the better reflects the current situation than reporting a
inferred category. The definition of higher single grade, and as a consequence better informs
confidence categories is generally prohibited by the investors and the stockmarket.
cost of development for which funding is being
sought. Without substantial reserves it can be
difficult for a company to raise funding (Battersby 8 MINE PLANNING
1993).
As previously stated, this style of mineralization
rarely possesses large tonnages of reserves at project
7.2 Reporting terminology start-up (Battersby 1993; Dominy et al. 2000a).
Geological/historical study, together with surface
It is difficult to report resources for nuggety diamond drilling is likely to have defined the
veins especially at the surface exploration/imtial approximate geometry of the structure and an
project stage. The JORC (1999) code allows for the inferred resource. Considerable underground
reporting of exploration data under the term development will be required to up-rate this
exploration results which is partially identified preliminary resource to a higher level of confidence.
mineralization considered worthy of further From this preliminary model an underground
exploration (Stephenson & Miskelly 1998; JORC exploration programme must be planned to
1999). This term does not permit the reporting of investigate the detailed deposit geology and grade
grade or tonnage. Prior to 1996 the term pre­ (Battersby 1993; Sharpe 1988; Johansen 1998;
resource mineralization was used in successful Dominy et al. 2000a,b,c).
money raising bids (e.g. Cuffley 1994). Pre-resource At the earliest stage, planning must be concerned
mineralization better meets the needs of the nuggety- with access to mineralization (ramp or shaft?),
operator as a description of mineralization in which development method (tracked or trackless?) and
he/she is not confident enough to class as a resource, mine infrastructure. In recent Australian projects
but which is considered likely to yield an inferred (e.g. Charters Towers, Tamagulla, Bendigo &
resource after further work (Dominy 1998). In many Ballarat) ramp access has been preferred over the
cases the pre-resource mineralization is based upon rehabilitation of small century old shafts.
historical production information and some recent Consideration must be given to tne likely annual
drill intersections (e.g. Reef Mining prospectus; tonnage output for a full mining operation. The
Cuffley 1994). operations will be driven by the need to
The classification of inferred resource has some continuously “block-out” resources and up-rate
confidence in assumptions of geological continuity geological understanding. Bulk sampling and/or trial
but possibly doubts regarding grade continuity mining will form a critical part of the process so an
(Stephenson & Miskelly 1998). adequate pilot plant is required. In some instances
Indicated and measured resources require much this plant may be best located underground (e.g.
higher levels of sampling that are only achievable Benaigo).
after underground development. Underground exploration will hopefully result in
the definition of indicated resources and probable
reserves (or higher). At this point, if a reasonable
7.3 Reporting tonnage and grade tonnage is defined (exceeding 12 months
production), then full mining can commence if the
Tonnage can often be determined with a required capital is available. Whilst mining is in
reasonable level of confidence based on surface drill progress exploration can continue to develop the
intersections and/or underground development. resource base.
Grade however, generally has considerably less The costs of project planning and underground
confidence attached to it. It is recommended that a exploration vary depending upon project size. A
grade range be presented in a bankable document as small project may cost L)K£1 million (e.g.
well as a grade estimate (Table 2: Johansen 1997; Gwynfynydd, Wales), through UK£17 million (e.g.
Johansen & Stephenson 1999; Dominy et al. 1999; New Bendigo, Victoria).
2000a/b).
Table 2. Underground inferred resource 9 CONCLUSIONS
classification of Bendigo Mining NL (July 1999)
showing proposed use of grade range (Source: Nuggety gold veins are one of the most challenging
types of deposit to evaluate. Their characteristics
Inferred Resource are:
Reef Tonnage Grade Grade Range
Sheepshead 380,000 5.5 4-6 • potentially complex geology; and
New Chum 100,000 7.0 5-9 • erratic, highly-skewed gold grade distribution
Deborah 800,000 6.6 5-8
Williams 120,000 7.9 6-10 As a result, surface drilling is a good measure of
geological continuity but a poor indicator of grade.
Both grade and tonnage figures will be rounded Substantial underground development is required to
to reflect the levels of precision of the estimations. facilitate resource evaluation including:
For instance grade may be rounded to one decimal
• bulk sampling;

49
• trial mining; Dominy, S.C., Annels, A.E., Camm, G.S., Cuffley,
• close spaced core drilling; and B.W. & Hodkinson, I.P. 1999. Resource
• on-going geological study. evaluation of narrow gold-bearing veins:
problems and methods of grade estimation.
Early resource estimates are generally restricted to Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. 108: A52-A70.
the inferred resource category because of the low Dominy, S.C., Cuffley, B.W., Johansen, G.F.,
confidence in grade. Following underground Annels, A.E. & Platten, I.M. 2000a. Resource
development and bulk sampling the resource evaluation of nuggety slate-hosted gold-quartz
category can be up-rated to indicated or measured. reefs. Spec. Pub. Aus. Inst. Min. Metall. 3/00:
169-185.
When reporting tonnage and grade: Dominv, S.C., Johansen, G.J. & Cuffley, B.W.
2000b. Sampling, assaying and reporting in
• tonnage should be rounded to the nearest 10,000 nuggety coarse-gold bearing veins. In
tonnes; Proceedings o f the Mineral Resource Evaluation
• the grade estimate should be rounded to the into the 21st Century Conference: 58-64. Cardiff:
nearest decimal place; and University of Wales.
• also should be presented with a grade range to Dominy, S.C., Johansen, G.F., Cuffley, B.W. &
give a measure of the uncertainty. Platten, I.M. 2000c. Sampling, grade evaluation
and resource reporting in the coarse vein-gold
environment: examples from the Central
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Victorian Goldfield, Australia and Dolgellau
Gold-Belt, UK. Explor. Min. Geol. in press.
This on-going work benefits from the support of Johansen, G.F. 1997. Sampling, assaying and'
Cardiff University, Reef Mining NL, Ironbark reporting in a coarse gold environment, paper
Mining Pty Ltd, Bendigo Mining NL, Welsh Gold presented to the Assaying and Reporting
PLC and OCX Resources. Discussions with staff Standards Conference, Singapore, 10-11 August.
from Ballarat Goldfields NL, Charters Towers Gold Johansen, G.F. 1998. The New Bendigo Goldfield.
Mines NL, MinMet PLC and P.R. Stephenson Pty In Second GPIC Conference on Developments in
Ltd are acknowledged. Dr AE Annels (SRK), RFG Victorian G eolo^ and Mineralization: 47-51.
Phelps (Welsh Gold PLC) and GS Camm Perth: Australian Institute of Geoscientists.
(Camborne) are thanked for their comments on this Johansen, G.F. & Stephenson, P.R. 1999. Estimating
manuscript. and reporting reserves and resources in the
Bendigo Goldfield, paper presented to the 7^"
Victorian Resource Conierence, Melbourne,
REFERENCES November.
John, M. & Thalenhorst, H. 1991. Don’t loose your
Battersby, J. 1993. The Inglewood Goldfield, shirt: take a bulk sample. In Sampling and Ore
Victoria, Australia. In Proceedings o f the Narrow Reserves: 11-22. Toronto: Prospectors and
Vein Mining Seminar: 107-108. Melbourne: Developers Association of Canada.
Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy. JORC, 1999. Australasian Code for Reporting of
Bird, H.H. 1991. Dealing with coarse-gold and Identified Mineral Resources and Ore Reserves.
cutting factors, or dealing with the nugget effect Report of the Joint Committee of the Australasian
in practice. In Sampling and Ore Reserves: 35-54. Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Australasian
Toronto: Prospectors and Developers Association Institute of Geoscientists and Minerals Council of
of Canada. Australia. 16 p.
Cuffley, B.W. 1994. Report of independent Labine, R.J. 1991. Grade control procedures and
consulting geologist. In: Prospectus - Tarnagulla experiences at the Hoyle Pond Gold Mine,
Gold Project: 17-33. Bendigo: Reef Mining NL. Timmins, Canada. In Sampling and Ore
Cuffley, B.W., Krokowski, J. & Evans, T. 1998. A Reserves: 131-141. Toronto: Prospectors and
new structural model for fault-hosted gold Developers Association of Canada.
mineralization: an example from the Nick Sharpe, E. 1988. Bendigo gold project. In
O’Time oreshoot. Poverty Reef, Tarnagulla. In Bicentennial Gold 1988 Excursion Handbook:
Second GPIC Conference on Developments in Central Victorian Gold Deposits: 32-38. Perth:
Victorian Geology and Mineralization: 53-63. University of Western Australia.
Perth: Australian Institute of Geoscientists. Stephenson, P.R. & Miskelly, N. 1998. The JORC
Dominy, S.C. 1996. Bulk Sanipling of Nuggety Code 1987-1997. In: Geology o f Australian and
Veins in the Dolgellau Gold-Belt, North Wales, Papua New Guinean Mineral Deposits: 45-51.
UK. Unpublished report, Welsh Gold PLC, p. 6. Melbourne: Australian Institute of Mining &
Dominy, S.C. 1998. Resource Classification and Metallurgv.
Risk in Nuggety Gold Deposits. Unpublished Vallee, M. 1992. Guide to the evaluation o f gold
report, Welsh Gold PLC, p. 5. deposits. Montreal: Canadian Institute of Mining
Dominy, S.C., Phelps, R.F.G. & Bussell, M.A. 1996. & Metallurgy.
Geological controls on gold grade distribution in
the Cnidlaw Link Zone, Gwyniynydd mine,
Dolgellau, North Wales, UK. Trans. Inst. Min.
Metall. 105:B151-B158. Correspondence address:
Dominy, S.C., Annels, A.E., Camm, G.S., Wheeler, S.C. Dominy, Department of Earth Sciences,
P.D. & Barr, S.P. 1997. Geology in the resource Cardiff University, PO Box 914, Cardiff CFIO
and reserve estimation of narrow vein deposits. 3YE, Wales, United Kingdom. Fax: +44 (0)29
Explor. Min. Geol. 6(4): 317-333. 2087 4326; E-mail: [email protected]

50
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

EOLAVAL, a m ine ventilation planning tool

Kostas Fytas, Sebastien Perreault & Bernard Daigle

Department o f Mining and Metallurgy, Laval University, Quebec City, Que., Canada

ABSTRACT: This paper presents the new version of EOLAVAL, an interactive mine ventilation design
software. In its new expanded version it is a user fnendly and fully interactive computer package. The fea­
tures of the new version are a graphics interface, compatible with AutoCAD files, an integrated database of
fan characteristics and the optional use of the thermodynamic approach in carrying out network simulations.
This software can be used in underground mine ventilation planning: mine ventilation network analysis and
simulation, economic design of airways, auxiliary ventilation design, calculation of a mine air heating plant,
and evaluation of the natural ventilation and pressure losses in a mine shaft. This paper presents a case study
illustrating the use of the computer package in mine ventilation design.

1 INTRODUCTION Windows application. It is hoped that this feature

will make end users more comfortable with Eolaval
Mine ventilation planning is an important part of the and will decrease the learning time.
overall mine planning process. Computer simulation
of ventilation networks has been one of the earliest
applications of computer technology into mine plan­ 2.1 Graphics interface
ning. Since then computer assisted ventilation plan­
ning has become a routine practice in all under­ The graphics interface is powered by OpenGL. This
ground mines used mainly in evaluating various is an environment for developing 2D and 3D graphic
alternatives in mine ventilation (Hartman, 1997 and applications. Developed by Silicon Graphics, it is
Fytas et al, 1997). widely used in most CAD packages. It is a very
powerful tool and it is supported by most of the
Eolaval, since its initial conception fifteen years video board developers.
ago, has been a very useful ventilation planning tool
in Quebec mines. Its initial DOS version has been in The graphics interface was programmed using
use by the Quebec underground mines since 1988 ClassGL. It is an OpenGL wrapper class developed
(Fytas et al, 1995). The Windows version of Eolaval by Solid Graphics. This wrapper makes the use of
(written in 1996) was coded using Basic and Visual OpenGL with MFC easier. It eliminates a large part
Basic. That was satisfying at that time, since no of the overhead necessary to use the OpenGL library
heavy graphical manipulation had to be accom­ with MFC.
plished. This new version of Eolaval has been com­
pletely re-coded using C++ and an object-oriented
approach since we wanted to gain speed in both 2.1.1 Spreadsheet
graphical display and simulation. In order to display the branches and nodes parame­
ters a spreadsheet was used that has been developed
by Christ Maunder and it is distributed freely on the
2 PROGRAMMING
Internet. It has been programmed using MFC.

The Microsoft Foundation Class Library (MFC) was

used to create the main frame of Eolaval. Microsoft 2.2 Simulation
distributes this library and it is the core of Windows.
It makes available a range of tools that enable the The purpose of the simulation of a mine ventilation
user to create a program that looks like a standard network is to analyse mine air quantity. It is carried

51
out in order to perform the following tasks (Hart­
man, 1997):
• Evaluation of alternative ventilation paths.
• Evaluation of alternative shapes and sizes of
ventilation raises and shafts.
• Selection of appropriate type and location of
mine fans.
• Selection of appropriate fan and duct types for
auxiliary ventilation
The first step of every simulation of a ventilation
network is the creation of the 3D model of the net­
work (that places all branches and nodes in 3D
space). A branch is defined as any mine opening
such as raise, shaft or drift. A branch can be con­ , out / I
sisted of one or more serial segments. These seg­
ments must share the same geometrical and ventila­
tion attributes. A node is defined as the junction ;_____ ___:__ L--::_________ -_____________
point of 2 or more branches. Figure 1. Definition of branches and nodes

In the previous version of Eolaval, the user had to the characteristic curves of most commonly used
manually type in all the parameters for each branch fans in Quebec underground mines.
of the network. Since no graphics were involved,
node parameters were not required. The input of that The third and last step is the numerical simula­
information was a tenuous task with the risk for tion. The user has the choice among 3 types of simu­
clerical errors. In the current version the user has to lation:
place branches and nodes in the graphical environ­ • Conventional simulation
ment. This can be achieved either directly in Eolaval • Gravimetric simulation
or in any CAD Mining package. If the latter option • Thermodynamic simulation
is used, data needs to be imported into Eolaval in the
form of a DXF file. This process concerns only
geometrical data. 2.3 User Interface

The second step is to assign to branches and The user interface is always a critical aspect while
nodes the following ventilation parameters (Figure designing new software. Many sophisticated systems
1): without a proper interface are under-used. Mine staff
can feel lost in front such a software. A good user in­
• Branch surface
terface should be intuitive, easy to learn and user-
• Branch perimeter
friendly. We put a special attention to respect these
• K factor
criteria.
• Shape factor
• Branch length Eolaval’s user interface offers most of the stan­
• Resistance (it can optionally be calculated by the dard Windows functions and features. It is possible
program) to move, add and dock toolbars. There are ToolTips
The user needs to specify the branch type. The and status bar help strings to help the user under­
options are: stand the purpose of a menu command. An unlimited
undo/redo system has been implemented. A html
• Variable air quantity branch
help system is available.
• Fixed air quantity branch
• Branch with a booster fan
Eolaval’s user interface is divided in 2 main
The use of booster fan branches is a new feature views. The first one is used to visualise the ventila­
of the new Eolaval version. When a booster fan tion network in 3 dimensions (Figure 1). The second
branch is selected, the user needs to specify the fan view shows the network under a spreadsheet form
model (choosing from within a built-in f ^ data­ (Figure 6).
base). The program computes the pressure drop ac­
cording to the fan selected. Fan parameters are lo­ 2.3.1 Graphic view
cated in the built-in fan database. This database
contains The graphic view of Eolaval is a simple CAD inter­
face. It allows the user to retrieve graphical data

52
from mining CAD packages, to manipulate and edit 5 CREATING AND EDITING OBJECTS
graphically the branches and nodes of the network
and to visualise the simulation results.
The user can create a new branch or a new node. It is
possible to either pick a location on the screen or to
type in the specific co-ordinates.
3 INPUT
Objects can be deleted at any time. The program
has tools to edit an object or to change its elevation.
Eolaval can use either a DXF (Drawing Exchange
Format) file as input or the user can build the net­ Eolaval features also some drafting aids:
work from scratch. The program supports:
• Cursor position at the bottom of the screen.
• Points • Axis system that shows view orientation
• 2D and 3D Polylines • Snap object that shows selected object
• Lines
• Polyfaces
• 3D Meshes 6 MESSAGE WINDOW
• Layers
The message screen is under the graphic view. All
4 VIEW CONTROLS messages related to the graphic view are shown in
this window. It gives instructions about the current
command and it notifies on errors.
Eolaval offers several options to navigate around the
network. It makes it easy for the user to find the best
3D view in order to visualise any network (Figure
2). Tools available include: 7 PREFERENCES
• Zooming (in, out, real time, windows, extend)
• Panning in real time. EOLAVAL is highly customisable. The user can
• Rotation in real time. adjust preferences to make the software work ex­
actly the way he wants. For example, the user de­
It is possible to name and save special views or to
cides what type of information he wants to be dis­
return to a previous view. played on the screen by modifying the display
preferences (Figure 3).

Piéféiences Eolaval

Aifichao« ÎNo«^j! |;
------rsis—!*
m -"
C ® *“ ■

? " Rémfesoœ
P IT mpétükxMtt hAjmlde

IT $hàm

Figure 2. Graphic view iflIP

______ -;- .......i
------ ------------ -
---- -----------------
Eolaval uses the layers system. Like AutoCAD, it
is possible to group objects on a layer and to modify
OK Jj A rriiôf
I ; itipSîlUe J'i _ Akie'

object properties by modifying layer properties.

Figure 3. Display preferences

53
7.1 Spreadsheet view static head of the main fan, the static head developed
by the booster fans and the head losses of the regula­
The spreadsheet view is a window that contains an tors within the network.
Excel like grid. It is possible to edit any property, to Table 1 shows a summary of the input data and
add a new branch or to delete an existing one. It is simulation results, namely the fixed air quantity
through this view that the user can balance the net­ branches, the necessary regulators and fans.
work and carry out the simulation.
Table 1. Input data and simulation results o f the case study

Branch No. Fixed air Regulator/Fan

8 CASE STUDY quantity (Pa)
(m^/s)
Raise 1 160 Without raises 948 Fan
The following part of the paper presents a practical With raise 3 842 Fan
case study where the potential of the new version of With raises 3&5 697 Fan
EOTAVAL in designing mine ventilation systems is 2 28 348 Regulator
illustrated. Figure 4 presents the mine ventilation 3 15 444 Regulator
network of an underground mine. The objective of 4 15 313 Regulator
this case study is to calculate the air quantity distri­ 15 292 Regulator
5
bution in the network in one hand and to evaluate the 12 256 Regulator
6
impact of adding two ventilation raises (raise no.3 10 Regulator-
7 5
between levels 3 and 4 and raise no.5 between level
8 12 226 Regulator
4 and surface) on the fan requirements. In order to
9 20 99 Regulator
facilitate modeling of the mine ventilation network,
10 5 135 Regulator
it is recommended that the user take into account
11 12 148 regulator
only the main ventilation airways. The user inputs
the total air quantity entering the mine and the fixed
air quantities where necessary and the program bal­
ances all air quantities automatically before the Figure 5 shows the direction and quantity of air
Hardy- Cross simulation starts. flowing in each branch. In this case study, we can
notice that by adding the two raises (raise 3&5) the
necessary static head of the main fan (raise 1) is de­
creased by 251 Pa (26%).

Figure 4. Mine ventilation network of case study

Following the creation of the network data files,

EOLAVAL creates the simulation input data file by
calculating the resistance of each airway and by veri­
fying if the quantity of air is balanced at each node.
The next step is the simulation itself The conven­
tional simulation through the Hardy Cross iterations
will produce the final air quantity and its direction in
each branch. The program will also calculate the

54
 ■mm voh ^ Z

Figure 6. Sample of a database o f branches and nodes of a ventilation network

This case study shows how the program allows the user can change any of these values (dimensions
the user to select a fan that meets the air quantities or excavation costs). The program produces the to­
and static head requirements and also to correctly tal cost per year for one raise or two parallel raises.
calculate the regulators dimensions. The program The results obtained from EOLAVAL indicate that
can also be used to predict the effect of adding new the optimal dimensions of the ventilation raise no. 5
branches in the network as the mine develops are 3mx3m that correspond to a total annual cost
through time (ventilation raises no. 3 and no. 5 in (construction + electricity) of 1 681 $/year.
our case study). Figure 6 shows a typical example of The user should be aware that the precision ob­
a database of branches and nodes used by Eolaval. tained depends on the accuracy of the data used. It
Another question that needs to be answered in is also very useful to compare the simulation results
this example is: what is the economic size of the with the ventilation survey data (in the case of an
raise no. 5 ? In order to answer this question, we can operating mine) in order to verify the precision of
use EOLAVAL to calculate the optimal economic the simulation and correct in necessary the K factors.
dimensions of the raise. The optimisation of the di­
mensions of a ventilation raise is a trade-off between
excavation costs (proportional to the excavated vol­ 9 CONCLUSIONS
ume) and the fan operating costs (electricity costs).
Normally, as we increase the surface of a ventilation
The new graphics enhanced version of EOLAVAL
raise, construction costs increase whereas friction
losses, therefore electricity costs, decrease. EO­ has been developed at the Department of Mining &
LAVAL requires the following input data for this Metallurgy at Laval University in collaboration with
the Québec Mining Association in order to provide a
optimisation:
practical and easy to use mine ventilation planning
Length of the raise no. 5 (200m);
Mine life (10 years); tool to the Québec Mining Industry. The whole pro­
ject has been financed by the Quebec Research Insti­
Interest rate (7 %);
Air quantity through the raise (37 m^/s); tute on Occupational Health and Safety (IRSST).
Operating hours per year (5840 hours); Eolaval’s beta version has been distributed to many
Electricity cost (0,4$/kwh); mines in the province of Québec in order to be tested
The program has built-in several options of raise extensively. It is expected that the final version will
shape and raise size with their corresponding exca­ soon be available for final distribution. The software
vation costs. The program is built in such a way that has always been used as a teaching tool at Laval
University since its conception.

55
 Possible areas of applications of EOLAVAL are:
1 .Designing the ventilation system of a new mine:
• evaluation of alternative ventilation configu­
rations;
• optimisation of airway shape and size;
• design of auxiliary ventilation systems;
• design of mine air heating plants;
• evaluation of mine shaft pressure losses;
• evaluation of natural ventilation pressure;
• evaluation of the effects of air density fluc­
tuations on the fan operating point.
2.Design of ventilation network expansions as the
mine evolves through time.

10 REFERENCES

Hartman, Howard, Mutmansky Jan and Wang Y., Mine Venti­

lation and Air Conditioning, Wiley Interscience, 1997.
McPherson, Malcolm, Subsurface Ventilation and Environ­
mental Engineering, Chapman & Hall, 1993.
Kostas Fytas & Pierre Thibault, EOLAVAL - An integrated
Mine Ventilation Design Software, Proceedings of
CAMI’95 - Third Canadian Conference on Computer Ap­
plications in the Mineral Industry, Montreal, Quebec, Octo­
ber 22-25, Université McGill, 1995, pp. 689-698.
Kostas Fytas & Pierre Thibault, EOLAVAL: A Mine Ventila­
tion Design Software, presented at the First International
Conference on Information Technologies in the Minerals
Industry (via the Internet), organized by the National Tech­
nical University o f Athens, Greece, 1-12 December 1997.
Kostas Fytas & Pierre Thibault, Proceedings of the Seventh In­
ternational Symposium on Mine Planning and Equipment
Selection (MPES), Calgary, October 6-9, 1998, A. A.
Balkema, pp. 795-802.

56
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

The influence o f strategic developm ent options on the long-term quality

variation o f m ined lignite - The case o f the South Field M ine in Ptolem ais,
G reece

M.Galetakis & Z. Agioutantis

Department of Mineral Resources Engineering, Technical University of Crete, Mania, Greece

ABSTRACT: During the design phase of any mining operation, it is very important to ensure ore production
with specific quality characteristics, which are mainly established by the standards of each consumer. While
high and medium frequency quality variations of the ore, can usually be compensated using homogenization
and/or mixing techniques, and appropriate short-term production planning, low frequency variations can be
reduced by appropriate mine planning and design to ensure constant production quality throughout the whole
operation, which may last a few decades. In this study, the influence of two strategic development options
(scenarios) on the long-term quality variation of lignite extracted from the South Field mine at the
Ptolemais-Amydeon basin, are examined. In both scenarios the continuous mining method is applied. In the
first scenario, the field is divided in 10 sectors and pivot operations are applied for 2 sectors and parallel
operations for the remaining 8 sectors. In the second scenario the field is divided in 11 sectors and pivot
operations are applied on all sectors. Simulation results showed that the second scenario is better for reducing
the long-term variability of lignite quality.

INTRODUCTION South Field Mine can reach 20Mt of lignite, while

overburden total annual excavations of 90Mm3 of
The Lignite Center of Ptolemais - Amydeon (LCP- earth material are usually achieved in this mine
A), operated by the Greek Public Power Corporation alone.
(PPC), is located in northern Greece, about 110km The majority of the lignite mined at the South
west of the city of Thessaloniki. The lignite deposits Field Mine is fed to the nearby power plant of Agios
under exploitation cover an area of 120km^, Dimitrios, with a nominal output of 1585 MW
including 4000Mt of proven geological reserves and (Figure 1). The quality, however, of the mined
2500Mt of exploitable lignite under current lignite varies significantly and does not always meet
economic and technological criteria. Today, the the power station specifications. The intensive
LCP-A manages four large active mining units, variations of the basic quality characteristics are
which produce lignite to cover 62% of the power
production in Greece. At the present rate of
extraction, 50Mt of lignite are produced annually, by
moving a total of 250Mm^ of earth material.
The South Field Mine is the largest of the four
operational surface lignite mines at the LCP-A
covering an area of 24km^ (Figure 1). The original
lignite deposit in the area was estimated at 1.2
billion tons of lignite. Mining operations Dimitrios
commenced in August 1979 and currently the mine 'ower Station
operates on ten benches, using mainly the
continuous mining method, which employs bucket 1 5 8 5 MW^
wheel excavators (BWEs), conveyors and stackers.
Also conventional mining equipment including big
trucks, front-end loaders, electric rope and hydraulic Figure 1: Map of the location of the South Field Mine
shovels, dozers, are utilized for mining the hard rock and the Agios Dimitrios Power Station.
formations which are encountered in the overburden
strata. The scheduled annual lignite production at the

57
 - 1 6 0 0 0 .0 0 -1 5 0 0 0 .0 0 -1 4 0 0 0 .0 0 -1 3 0 0 0 .0 0 -1 2 0 0 0 .0 0 -1 1 0 0 0 .0 0 -1 0 0 0 0 .0 0 -9 0 0 0 .0 0 -8000.00 -7000.00

Figure 2: Contour map for ash content in dry basis (AWF) of exploitable lignite.

related to the nature of the lignite deposit, which is a defined as the variation between mean values of long
multiple-seam formation with successive lignite and period production (mean value of six month or
waste material bands of variable thickness and annual production).
chemical and petrographic composition. In some High and medium frequency variations can
cases, the situation is further deteriorated due to the usually be compensated using homogenization
contamination that results when using the high and/or mixing techniques and appropriate short-term
capacity BWEs, that have been installed in order to production scheduling. In the case of lignite mining,
achieve the required production targets, for selective a number of homogenization methods can be applied
mining of thin or interbedded lignite seams. mainly through the formation of large piles. The vast
majority of coal stockpiles are longitudinal, arranged
in series, in parallel or in series/parallel. Circular
2 QUALITY VARIATION, PRODUCTION piles are not common in coal industry, although they
SCHEDULING AND MINE PLANNING have some important advantages, such as high
homogenization efficiency (the end cones problem
Quality variation is closely related to the formation does not exist), fully automated - continuous
characteristics of each deposit and the mining operation and optimal exploitation of the available
conditions, and can be described as short-term space. The main weaknesses of circular stockpiles
variation or high frequency, middle-term variation or are the difficult installation in existing plants, the
medium frequency and long-term variation or low problematic future enlargement and the sensitivity of
frequency. In essence, short-term variation is homogenization efficiency in long-term variations of
defined as the variation in the elementary prism, the coal properties. Coal stacking can take place
which is reclaimed by the reclaimer in one step according to the Chevron method and the Windrow
(representing a few minutes to about one hour of method According to the first and most commonly
production), while middle-term is defined as the used method, coal is stacked continuously along the
variation between the mean values of the central axis of the stockpile in such a way that a
homogenization piles (representing 5-7 days of continuously growing triangular shaped pile is
production). The long-term quality variation is formed. The Windrow method of stacking is applied

58
 -1 4 0 0 0 .0 0 -1 3 0 0 0 .0 0 -1 2 0 0 0 .0 0 -1 1 0 0 0 .0 0 -1 0 0 0 0 .0 0 -9 0 0 0 .0 0 -8000.00 -7000.00
Figure 3: Mining sequence and operations in the first scenario.

in cases, where homogenization is required and the data in a timely and cost effective manner. A
installed equipment does not allow the use of the computer model of selected deposit attributes can
Chevron method (i.e. where side scraper reclaimers thus be created by discretising the deposit into small
exist). The conical method is used in cases where blocks and by assigning a number of attributes or
homogenization is not under consideration, while the properties to each block. The developed model is the
stratified method is usually applied in stockyards basis for all the other planning steps.
where side scraper reclaimers are installed In a second step, various mining methods and/or
(Pavloudakis & Agioutantis, 1999, Galetakis & production scheduling algorithms can be applied on
Kavouridis, 1999). these mining blocks and the average quality of the
Long-term variation can be compensated only by product can be determined based on the quality
appropriate mine planning and design to ensure characteristics assigned to each elementary block.
constant production quality throughout the whole
operation, which may last a few decades. As a 3 MINE PLANNING AT THE SOUTH FIELD
result, planning and production scheduling MINE
calculations are often difficult, especially when more
than one parameter define the required specifications As already indicated, the quality of the mined lignite
of the run-of-the-mine product. at the South Field Mine, is of varying quality due to
As a general sequence, the first step in a planning the non-uniform, multiple-seam lignite deposit. In
process is the determination of the deposit order to ensure a normal and efficient operation of
boundaries using data obtained from boreholes the power plants fed with this lignite (especially the
within the potential mining area. This is a computer- Agios Dimitrios Power Plant), it is necessary to
aided procedure in order to cope with the volume of reduce the variation of the mined material.

59
Figure 4; Mining sequence and operations in the second scenario.

Figure 5: Division of sector 2 in segments corresponding to annually excavated areas volumes and estimation of
the mean AWF using the developed 2D model.

60
Figure 6: Temporal variation of average annual AWF of excavated lignite, during the entire mine life.

Short-term solutions that have been applied to date Table 1: Borehole Evaluation parameters (Galetakis &
include use of auxiliary fuels and an attempt to Kavouridis, 1998)
homogenization, subject to equipment availability
and demand for feedstock. Minimum thickness of lignite layer for 0.50m
For long-term planning, the application of selective excavation (m)
computer models was considered appropriate. To Minimum thickness of intermediate 0.30m
this end, raw data were collected which include a waste layer for selective excavation (m)
large number of boreholes that cover all the study
area. Based on this data, the volume of the lignite Maximum allowable AWF of the 55%
and overburden as well as their spatial distribution exploitable lignite
within the strata can be calculated. In addition
quality parameters such as calorific value, ash Dilution factor 7%
content, and moisture are available for each borehole Mining loss 5%
location. For a more realistic production model, the
mining losses should also be considered. The term
mining losses implies the lignite that can not be After determining the appropriate block model
extracted due to irregular boundaries or adverse for a deposit, the mining method should be
extraction ratios, or the lignite that has to be determined (Durst & Vogt, 1988). The most
extracted with the waste material. Dilution is also an common patterns in continuous mining systems are
important factor and includes the unavoidable the parallel and pivot operations. Mine planning has
contamination of the mined lignite by mining some to determine the number of sectors to divide the
of the intermediate waste layers. Both these effect deposit, the pattern to apply to each sector as well as
can be estimated based on the thickness of the the sequence of mining each sector (where
individual seams and the intermediate waste layers. applicable).
The boundary of the field is also a dynamic
In this study, the influence of two different mine
parameter and was modified several times during the
planning scenarios are examined in an effort to
initial stages of this planning process, since, for
economic reasons, the extraction ratio (overburden mitigate the expected quality variations of the lignite
extracted from the South Field Mine. In the first
to lignite ratio) has to remain below a certain value.
scenario, the deposit is divided in 10 sectors and
Careful analysis revealed that the most
pivot operations are applied for 2 sectors and parallel
representative quality parameter of the mined lignite
operations for the remaining 8 sectors (Fig. 3). In the
is the value for ash content in dry basis. Thus, a 2D
second scenario the field is divided in 11 sectors and
model was constructed where the AWF was defined
pivot operations are applied on all sectors (Fig. 4).
as attribute to each mining block. The model was
For the estimation of the mean quality of lignite
based on 480 boreholes, with a borehole spacing of
mined annually, the following methodology was
approximately 250m. The model consists of 16709
used:
blocks 50x50m^ each. The contour map for AWF is
shown in Figure 2.

61
• For the evaluation of the borehole data, thin REFERENCES
layers of lignite and partings are grouped using
specific criteria regarding thickness and ash Durst W. & W. Vogt, 1988, "Bucket Wheel Excavator",
content, to form the exploitable blocks. The main Trans Tech Publications, Clausthal, Germany, pp.
criteria used for the evaluation are the minimum 291-297.
Galetakis M. 1996, Determination o f lignite quality mined
thickness of lignite and waste layer that can be
from multi-layer deposits applying continuous open cast
excavated by selective mining, and the limits of methods, Ph. D. Thesis, Technical University o f Crete.
the quality attributes of the exploitable lignite Galetakis M. & C. Kavouridis, 1998, "Quality Control o f
blocks (Karamalikis, 1992). Dilution and mining Lignite Produced by Continuous Surface Mining using
losses were also taken into account. The values Statistical Methods", Technical Chronicles, Scientific
of the borehole evaluation parameters are listed Journal o f Technical Chamber o f Greece, Vol. 1-2, pp.
in Table 1 (Galetakis & Kavouridis, 1998). 49-59.
• Assuming a constant annual production of 20 Mt, Galetakis M. & C. Kavouridis, 1999, "Homogenization o f
Quality o f Lignite Mined from the Ptolemais -Amynteon
the excavated area for every year for the entire Lignite Basin", Technical Chronicles, Scientific Journal
mine life was determined. The remaining o f Technical Chamber o f Greece, Vol. 1-2, pp. 41-52.
exploitable reserves, which are 900 Mt, ensure Karamalikis N., 1992 "Computer software for the
mine operation for about 45 years (e.g. fi*om development and application o f lignite seam models".
2000-2045) assuming that the current output Mineral Wealth, No 76, Jan-Feb, pp. 39-50.
capacity will remain constant in the future. The Pavloudakis F. & Z. Agioutantis, 1999 "Computer aided
mean ash content of excavated lignite for every coal quality control and h om ogenisation; A
year, was calculated by averaging the ash values state-of-the-art review". New Technologies for Coal
of individual blocks within the corresponded area Quality Control and Homogenization, International
(Figure 5). Workshop, Thermie Program, Europ. Com. DG XVII
Energy, Athens.
The variation of the AWF during the mine life is
shown in the diagram of Figure 6. The upper specifi­
cation limit of AWF ( 33.6%) is also indicated in the
same diagram.

4 RESULTS - CONCLUSIONS

As it shown on Figure 2, the quality of lignite de­

creases significantly at the northeast part of the mine
(sectors marked as 4 and 7 for the first scenario, or 4,
5 and 6 for the second scenario). This is due to the
inferior deposit quality as well as the difficult
mining conditions in this area. More specifically,
the lignite deposit at this location is divided into
many thin lignite and intermediate waste layers
which increases the dilution effect due to the un­
avoidable contamination by intermediate waste lay­
ers during selective mining (Galetakis, 1996).
In first scenario the fluctuation of lignite quality
corresponds to two different time periods (2006-
2009 and 2022-2025) that last 8 years, when
significant quality deterioration is expected.
In the second scenario a decrease in quality is
expected during a 7 year time period (2020-2026). In
addition the second scenario achieves a more
uniform quality variation (standard deviation of
annual mean AWF is 10% less than in the first
scenario) therefore a smaller decrease in cycle
efficiency of the power plant is expected. Simulation
results showed that the second scenario is better for
reducing the long-term variability of lignite quality.

62
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

O pen stope cavity m onitoring for the control o f dilution and ore loss

A .P Jarosz & L. Shepherd

Mine Surveying Program, Western Australian School of Mines, Curtin University, Kalgoorlie, W.A, Australia

ABSTRACT: The Cavity Monitoring System (CMS) developed by Noranda Technology Centre (NTC)
jointly with Optech Systems, Canada, has become one of the basic tools used by underground mine surveyors
to determine the extend and progress of mining in an open stope environment. In this paper authors focus on
the utilisation of CMS for determination of ore dilution and ore lose. The experiences gained from surveys
and data processing are presented.

1 INTRODUCTION 2 STOPE SURVEYS

The design of an underground stope is a complex Traditionally the survey of open stopes presented a
process with many variables to consider. The quality significant challenge to mine surveyors and mining
of a stope design or its effectiveness can to a large engineers who endeavour to monitor accurate prog­
extent be measured by comparing the design dimen­ ress of mining and the stability of stope openings. In
sions of the stope to actually mined. The physical fact, the use of classical surveying methods was in
dimensions of a stope can be effected by many fac­ many cases not possible due to safety requirements
tors including blast design, drilling accuracy of blast and inaccessibility of stope openings. The surveys,
holes, geo-technical conditions and ground support if conducted, were time consuming, produced low
techniques. Comparing the physical extent of the quality data and were likely to cause considerable
stope against the design can help analyse these fac­ delay to the mining cycle.
tors.
In most cases the volume of ore extracted from un­
derground stopes is above that of the design volume.
This is a situation of stope over break and has the ef­
fect of diluting the ore body being extracted. Ore
dilution can have a significant bearing on the profit­
ability of a mining operation.
In many mining operations the dimension of an un­
derground stope can be measured quickly and safely
with the use of the Cavity Monitoring System
(CMS) developed by Optech, Canada. This device,
widely used in Australia, can scan the extent of the
stope from a position within the stope, giving it sig­
nificant advantages over more conventional survey­
ing methods. However, the raw data collected by the
CMS is essentially a large number of coordinated
X, Y,Z points of the walls of the stope. This data has
then to be processed to form sections and three-
dimensional models. The processing of this data
needs to be quick and accurate if results are to be of
value to the mine design team. Figure 1. Conventional surveys of open stope.

63
This situation improved with the advent of reflec­ to a position where the outline of the void is visible
torless electronic distance meters (eg. DIOR3002) and can be surveyed (Fig. 3). The ability of CMS to
that were coupled with theodolites to form the re­ survey a void from a vantage point located within
flectorless total stations. However, according to R. the stope gives it a significant advantage over con­
J. Gilbertson (1995), this equipment setup still had a ventional survey methods.
lot of operational and safety problems. The surveyor
and instrumentation had to be positioned often in
close proximity to the edge of an open stope for ex­
tended periods of time. A typical open stope can be
accessed from two to four drilling and extraction ho­
rizons, that are used to acquire surveying data (Fig.
1). As stope panels are usually extracted in retreat­
ing order they may be accessed from one side only,
and the visibility of open stope walls is limited. This
creates the major problem to cover all stope walls
with surveying points and to produce accurate defi­
nition of an open stope cavity.
The above mentioned disadvantages of the classical
surveying method are the main reason that the No-
randa Technology Centre (NTC) jointly with Optech
Systems, Canada, developed the Cavity Monitoring
System (CMS). This greatly improved safety and
quality of stope surveys. Over the last decade this
surveying instrument has been in common use in
Australia, including the Eastern Goldfields, Western
Figure 3. CMS positioned for stope survey.
Australia. The CMS consists of a computer con­
trolled, motorised scanning head that attaches to 8 A CMS survey is a relatively simple procedure.
metre long boom (Fig. 2). Equipment, although bulky, is easy to erect and set
up. The computer interface is user friendly, how­
ever, precautions should be taken around open
stopes to ensure the safety of personnel as well as
the scanning head. There was an incident in Western
Australia where rock was tipped onto a CMS unit
extended into a stope.
The CMS collects data by taking X,Y,Z coordinates
of points in a circular sweep of the void. Once a
sweep is completed the scanning head increments it's
inclination by a predetermined angle, usually 2 or 3
degrees, to perform another circular sweep of the
void. The initial position of the CMS head is gained
by conventional survey means. Two control points,
one located near the surveying head and a second
close to other end of the boom, are surveyed to gen­
erate coordinates for the head position. The end re­
sult of a CMS survey is a file consisting of up to 140
rings of 360 points each with X, Y,Z coordinates, that
represent the extent of the void (Fig. 4)

3 CMS DATA PROCESSING

Although these rings give a good representation of a

Figure 2. Components of Cavity Monitoring System (CMS). stope the CMS file created inherently contains large
numbers of points. A normal CMS file with an in­
The motorised servo-driven head includes reflector­ crement of 1 degree will have 212,000 readings
less laser rangefinder, visible laser pointer and pertaining to over 50,000 points. This amount of
reading system providing inclination and rotational data can create problems when manipulating data in
position of rangefinder. During a survey the boom mining software using conventional PC. In order to
with scanning head is inserted into the stope cavity

64
make these files more manageable excess points ence suggests that the distance should be more than
need to be eliminated. 0.2 m and deflection angle less then 90° (Fig. 5).

er -
\

\)

Figure 5. String conditioning (number of points was reduced

from 730 to 280 without compromising integrity of shape)

Figure 4. Results of CMS survey (string objects)

4 PRESENTATION OF SURVEY RESULTS
The CMS instrument records data that can be ex­
ported as ASCII raw data or transformed to DXF The determination of stope position in 3D space,
format. These formats are readily imported into based on local or real world coordinates, allows the
mining software packages such as SlIRPAC and presentation of survey results in a variety of ways,
DATAMINE. The process of creating meaningful especially when computer based 3D modelling is
results from the raw data generated by the CMS re­ utilised. The wireframes representing stope openings
quires a significant degree of experience and a mod­ can be combined with wirframes representing devel­
erate understanding of the tools provided by the opment drives and further with other objects repre­
mining software. For example a special function is senting the geology and extend of orebody (Fig.6).
required to create the 3D wireframe representing a
stope cavity from the strings (rings) that the CMS
generates. This function should utilise an algorithm
that joins sequential rings rather than the conven­
tional wireframe creation algorithm that focuses on
generation of equilateral triangles. Normal DXF to
wireframe conversions may create a “fish-bone” ef­
fect rather than a desired “shell effect”.
The wireframe (DTM) created from the raw data
also is a large file with points and triangles that by
far exceed the amount required for creation of
meaningful, practical models. Some erroneous data
may be generated from the effect of shadowing. To
make the raw data workable it is essential that the
initial wireframe be cut along a predetermined
planes (usually the ring design planes) and the re­
sultant sections be inspected individually and edited.
This, somewhat subjective process based on the ba­ Figure 6. 3D representation of designed and surveyed stope and
sic knowledge of the stope by the surveyor, provides development drives. The overbreak is clearly visible on foot-
wall of open stope.
sections with better spatial integrity. Editing of data
generally involves the process of eliminating excess
points and the smoothing of string outlines. It is Such complex representations may be viewed from
achieved by constraining the distance and deflection any angle and distance, as well as, projected on any
angle between consecutive points. Authors experi- predefined projection plane to create level plans or

65
cross-sections. Consecutive surveys may also be
combined to represent stope development over time.

5 DETERMINATION OF ORE DILUTION AND

ORE LOSE

The Australian Centre for Geomechanics defines

over break, or more precisely dilution, with the fol­
lowing equations (Pakalnis et al. 1995):

• Dilution 1 = (tonnes waste rock mined) / (tonnes of

ore mined)
• Dilution 2 = (tonnes waste mined) / (tonnes ore
mined + tonnes of waste mined)

To establish the dilution in an open stope the ton­ Figure 7. Shaded areas representing overbreak.
nages or volumes of mined rock are needed. In un­
derground situations, dilution and mine recovery can
be analyses by comparing the design stopes with 6 CONCLUSIONS
stopes actually extracted. This comparison can only
be realistically achieved by comparing stope vol­ Dilution and ore lose are important factors affecting
umes using computer generated 3D models. the profitability of mining operations. A dilution
Our initial attempts to achieve this were focused on control action plan should include definition and
determination of intersection between solids repre­ identification of dilution sources, but also proce­
senting the designed and mined stopes. However, dures for monitoring (surveying) and control actions.
the complexity of voids involved resulted in long The Cavity Monitoring System (CMS) in combina­
calculation times (on standard desktop workstation) tion with computer based 3D mapping and mine de­
and frequently erroneous results. It became quiet sign software is the practical answer to survey data
clear that the involvement and analytical abilities of requirements of the dilution control process. How­
the human operator were required. ever, the data processing is rather complicated and
The best results were achieved when the process of fragmented, involving usage of processes from dif­
over-break and ore lose determination included the ferent software packages. The further integration and
following steps: streamlining of survey data processing, dilution / ore
I.Slicing - in this step the intersection strings be­ lose reporting and stope (ring) design may be a valu­
tween solids representing the designed and mined able addition to the range of tools that are available
stopes were determined (Fig. 7). for mine surveyor and mining engineer.
2.Outlining of overbreaks and ore lose areas.
3. Creation of solids representing overbreak or ore
lose by linking the outlines in sections.
4. Calculation of volumes and tonnages for overbreak REFERENCES
and ore lose solids.
Gilbertson, R.J. 1995. The application of the Cavity Measure­
ment System at Olympic Dam operations. Proc. Under­
The determined tonnages were utilised to calculate ground Operators Conference, Kalgoorlie, Western Aus­
dilution factors for whole panel or on a ring by ring tralia, 13-14 November 1995: 245-252.
bases. The example calculation results are presented Optech Systems Corporation. 1996. Cavity Monitoring System
in Table I. (CMS). User Manual, Version 2.3, May 1996, North York
(Toronto), Ontario, Canada.
Pakalnis, R., R. Poulin & J. Hadjigeorgiou 1995. Quantifying
Table 1: Calculated dilution factor. the cost of dilution in underground mines. Mining Engi­
Panel/Ring Design Mined Dilution 1 neering, December 1995: 1136-1141.
Tonnage Tonnage Revey, G.F. 1998. Effects and control of overbreak in under­
ground mining. Mining Engineering, August 1998: 63-67.
Panel 3 40,497 41,499 1,002 (2.5%)

66
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

M ethane safety o f coal m ining

N.O. Kaledina
Department of Mine Aerology and Safety, Moscow State Mining University, Russia

ABSTRACT: Providing of Methane safety on coal mines is a complex engineering task. It is necessary to
take into accounting all defining factors: technological ones, aerodynamic ones, and dynamics of gas and coal
dust. Besides, this problem must be decided with accounting the environment issue. The method of planning of
methane safety system is described.

1 CONCEPT OF METHANE SAFETY Soviet and Russian scientific school of mine aerology
establish the basic laws of methane emission in
It is impossible to provide safety with external underground workings: laws of methane emission
measures, it is shown as internal property of the from districted rocks, influence of technology factors
systems following from coordinated functioning all of on intensity methane flow, influence of an
it elements with the purposes, given by the man. aerodynamic mode on gas flow from the gob areas at
Therefore decision of this problem is not achieved by stationary and non-stationary (transitive) gas
prohibitive measures. As shows experience, it is dynamics processes. These results give a possibility
impossible to provide rules of behavior for all of decision of a coalmine methane safety problem
occasions. If we install the greater number of from system positions. Known interrelations between
interdictions, the probability of their infringement separate elements of the technological circuit allow
grows. to definite how the change of their condition will
Hence, the organizational measures should affect to stability of functioning of system as a whole.
supplement technical ones, establishing boundary The methane safety concept, developed in
meanings of parameters determining technological Moscow State Mining University (MSMU),
process, which "transition" creates conditions for considers a coalmine as complex system in its
development of accident. What about methane interrelation with an environment. Historically
safety, such parameters are the allowable methane is a main enemy for the miner. But it can be
concentration of methane and speeds of air useful as chemical raw material, as ecologically pure
movement. fuel to power system and vehicle. Besides if we shall
The maintenance of these parameters in learn it to catch and to use instead of letting out in an
allowable limits in mines is provided with systems of atmosphere, we shall lower its adverse influence on a
ventilation and degassing. However, if the system climate of the Earth, i.e. we shall receive also
technological decisions at designing were accepted ecological effect. In this context the system decision
incorrectly, even at the very large expenses of energy of a problem methane safety should be carried out on
and finance, these systems will not ensure a required the following basic directions.
level of safety. It means, that the decisions on the
circuits of ventilation and degassing and modes of
their work should be closely coordinated to coal 1.1 Maintenance o f technological safety
mining technology.
The colliery is complex large system, its Acceptance of the basic technical decisions
development submits to the laws of large systems. determining a way and the order of a deposit
The researches which have been carried out by the improvement should be guided on:

67
 • Decrease of common (absolute) methane development of layers in strata, and also working to
flow in a mine atmosphere; the dip or to the rise of a layer, in comparison with a
• Possibility of fast rescue of the people in working to the strike, reduce gas danger. When using
case of failure; the retreating systems the contribution of gas flow
• Minimization of damage from possible from gob area decreases, in comparison with
failures. advancing systems. In the first case a contribution of
It means, that a choice of a rational way of development workings in common methane balance
opening and development, and also about mining of mine also grows, achieving 60 %. Thus, already at
method and the method of development should be a stage of a choice of basic elements of the
based on knowledge of interrelation between the gas technological scheme it is necessary to mean their
dynamic processes and mining technology (Figure 1). influence on methane safety.
The researches of gas balance dynamics of The second major design stage - synthesis of
methane coal mines show, that the upward order of the safe and highly reliable ventilation scheme of

68
extraction units and mine as a whole. The most Raising efficiency of gas drainage system, we
effective scheme is advancing one, and it is most not only reduce danger of gas inrush. The basic
safety, because it supplies two or more exits. quantity of methane inflow is emitted from
Rational interaction of mines ventilating and undermined rocks massive, i.e. after the coal bed
degassing systems is necessary for reducing of gas extraction. The gob areas give 60 % and more of
danger. Degassing is more prefer method, as it total methane inflow. To take this gas with maximum
allows using the gas from coal beds. High efficiency high content, the good insulation of the exhausted
of it is ensured, if aeration of gob area is minimal. sites is required. This condition also accords to
The aerodynamic regime is the main factor
requirements of spontaneous combustion prevention.
controlling methane flow in mines. That ventilation
regime determines methane distribution in system The automatic monitoring and control of gas
"workings - gob area - degassing holes", it is flow from the basic emissions sources has to be used
characterized by integrated Reynolds criterion, which as a mean of reduces of methane danger. The original
can be determined on data of mine atmosphere hierarchical method of mine pollutions monitoring
monitoring on the base of established laws of (including the methane) is elaborated in MSMU.
leakage-flow through a waste zone. Methane monitoring system has to include both of
It is established intensity of ventilation (in a ventilating and degassing processes.
gob area - filtering) regime; spatial structure of The coal dust monitoring and control is most
leakage-flow (i.e. ventilation scheme) and intensity of impotent element of methane safety system. The
gas-emitting source define the formation of a presence of coal dust not only raises probability of
methane concentration field, mainly. gas explosion, as it reduces the low limit
Efficiency of gob area degassing much depends concentration of methane combustion, but also
on an aerodynamic regime or on intensity of leakage: aggravates weight of consequences of possible
the increase of methane volume in ventilation flow explosion. The high efficiency of degassing allows to
reduces gas volume and concentration in degassing get optimal air velocity reduced the dust airborne.
holes. The regime of air leakage plays also major role Thus, "adjusting" system under the factor of
in process of spontaneous combustion in gob areas, methane safety, we simultaneously reduce danger of
since the leakage velocity defines a temperature coal self-ignition in gob areas and coal-dust
regime in a gob. Thus increased gas emitting reduces explosion, i.e. we reduce risk of the heaviest
concentration of oxygen O2, that is necessary for coal accidents of mining accompanying with huge material
oxidation. and social losses (Figure 2).

Fig. 2. Scheme of interrelation between the subsystems of coal mine safety

69
1.2 R a tio n a l u se o f c o a l d e p o s it p o w e r re s o u r c e s R EFER EN C ES

Development and introduction of methane extraction L.A.Puchkov & N.O.Kaledina. 1995. Methane
technologies have to be used at all stages of coal Dynamics in Coal Mine Gob Area. Moscow:
deposit mining: prior to the beginning mining at MSMU.
preliminary degassing, passing extraction at L.A.Puchkov & N.O.Kaledina. 1996. Aerodynamic
operation of mine and subsequent extraction from the control of coalmine gob area gas drainage.
old gob areas and exhaust spaces. Proceeding SWEMP’96, R. Ciccu (ed.).
At the first stage the methods of increasing of Margherita di Pula, Cagliari, Italy, 7-11 October,
coal bed gas-permeability 1996. Rotterdam: Balkema.
The second stage requires of development of L.A.Puchkov. 1993. Underground mining gob area
methods and means to operate by the methane flows aerodynamics. Moscow: MSMU.
in mine ventilating and degassing networks. These V.D.Ajurov & N.O.Kaledina. 1996. Hierarchical
methods must ensure a preparation of conditional balanced models of the coalmine monitoring
methane-and-air mixes, suitable for the consumer. systems. Proceeding 26th APCOM’96, Littleton,
Development of methods and means of Colorado, USA, September 16-20, 1996.
industrial usage of mixes with low concentration of Rotterdam: Balkema.
gas, including from mine air return, are perspective. V.M.Shek, N.O.Kaledina & V.D.Ajurov. 1997.
Hierarchical Inforanalitical Models Using in Coal
Mine Ecological Monitoring System. Proceedings
1.3 Maintenance o f ecological safety of the 2nd Regional APCOM'97 Symposium on
Computer Applications and Operations Research
The main quantity of gas is thrown out from mines in in the Mineral Industries. Moscow, 24-28 August
atmosphere with a ventilation flow, but in many 1997. Rotterdam: Balkema.
countries up to 30 % of general issue makes methane
from degasification systems and some of this volume
of gas is used for industrial purposes. In coal-
produced countries on the average of 20 % is given
by a coal cycle, in which the maximum contribution
is given by underground production - about 86 %.
With increasing of depth the total methane
emission of mines and contribution of gobs in their
gas balance are growing. The increasing of intensity
of ventilation so as degasification increases methane
issue into earth atmosphere, if methane is not
utilized. Methane utilizing is possible only at
maintenance of stable outputs and high concentration
of gas in air-gas mixture, which are reached only at
combined methods of control, including gob area
degassing control.
When the safety is supplied in an industrial
system, it means, that it functions steadily, that, in
turn, provides to it both ecological safety, and social
stability and economic efficiency. Therefore it is
possible to tell, that the safety is forming system
factor at a choice of the technical decisions of mining
technologies. It also is that "tuning fork", on which
we should adjust functioning of mining system.

70
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

A nalyses o f valley fill stability and spoil handling techniques

in m ountainous areas

S.EB.KoUi&A.W.Khair
Department o f Mining Engineering, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WVa., USA

ABSTRACT: This paper presents analyses of valley fill stability and spoil handling techniques in mountain­
ous areas. The stability of the valley fills is assessed under various surface and subsurface configurations. The
spoil handling techniques are reviewed and an Approximate Original Contour (AOC) Model is presented. The
AOC model is used to determine the excess spoil disposal plans and valley fill final configuration criteria.
The analyses of excess spoil disposal plans and valley fill stability helps in developing better strategy for re­
ducing the impact of Mountaintop mining on the environment.

1 INTRODUCTION 2. Contour mining: Surface mining technique that

makes a cut into a hillside, creating a level bench
Surface mining of multiple seams by mountaintop with a high wall. A contour - mined area must be re­
removal and contour mining is complex in the Ap­ stored to AOC, including elimination of the high
palachian region of southwestern West Virginia, wall.
USA. Owing to its unique mining operations, and 3. Approximate Original Contour (AOC): The
the environmental effects associated with it, surface configuration achieved by back filling and
mountaintop removal method of mining has become grading of the mined area so that reclaimed area, in­
an issue of public concern. The pertinence of the cluding any terracing or access roads, closely resem­
present mountaintop mining operations and recla­ bles the general surface configuration of the land
mation techniques, with respect to being in compli­ prior to mining and blends into, and complements
ance with Surface Mining Control and Reclamation the drainage pattern of the surrounding terrain, with
Act of 1977 (SMCRA), as well as both Federal and all high walls and spoil piles eliminated. All mines
State regulations is at question. are to be returned to AOC, unless they receive a
The three major types of surface coal mining op­ variance from it [term defined in Subsection 22-3-
erations carried out in Middle Eastern part of USA 3(e) of WVSMCRA and Subsection 701(2) of
are 1. Area mining, 2. Contour mining, 3. SMCRA].
Mountaintop removal. The public and the media 4. AOC Variance: A regulatory authority may
have often called these types of mines grant a variance or waiver from the requirement to
“mountaintop-removal mines”, even though that restore a site to AOC if certain specified conditions
term applies only to one type of mountaintop opera­ are satisfied. State and Federal law provides for the
tion in regulatory sense. There are certain related following types of AOC variances: mountaintop re­
terms to be defined with respect to mountaintop- moval, steep-slope, thick overburden, and remined
removal operations. areas.
1. Mountaintop mining: Surface mining activities 5. Excess spoil: Overburden material that is dis­
where mining operation removes an entire coal seam posed of in a location other than the mine pit and
or seams running through upper fraction of a moun­ that is not needed to achieve AOC.
tain, ridge, or hill, by removing substantially all of
the overburden off the bench and creating a level
plateau or a gently rolling contour, with no high 2 GEOLOGY
walls remaining, and capable of supporting post
mining uses in accordance with the requirements of Mountaintop mining is carried out in an elevated
section 785.14 of SMCRA, 1977. track of nearly horizontal and gently folded strata.

71
Lithologically, the rock units are composed mainly Phase#2: After the contour cut is completed and
of beds of sandstone, interspersed with beds of silt- the appropriate drainage is in place, prestripping for
stone, shale, coal, limestone and fire clays. The typi­ the dragline begins. Prestripping is performed with
cal lithology of the area where mountaintop mining shovel loaders and 284 T end dump trucks. Coal is
is employed is shown in figure 1. removed with loaders and 218 T end dump trucks.
The general rock sequence in the Applachia is Partings less than 6.5 ft. thick are removed with 85T
bound at the base by the Coalburgh sandstone. Other end dump trucks.
significant stratigraphic units, in ascending order are Phase#3: When prestripping is atleast 15 months
Stockton seam. Clarion seam, and Kittanning seam. ahead of the dragline, the dragline is placed into op­
Within the numerous coal seams are various splits of eration. Prestripping is continued to maintain the 15-
coal. The split thickness ranges from 10 to 32 in. To month gap with the dragline operation.
be minable, a split of coal should be atleast 6 in. Phase#4: As each coal seam is uncovered, 13.5
thick. cu-yd front-end loaders load coal into 77 T end-
dump trucks. Other spreads of front-end loaders and
Mine I end-dump trucks load and haul the thinner interbur-
41* dends between coal splits to waste.
Upper Kittanning

75

Upper Five Block Mine n

45 ORIGINAL SECTION
Lower Five Block
76*
Upper Stockton Rider
Stockton seam
73
73
II
UPPER SEAMS REMOVED
Coalburgh seams (I-II) (Area ready for Dragline operation)

1=1 I Cut *r is displaced

A ^
Tntp.rhiirflftn Coal
* Average interburden thickness in feet. e S 4 3 2

Figure 1. Geologic columns, active mines.

Beginning dragline operation

4
3 MOUNTAINTOP MINING OPERATIONS

Mining in Applachia, with its steep terrain and

complex geology, is not easy. Large surface mining Begin regrading (Spoil from cuts 1,2,& 3 regraded)
equipment, detailed planning is required to mine the
low-sulfur reserves economically. Mining operation 5 Valley fill
is carried out using draglines and shovel-loader
combination. The method of mining in mountainous
areas is shown in figure 2. The top of the mountain
is removed to uncover the most economically min­ Regraded section
able coal seams. The overburden and interburden a. Upper Kittanning, b. 6 block, c. 5 block, d. Stockton seams.
removed are placed in valley fills and backstacked
on previously mined areas as required to produce Figure 2. Method of mining.
coal. Under ideal conditions it is possible to extract
100% of the minable coal, and results in the move­ In figure 2, section 2 shows the post stripping
ment of more than 42 million cu-yd/year of overbur­ scenario, where mountain peaks are removed by an
den and interburden. The general sequence of electric shovel, creating a flat surface for the dra­
mountaintop mining operations is as follows: gline operation. The mining area is divided into pits
Phase# 1: The mining operation begins by clear­ for efficient removal of overburden. The overburden
ing the trees from the permitted area, and driving a removed is placed in the valley fill. Section 5, shows
contour cut on the lowest minable seam. the final pit configuration. The AOC variance al-

72
 Stockton Seam Dragline
Contour Cuts

Coalburgh Seam

Figure 3. Conceptual view of handling excess spoil with dragline advance.

lowed depends upon the terrain of the permit area. 4.1 AOC and Excess spoil determinations
A selection criterion of mining equipment depends
on many parameters such as geology, total spoil The key variables found in the AOC definition, in­
material to be handled, average hauling distance, av­ fluencing AOC determination are: configuration,
erage gradient of the haul roads, and slopes, varia­ backfilling and grading, disturbed area, terracing or
tions in coal split thickness, variations in interburden access roads, closely resembles, and drainage pat­
thickness. The equipment in fleet is shown in Table terns. These variables for analysis purposes can be-
1. logically grouped into 3 focus areas: 1) Configura­
tion, 2) Stability, and 3) Drainage. These focus areas
are addressed through a formula-like model that
Table 1. Equipment in fleet in a typical mountaintop- portrays these variables in a process for determining
removal mine. what post mining surface configuration meets the
Equipment (type/size) Fleet Deployment AOC definition.
Dragline (50 cu-yd / 104m) 1 Phase#3 AOC Model: Variables used in the formula are as
Shovel, electric (43 cu-yd) 1 Phase#2 the following:
Shovel, electric (38 cu-yd) 1 Phase#2 OC: Pre-mining configuration or volume of back­
Shovel, electric (33 cu-yd) 1 Phase#4 fill material to replicate the original contours of the
Front-end loader (27 cu-yd) 1 Phase#2 undisturbed area proposed to be mined.
Front-end loader (23 cu-yd) 1 Phase#2, & 1 SR: Backfill volume displaced due to compliance
Front-end loader (13.5 cu-yd) 4 Phase#4 with stability requirements.
Front-end loader (10 cu-yd) 2 Phase#4 DR: Backfill volume displaced due to compliance
Trucks, end-dump 2 8 4 1 10 Phase # 2 with drainage control requirements.
Trucks, end-dump 2 8 4 1 3 Phase#2, & 3 SCR: Backfill volume displaced due to compli­
Trucks, end-dump 2 8 4 1 2 Phase#4 ance with sediment control requirements.
Trucks, end-dump 2 8 4 1 4 Phase#4
Dozers, Crawler < 400 hp 3 Phase# 1
Dozers, Crawler > 400 hp 10 Phase#3
Drills, 10.62” 2 Phase#2
Drills, 7.87” 1 Phase#2, & 4
Drills, 3.87” 3 Phase#4

4 SPOIL HANDLING TECHNIQUES.

The first process in mountaintop-removal opera­

tion is to prepare a detailed plan of mining and rec­
lamation phase of the mine to be opened. The
amounts of excess spoil to be generated, and excess Figure 4. Details of backfill volume displaced when complying
spoil handling plans should be submitted with the with performance standards.
permit application. The first step in designing an ex­
cess spoil-handling plan is to determine the AOC AR: Backfill volume displaced due to compliance
and the excess spoil to be generated. The conceptual with access/maintenance requirements.
view of handling excess spoil is shown in figure 3. AOC: Volume of backfilled spoil required to sat­
isfy the SMCRA regulations for approximate origi­
nal contour.

73
 Based on the terms given above, the following
formula determines the amount of backfill, which
must be returned to the mined area to satisfy AOC.
AOC = OC - SR - DR - SCR - AR (1)
Total Spoil Material (TSM): Total spoil material
is all of the overburden (OB) plus interburden (IB)
that must be handled as a result of the purposed
mining operation. TSM value is expressed as bank
cubic yards (bey).
TSM = (O B +IB )*B F (2)
where BF = Bulking factor.
Spoil Placement Areas: Spoil can be placed either
in decoaled area or backfill (BFA), or in excess spoil Figure 5. Valley slope configuration (as per federal
disposal area (ESD), i.e. valley fills regulations).
The Excess Spoil (ES) will be
E S = T S M -B F A (3)
5.1 Site specific results
BF: Backfill is the material placed in the mined
out area to attain original configuration (OC), or The slope stability analysis of 3 valley fills sites is
Approximate Original Configuration (AOC) carried out using XSTABL. The geo-mechanical
Therefore, from equations 1, 2, and 3 properties of the surface and subsurface layers of the
ES = TSM - AOC valley fills are determined by conducting laboratory
Thus the excess spoil determined is handled by experiments on borehole samples. The surface and
filling it in adjacent valley or by backstacking. The subsurface configurations are prepared from the data
valley fills so formed should be in compliance with obtained by reconnaissance, and survey of the site.
Federal regulations. The most important federal
regulations regarding valley fills are as the follow­ 5.1.1 S itel
ing:
1. A specification that final graded slopes on the The fill is situated in a narrow valley with a relief of
plateau portion of the operation not exceed 525ft. Figure 7 shows the arial view of the valley fill
lv:5h(20%). (This specification is in for the flat at sitel. Figure 8 is a plan view sketch of the fill.
plateau portion formed on the top of the valley fill.) The slope angle varies from 25.8® to 36®. The fill has
2. A requirement that plateau out slopes attain a a cover of natural soil over the competent rock. The
minimum static safety factor of 1.5 or that they not results from the analysis of the test boring and soil
exceed lv:2h (50%). (This requirement is shown in samples of valley fill sitel are given below:
figure 5. For the slope between terraces formed in
the formation of valley fill, a slope not greater than Boring # Fill thickness Natural soil thickness
lv:2h is required, as this is maximum safe slope for SI 70ft 33.5ft
operation of tracked-equipment.) S2 55ft 33.0ft
S3 41ft 23.5ft
5 ANALYSES OF VALLEY FILL SLOPE The valley fill profile, soil weight and strength
STABILITY parameters are entered into the XSTABL program.
The peizometric line is assumed based on the ground
The scope of work for the study includes an analysis water readings. The unit weight of ground water is
of stability characteristics of valley fill construction assumed to be 62.4 pcf. The soil properties used in
techniques used in the mining and reclamation ac­ the slope stability analysis of valley fill at sitel are
tivities carried out in mountainous areas of south given below:
western West Virginia, USA. The valley fills
formed are some of the largest earth constructions on Parameter Spoil Natural soil
earth today, with a relief of 450ft to 600ft and a Yw 124.2 pcf 131.3 pcf
stretch of 500ft to 2000ft. The slope angle of the fills <1> 2U 32®
varies from 18^ to 36®. Laboratory tests on repre­ c 0.16 tsf 0.06 tsf
sentative materials were conducted to determine
pertinent physical properties of material constituting Where Yw- Unit weight of material, (j): angle of internal fric­
the valley fills. Basic index properties such as grain tion, and c: cohesion
size distribution, direct shear strength, and moisture
content were measured.

74
 Y-AXIS (feet)

I: Overburden spoil, II: Most critical surface, III: Spoil lower

Figure 7. Arial view of valley fill at site 1. limit & Peizometric line.

Figure 10. Slope stability analyses of valley fill at site2.

Y-AXIS (feet)

I: Overburden Spoil, II: Most critical failure surface

III: Lower limit of spoil layer.
Figure 8. Plan of valley fill at site 1.

Figure 11. Slope stability analyses of valley fill at site2.

Figure 9. Plan of valley fill at site 2. Figure 12. Slope stability analyses of valley fill at site2.

75
The grid pattern used for sitel is shown in figure 10. of slices. The FOS of the slope is greater than 1.5
The outslope is steeper than the configuration laid and is safe due to configuration.
down by the regulations, and the height of the
benches does not agree with the design profile. The
6 CONCLUSION
minimum factor of safety (FOS) of 1.26 for the most
critical failure surface is calculated using Bishop’s
The valley fill slopes in West Virginia are stable due
Simplified method of slices. The FOS of the slope is
to configuration. The enormous weight of the spoil
less than 1.5 and is unsafe.
placed over the incompetent natural soil tends to
consolidate over its own weight. The sliding of the
5.1.2 Site 2
incompetent subsurface layers is not noticed. The af­
fect of surface infiltration, run off, ground vibrations
Site 2 does not have a cover of natural soil over
due to blasting on mass wasting in the valley fills is
the competent lower layer. The slope angles are less
to be studied. The need to develop overburden slope
than 25.8®. The height between benches is 40 ft or
stability analysis software is to be realized. Soil
less. Figure 9 shows the profile of the fill. The zone
slope stability analysis software provide fair analysis
between the backfilled highwall and the natural ter­
of overburden spoil slopes, but the effect of void
rain is more exposed in this case. The soil properties
spaces, highly diverse grain size distribution, non-
used for the spoil in the slope stability analysis of
uniform spoil properties are to be considered for
valley fill at site2 are: Yw• 124.2 pcf , (|): 21®, c: 0.16
better analysis of spoil slopes.
tsf. No peizometric line is used in this case. The site
is assumed to be fully drained.
The grid pattern used for site2 is shown in figure ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
11. The outslope confirms to the regulations, and the
height of the benches agree with the design profile. Our special thanks go to Mr. Fernand A. Barata, PE,
The minimum factor of safety (FOS) of 1.77 for the for providing us information and insight on
most critical failure surface is calculated using mountaintop mining. Coal and Energy Research Bu­
Janbu’s Simplified method of slices. The FOS of the reau (CERB) of the State of West Virginia, USA,
slope is greater than 1.5 and is safe. The slope will supported this project. Special thanks are due to
not fail due to configuration, the affect of seepage State of West Virginia. We also thank Office of
and surface run off need to be studied. Surface Mining (OSM), and West Virginia Depart­
ment of Environmental Protection for providing us
5.1.3 Site 3 with evaluation reports on AOC and Postmining
land use.
Site 3 is a contour mining site where valley fills
were utilized for spoil disposal. This site has a relief
of 100 ft only, but has a stretch of 2000 ft. The clas­ REFERENCES
sification test data show a wide range in particle
sizes. There are large rock fragments as well as silt Hoek, E. & Bray, J. 1974. Rock Slope Engineering. Lx)ndon:
and clay. Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, London
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory. 1981. Envi­
The natural soil ranges in thickness from 6 ft to ronmental Assessment of Surface Mining: Head-of-Hallow
25 ft. The peizometric line is assumed based on the Fill and Mountaintop Removal - Draft Final Report: Cin­
ground water readings. The unit of ground water is cinnati, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
assumed to be 62.4 pcf. The soil properties used in Office of Surface Mining. 1998. West Virginia Oversight Re­
the slope stability analysis of valley fill at site3 are port: U. S. Department of Interior, Charleston Field Office.
Office of Surface Mining. 1999. An Evaluation of Approxi­
given below: mate Original Contour and Postmining Land Use in West
Virginia, West Virginia Oversight Report: U. S. Department
Parameter Spoil Natural soil of Interior, Charleston Field Office.
Yw 131.6 pcf 131.3 pcf Perloff, W. H, & Baron, W. 1976. Soil Mechanics: principles
27.5® 39® and applications. New York: Ronald Press Co.
0
White, M.A. & Barata, F. A. 1995. State-of-the-art in
C 0.19 tsf 0.16 tsf
mountaintop removal and contour mining. Mining Engi­
neering: 1111-1114.
The grid pattern used for site3 is shown in figure
12. The outslope configuration confirms to the
regulations, and the angle of the slope does agree
with the design profile. The minimum factor of
safety (FOS) of 2.92 for the most critical failure sur­
face is calculated using Bishop’s Simplified method

76
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

The m inim um total cost approach to optim um pit slope design

RA. Lilly
Western Australian School of Mines, Curtin University of Technology, Kalgoorlie, WA, Australia

ABSTRACT: In many large open pit mines, relatively small changes in slope angle usually result in corre­
sponding changes in project value that are measured in tens of millions of dollars. Most mining companies
select slope angles on the basis of a relatively arbitrary factor of safety. However, this approach does not pro­
vide a quantitative assessment of what the failure risk of the slope is and, therefore, does not permit the
evaluation of the penalty of failure on one hand, or conservative design on the other. Consequently, the deci­
sion to base a slope design on a particular factor of safety is most unlikely to yield the optimum economic
slope design.

1 RELIABILITY OF PIT SLOPES If, on the other hand, a limit equilibrium technique is
used to estimate slope stability, then Pf becomes the
The reliability (or probabilistic) approach to slope probability that the factor of safety (F) is less than
design has been in use for well over twenty years. unity. That is:
This is manifested in the published work of a num­
ber of researchers and practitioners, including Tang P f= P [F < l] (1.2)
& others (1976), Harr (1977 and 1987), Lilly (1982),
McMahon (1985), Chowdhury (1992), Christian & The reliability (R) of a mine slope is given by:
others (1994), Xu & Chowdhury (1999) and Xu &
others (2000), amongst many others. This approach R = 1 - Pf (1.3)
forms the basis for the economic analysis outlined in
this paper and, consequently, some background is R is interpreted as the probability that the slope
provided here for completeness. "would perform adequately for at least a specified
In a mine slope it may be quite tolerable for large period of time and under specified operating condi­
displacements to take place and for the slope to re­ tions" (Harr, 1987). In other words, reliability is the
main serviceable. However, this same statement may probability of the slope design being successful.
not be said for a slope adjacent to a major highway.
In this context, therefore, Harr (1987) has suggested 2 COSTS AND BENEFITS
that "failure designates the inability of a system to
perform its intended function. All systems fail Figure 1, which is based on a diagram published by
eventually. However, from an engineering point of Call (1992), schematically illustrates the changes in
view it is the survival time before failure that deter­ costs and benefits as slope angle increases.
mines whether the system was successful or not." As the pit slope angle increases, the stripping ra­
In quantitative terms, the probability of failure tio (waste : ore) decreases. This results in a decrease
(Pf) of a slope can be defined as the probability that in total operating cost per tonne of ore mined. In ore
some failure criterion is exceeded (Lilly, in prep). If bodies that are open at depth, the decrease in cost
the failure criterion is, for example, displacement (5) per tonne of ore mined usually means that pit depth
exceeding a critical level (5c), then: can increase until such time as the break-even strip­
ping ratio is again achieved. Thus, gross revenue is
Pf=P[5>5c] ( 1. 1) increased.

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 3 ESTIMATING COSTS OF SLOPE FAILURE

There are a number of potential costs associated

with a slope failure in an open pit mine. The relative
importance of each depends upon the size and loca­
tion of the event. These costs are discussed in turn.

3.1 Clean-up

There are circumstances in which a slope failure

may be left in place if it has or continues to have no
significant impact on the operation or life of the pit.
Such a situation may exist, for example, where a pit
design contains a large flat section within the slope
profile and where the slope above this flat section
fails after mining has progressed below this level. In
this situation, it may be prudent simply to leave the
failure mass resting on the flat so that the cost of
clean-up is zero.
S lo p e a n g le (d e g r e e s ) More commonly, however, the slope failure mass
needs to be cleaned up so that the production activi­
— ♦ - - • B e n e fits
ties within the pit can be returned to normal in as
■- S lo p e in sta b ility c o s ts short a time frame as possible. In relatively soft or
weak materials that do not require blasting, the unit
— N e t b e n e fit cost of this clean-up operation (that is, the cost per
cubic metre) may be similar to that of free-digging
the original bank material. However, the writer usu­
ally applies an efficiency factor (typically 70% to
80%) to allow for the fact that the failure mass may
Figure 1; Cost-benefit of changes in slope angle not present itself to the digging equipment in a fa­
vourable way, thus slowing down the process.
As a consequence of this, the net value of many Where the rock mass in which the failure occurs
pits, particularly those associated with precious met­ is strong and massive, clean up of the failed mass
als such as gold, is very sensitive to stripping ratio. can be fraught with difficulty. Very large blocks of
This means that the monetary benefits derived from relatively intact rock mass may be perched precari­
the project are sensitive to slope angle. For example, ously within the failure mass. In this scenario, it is
in the case of an open pit gold mine with which the conceivable that unit clean-up costs of the failed
author is involved as a consultant, a 1° increase in material may be two or more times those associated
overall slope angle adds almost $30 million of value with the in situ rock mass.
to the project.
However, as slope angle increases, there is gener­ 3.2 Slope re-formation
ally an increase in Pf and associated failure volume.
There are a number of costs associated with failed Depending on the failure mechanism, the failure
slopes, and these are discussed in detail in the next scarp itself (the back of the exposed failure surface)
section. may be relatively steep. If the failure mass is cleaned
In summary, therefore, a cost-benefit analysis, up, it is conceivable that further failures will propa­
such as that shown in Figure 1, requires that pit op­ gate behind the original failure scarp crest. This is
timisation, reserve estimation and gross revenue be particularly the case with rotational failures through
estimated for each of a number of slope configura­ weak (soil-like) or heavily jointed rock masses. In
tions. In parallel with the revenue calculation, an such cases, re-formation of the slope behind the fail­
estimate must also be made of the total cost of min­ ure surface must take place in parallel with the clean
ing each pit shell, including the cost of potential up process, typically as a top-down process.
slope failures associated with each slope configura­
tion.

78
 The costs of slope re-formation are often not that 3.4 Equipment redeployment
different from those associated with conventional
limits formation. However, the ideal cut-back width In addition to access problems associated with slope
is often narrower than the minimum mining width of failures, it is also important to remember that
the equipment at the mine. This means that either equipment will be utilised in the clean-up and cut­
specialised equipment needs to be brought in to un­ back process that would otherwise have been used in
dertake the work, or additional material must be re­ mine production. Where the slope failure location
moved during the cut-back to permit the mine’s and geometry are such that equipment cannot con­
conventional fleet to operate safety. In either case, tinue work in the pit anyway, then this issue is not as
additional costs are the outcome. significant. However, where a slope has failed at one
end of a large pit, for example, and production can
3.3 Haul road repair and re-access continue from other parts of the mine, production
cannot be expected to continue at the same pre­
Additional (consequential) costs are incurred where failure rate unless:
slope failure occurs in a section of the pit wall con­ • the mine has significantly more additional prime
taining a haul ramp. Where the ramp is the only ac­ equipment capacity than it actually needs (a very
cess into the pit, then there will be consequential rare phenomenon in modem open pit mines); or
losses in mine production caused by lack of access • additional equipment is mobilised at the opera­
to production benches. Where there is more than one tion to deal with the failure mass and the associ­
access into the pit, additional costs may be incurred ated cut-back.
in redeveloping temporary access to reach strategi­
cally important areas. Clearly, all of these cost sce­ 3.5 Unrecoverable ore
narios need to be evaluated when undertaking a de­
tailed cost analysis. It is not uncommon for pit wall failures to either
Failure could take place onto the haul ramp from partially or completely cover the ore body. If the
above, or failure could remove (or at least undercut) mine has a number of pits supplying ore to the proc­
the haul ramp from below. Whist both situations are ess plant, the consequences of ore burial may not be
serious, the former is the lesser of the two evils since that great. However, where the ore body in a single
access to the pit can usually be regained (albeit only pit operation is buried, or where a slope failure cov­
in part) relatively quickly. In addition, clean-up and ers a critically important part of the ore blend going
reformation can often take place while the ramp is in to the processing plant, then consequential costs can
use (provided common-sense risk and safety man­ become large since production ceases entirely until
agement principles are applied). However, there will the failure is remediated. Whilst the cost implica­
obviously be some disruption to truck haulage dur­ tions of this outcome may be similar to those relat­
ing the process because of the restricted width of the ing to loss of ramp access, this is a completely dif­
ramp and because cut-back operations are taking ferent and very serious scenario since it has the
place above certain parts of the ramp. The effects of capacity to close the mine.
this disruption can be included in the form of an ef­
ficiency factor, the consequential cost of the associ­ 3.6 Damage to equipment and infrastructure
ated marginal loss in production being the estimate
required. The cost associated with damage to or loss of
Where the pit slope failure undercuts part of a equipment working in the pit (and the potential for
key haul ramp, or where the failure mass includes injury to employees) at the time of the failure also
part of the haul ramp itself, considerably greater needs to be taken into consideration. There may also
consequential cost is involved. Either the pit remains be consequences for equipment and infrastructure at
unproductive until the entire wall (with its new ac­ the pit edge or infrastructure located in or on the pit
cess ramp) is re-formed or a completely new access wall. Where this is the case, the consequences of
is installed in some other part of the pit wall. In ei­ failure will be very much greater than those in other
ther case, issues relating to minimum mining width parts of the wall where no such infrastructure is pre­
and equipment efficiency come into play and need to sent. Some examples include:
be included in cost estimates, as do the consequen­ • decline portals (where these are located in or
tial costs of lost production. close to pit walls);
• in-wall ramps;

79