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Closing the loop - Recycling of automotive catalysts

Article in Metall · January 2007

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Metall-Forschung

Closing the loop – Recycling of automotive catalysts

Hagelüken, C. (1)

Catalysts for the purification of vehicle exhaust From the diagram it been equipped since the mid 1970s
gas contain the precious metals platinum (Pt), can also be seen that with catalysts and since many years
palladium (Pd) and rhodium (Rh). Between 1980 from 1993-1999 the every scrapped car contains a cata-
and 2006 a total of 3,500 tonnes of platinum explosion in demand lyst. Nowadays about one quarter of
group metals (PGM) were employed in automo- was almost exclusive- recycled PGMs derive from Europe
tive catalysts worldwide, of which around 1,650 ly met through the use (catalyst introduction since the late
tonnes were accounted for by palladium, 1,500 of palladium, whereas 1980s). Up to now, a total of about
tonnes by platinum and 330 tonnes by rhodium. in subsequent years 13 % of PGMs employed in automo-
Primary production of these metals amounted the trend was has- tive catalysts in the period 1980-
in the same period to over 8,300 tonnes, which tened by platinum 2006 have been covered by recy-
(diesel catalysts in cling. Recycling of automotive cata-
means that the automotive catalyst – as described
Europe). lysts offers not only economic, but
in detail in [1] – represents, with around 40 %,
Due to the value of also ecological benefits compared
the most important demand segment for PGMs. platinum group met- to primary production. Furthermore,
als, recycling makes particularly in Europe, where PGMs

W
ith the spread of auto- sense on purely economic grounds are not mined, the latest dramatic
motive catalysts and the and is hence already carried out. rise in the prices of PGMs (cf. [1])
trend in exhaust gas legis- Recovered precious metals are used focuses attention increasingly on the
lation, annual total PGM demand over and over – without a loss of issue of supply security.
for automotive catalysts has grown quality – in the manufacture of Various important aspects of catalyst
steadily from just under 35 tonnes in catalysts. The worldwide share of recycling are explained below: mate-
1980 to 292 tonnes in 2006 (Fig. 1). gross demand for PGMs for auto- rials flow / recycling chain, market
The useful life of a catalyst is nowa- motive catalysts that is covered by structure and the trend in recycling
days in most cases the same as that recycling1 amounted in 2006 to volume, collection logistics, tech-
of a vehicle, and this means that the 19 % for platinum and palladium nical processes for PGM-recovery,
strong increase in demand for PGMs and 18 % for rhodium. Recycled commercial processes, precious metal
in the last ten years has hardly been PGMs first came mainly from North cycle and ecology. Here, the focus is
of relevance to the recycling market. America and Japan, where cars have on Europe.
After deducting previous recycling
quantities (about 440 tonnes) and
losses through non-recycled cata-
lysts, it can be assumed that some
2,500 tonnes (of the above-menti-
oned total of 3,500 tonnes of PGMs)
are still in use in vehicles equipped
with automotive catalysts. The term
„rolling platinum mine“ derived from
this situation, and this quantity of
PGMs – around five times as large as
annual primary production – in fact
represents an important source of
supply for the future, provided it can
be exploited with efficient collection
and recycling processes. This is par- Figure 1: Gross demand for platinum, palladium and rhodium for
ticularly the case for Europe, which automotive catalysts worldwide (figures according to [2])
has no PGM mines at its disposal and
where the later introduction of cata- 1
Here, the so-called „static recycling quota“ [4] [5] is involved, which provides only limited in-
lysts led to an even greater increase formation on the efficiency of recycling (since gross demand is also related to the current point in
in demand (Fig. 2). Until 1993, as can time). In the case of products with long useful lifes in highly dynamic markets, the more important
be seen, the initially predominant Pt: dimension is the „dynamic recycling quota“ („which share of PGMs employed in the manufacture
of catalysts x years ago will be recovered at the end of a catalyst‘s useful life?“).
Rh loading ratio in Europe was 5:1.

24 · 61. Jahrgang · 1-2/2007

 Recycling

0.9 - 1 kg, and it is much lower in

many other European countries due to
the greater share of vehicles with lower
engine size (and catalyst volume). In
North America, where engine size is
larger on average, the ceramic weight
per scrap-car catalyst is generally cor-
respondingly larger [5] [6].
What is important is that catalysts,
which are today available for recycling,
reflect developments during the last 15
years, with a naturally larger share
of older catalysts in Europe with the
„classic“ Pt/Rh ratio of 5:1 (loading:
30-50 g/ft³). Here, palladium played a
Figure 2: Gross demand for platinum, palladium and rhodium for subordinate role for a long time, but,
automotive catalysts in Europe (figures according to [2]) in the meantime, it has gained ground.
In North America and in the Far East,

Components and types of Sub-goal Possible reason for PGM losses

catalysts Complete catalyst Vehicle is not recycled
collection
Platinum group metals, as the most
valuable components of a catalyst, Vehicle-export to areas without an adequate recycling
infrastructure
have only a negligible share in terms
of weight. They are applied, very finely Catalyst is not removed from car wrack before the
distributed in the so-called „washcoat“, shredder
to a ceramic or metal support mate- Catalyst is removed but sorted into the wrong fraction
rial. The aim of recycling is the most (e.g. steel)
complete recovery of PGMs possible, Catalyst is removed, but (presently) not recycled (hoar-
with the basic requirement that other ding; use as spare part)
components of the catalytic converter Complete collection In-use losses of PGMs due to thermal or mechanical
– steel housing and supports – are also of the PGM-con- damage, caused e.g. by improper maintenance (misfi-
taining catalyst re; broken/loose suspension of exhaust pipe), inappro-
recycled, and that the recycling chain
substrate/washcoat priate use, bad road conditions, faulty catalytic conver-
as a whole is sensibly structured in ters (canning; calibration of substrate, expanding matte
ecological terms. and housing; layout design of transition pipe, cone,
Design, catalyst volume and pre- catalyst)
cious metal content per catalyst differ PGM-losses during collection, transport, storage of
according to car manufacturer, region recycling catalysts (fractures of ceramic, dust, flaking
of application, engine type and year of washcoat from metal substrates)
of production. The weight of catalyst PGM-losses during decanning due to insufficient
ceramics ranges from about 0.6 to 4.5 decanning devices or untrained workers (incomplete
kg per car, frequently distributed over removal of ceramic from housing, adhesion to separa-
ted steel parts, inadequate handling of dust, improper
several converters. Precious-metal work hygiene)
loading – related to the weight of the
Complete PGM PGM losses into slags, refractories, offgas or dust from
catalyst support (including washcoat) –
recovery in me- pyrometallurgical recovery
lies between 0.1 % and 0.5 %, whereby tallurgical refining
platinum, palladium and rhodium can stage
occur in widely-differing ratios, with PGM losses into effluents, sludge or leaching residues
great fluctuations according to con- from hydrometallurgical recovery
struction year as well as between PGM losses into other output metals
Europe, North America and the Far
Transparency and PGM losses due to inattention, faulty weighing/
East. With a ceramic converter, the reliability of the sampling/analysis; theft/fraud; faulty organization
weight of the coated support, related to recycling chain
the weight of the converter (excluding
pipes), amounts to about 15 - 20 %, Table 1: Demands on an optimized recycling chain for automotive
the average support weight per vehicle catalysts and possible sources of loss
in a scrap-car catalyst in Germany is

· 61. Jahrgang · 1-2/2007 25

Metall-Forschung

on the other hand, loading of recy- Possible sources of loss, which have to ly of no importance, and, as displayed
cled catalysts is generally much lower be optimized for these partial objec- in the figure, cross-border materials
than in Europe. Nowadays, however, tives, are detailed in Table 1. flow occurs at all levels of the recy-
PGM loadings are often very low in The legal framework and its practical cling chain (in both directions).
retrofit catalysts (aftermarket), also in application, organization and logistics,
Europe. Precious-metal concentration applied technology and not least the Collecting points for recycling
and ratios today vary much more than experience and seriousness of busi- catalysts
a few years ago. From EU I to EU IV nesses in the recycling chain all have
the variety of different catalyst load- an influence on the achievable recy- Small quantities of production waste
ings has increased considerably, a fac- cling quota of the whole chain. For the arise in catalyst development and
tor that will be increasingly reflected process as a whole it is irrelevant where coating, in canning as well as at
in recycling catalysts. Catalysts of losses occur. As will be shown, the car manufacturers (development and
the same size can have completely greatest transparency today is found in testing laboratories, crash tests etc.).
different precious-metal loadings (20 PGM refining, where input and output Here, by definition, new catalysts are
g/ft³ - 200 g/ft³) and PGM combina- flows are precisely analysed. Depend- involved and loadings correspond to
tions (for example, palladium-based or ing on process technology, yields of the latest state of catalyst develop-
platinum-based). In assessing loading platinum und palladium of the order ment. Here, PGM recovery rates are
options at current PGM prices (with a of 95-98 % are achieved, which means very high.
large price spread between platinum that PGM losses are very low. Great During the period of use of a car, dam-
and palladium), the result is an increas- importance is nevertheless attached to aged catalysts are replaced in work-
ing spread in the monetary value of an this step, although other steps, such as shops and garages and fed into recy-
old catalyst of up to a factor of 10 with collection or decanning, which involve cling, generally with negligible losses.
the same catalyst volume. This will considerably higher PGM losses, are At authorized workshops, as a result
have the effect that even specialists of much greater relevance than PGM of warranty cases with recent cars and
will no longer be able to assess the refining. good customer relations, there is a
probable precious metal content and larger share of relatively new recycling
value of a recycling catalyst by mere The business chain in cata- catalysts. At independent and chain
visual inspection. It is to be expected lyst recycling workshops, on the other hand, older
that this will lead in the medium term catalyst types are generally handled.
to a fundamental change in business The basic business chain is displayed In the scrapping process an end-of-
practices in the recycling chain. in Fig. 3. Four main levels have to life vehicle passes along a multi-stage
be distinguished: the main collecting chain, from the receiving point (which
Demands on an optimized points for recycling catalysts, collec- can also be a workshop) to the car
recycling chain tion logistics, catalyst decanning as recycler / dismantler and the shred-
well as PGM refining. Individual levels der. If the shredding business has not
In order to achieve the recycling goal can be subdivided vertically accord- at the same time also taken delivery
of the best possible recovery of PGMs ing to local circumstances. Data for of the old vehicle, the catalyst has in
from automotive catalysts, the follow- individual levels relates to Germany, most cases already been removed.2
ing partial objectives – assigned to the but increasing concentration along the With the exception of vehicles dam-
individual steps of the recycling chain chain basically applies also to other aged in accidents, recycling catalysts
– are important: countries. National borders are actual- from end-of-life vehicles are types
Optimum exploitation of recy-
cling potential; that is, the most
complete collection possible of
catalysts that are theoretically
available.
Optimum separation and recovery
of catalyst supports / washcoats
containing PGMs from catalytic
converters.
Lowest possible losses in the
refining (that is, recovery) of
platinum, palladium and rho-
dium from supports / washcoats
containing PGMs. Fig. 3: Business chain in the recycling of automotive catalysts
A high level of transparency and 2
In the Disposal of End-of-Life Vehicles Act of 21 June 2002, the catalyst is defined as a
reliability throughout the recy- removable part, which, together with operating fluids, tires and batteries has to be removed
cling chain. before shredding.

26 · 61. Jahrgang · 1-2/2007

 Recycling

that were manufactured more than ten erally used for decanning. First of all, tion, Umicore has had recourse for
years earlier. Here, the „classic“ Pt/Rh remaining pipes are cut off, and then many years to the „Catalyst Alliance“
catalyst is still frequently encoun- the converter is split in the middle. („Kat-Verbund“), the European logis-
tered. In Germany, many scrapped Since the housing is pressed together tics network that it set up together
cars have not been equipped with a on the cutting side, the converter is with its partners.
catalyst. There is a further delaying turned 90°, a second cut is made and In recent years, unfortunately, the cat-
effect: Cars that were equipped with the housing opened once again. The alyst recycling business has attracted
catalysts in Germany in the period ceramics, which have been broken in a number of dubious businesses. This
from 1985 to 1993 were predomi- the process, can then be discharged is favoured by the relatively high
nantly top- and middle-grade cars, into a container. In order to work (precious metal) value of an old
especially in the early years. These efficiently as well as for the protec- catalyst (which even specialists have
tend to have not only a longer life, tion of workers, a good extraction difficulty in assessing without analy-
but also greater attraction for export, unit and a safety guard to prevent sis), the spread of cash transactions
and their catalysts are therefore avail- injuries in the decanning process are in scrap trading, fluctuating PGM
able for recycling much later or – in indispensable. With inadequate proc- prices combined with possibilities for
the case of export outside Europe ess technology or a lack of experi- speculation as well as intentionally
– not at all. Catalysts from vehicles ence, considerable PGM losses occur, non-transparent materials flow along
damaged in accidents are often sold which is why this step should be car- the recycling chain. Triggered off by
as spare parts and – where the geom- ried out very carefully. the latest price rally for PGMs, there
etry matches – used in other vehicles, Metal catalysts are sorted out before has been an increase in theft, fraudu-
which, from the point of view of decanning and treated separately. The lent sales of „recycling catalysts“
efficient emission reduction, must be cone is cut off as close as possible to (for instance, the conscious sale of
regarded as highly questionable. the monolith, and is then crushed in inferior catalysts or catalysts with-
a special shredder or hammer mill. out precious metals), manipulation of
Collection logistics and decanning During this process, the washcoat valuations and other criminal deal-
containing PGMs is flaked off from ings. These practices give rise, in part,
A sensibly co-ordinated division of the steel foil and separated from the to considerable distortion of competi-
labour is a prerequisite for the eco- steel fraction by screening, magnetic tion among serious businesses, and,
nomic recycling of automotive cata- separation and air separation. The as described below, they lead also
lysts. In Germany, with just under concentration after „decanning“ is to inefficiencies and increased PGM
60,000 workshops and garages and in this case much higher, and the losses in catalyst recycling.
about 1,000 car recyclers, there are PGM content is generally three to
a large number of potential collect- five times as great as that of ceramic Recycling activities of car
ing points. Here, logistics systems catalysts, since the PGM-free support manufacturers
fulfil an important function. Various, material is not included. Decisive for
mostly medium-sized firms are active the resultant quality is the degree to Car manufacturers on the one hand
in this area, and, apart from the pur- which the washcoat can be separated dispose of small quantities of pro-
chase and transport of catalysts, some from the foil. Washcoat losses, which duction waste, and on the other
of them also undertake preparation can arise when washcoat is caught in hand have access to their authorized
(decanning) for PGM refining. Just a the support foil or through the adhe- workshops. Most European car manu-
few years ago, firms offering specific sion of PGM dust to the steel fraction, facturers have in the meantime set
disposal services played an important should be minimized through the up internal return systems to partly
role, taking on not only catalysts design of the plant and conscientious secure their supply of platinum group
but also other recycling materials. In work. metals from recycled catalysts. This
the meantime, firms specializing in Despite the impression that is often provides the opportunity of a direct
catalysts cover the bulk of the market, conveyed, most of the catalyst logis- PGM cycle over a precious-metal
where the required specialist knowl- tics/decanning firms operating in weight account.
edge and the specific features of the Europe are not recyclers of platinum In many cases, authorized workshops
business are decisive. metals in the strict sense. The actual make use of existing internal logis-
The collected catalysts are disman- recovery of platinum metals is carried tics for replaceable parts and return
tled (decanned), which means that out by just a few refining companies old catalysts to central warehouses,
the ceramics containing PGMs are worldwide who are active in PGM where they are handed on for further
separated from the steel housing. refining. Umicore3 is one of the few processing. In order to ensure that
The steel scrap is most of the time PGM refiners with their own logistics authorized workshops in fact return
directly put on the market and the and decanning activities. In addi- the recycling catalyst and do not sell
ceramics handed over for PGM refin- 3
it to third parties, a deposit is often
In 2003, the company took over the former
ing. Hydraulic shears – in the USA precious metal division of Degussa, which it levied on the replacement catalyst,
so-called guillotine shears – are gen- integrated into its own recycling activities. which is then reimbursed when the

· 61. Jahrgang · 1-2/2007 27

Metall-Forschung

old catalyst is returned. This deposit group metals. Finally, a number of catalyst. Since 1 January 1993, cata-
– as in the case of the classic deposit primary producers of PGMs attempt lyst-equipped cars (with spark-igni-
on bottles – is irrespective of the pre- to maintain their dominant position tion engines) have de facto been
cious-metal content of the old cata- in PGM supply through the recovery obligatory throughout the EU. The
lyst and serves the sole purpose of of secondary PGMs from recycling same applies since 1 January 1997 to
directing materials flow in the desired catalysts. cars with diesel engines. At the end
direction. of 2005, the park of catalyst-equipped
Beyond their own authorized work- Supply of recycling catalysts cars in EU countries is expected to
shops it is very difficult for car manu- in Europe be over 150 million. 11.6 million
facturers to maintain direct access to vehicles are taken off the road every
recycling catalysts. This is particu- Compared to North America, the recy- year in the EU (which may not be
larly so with respect to the end-of-life cling volume in Europe is still low. In equated with the 7.7 million vehicles
area, which is increasingly important. 2005, the total quantity of catalyst that are scrapped in Europe), of which
Large car recyclers and dismantling ceramics (including production waste – also in Germany – only a part are
centres are generally licensed by sev- in canning) amounted to about 5,000 equipped with catalysts.
eral car manufacturers, and the sort- tonnes (with about 5 tonnes of plati- A regular mandatory exhaust emission
ing of catalysts according to car make num, 5 tonnes of palladium and 1 test was introduced in Germany – also
requires considerable effort. In order tonne of rhodium). However, with for catalyst-equipped cars – on 1
to guarantee a high return quota 187 million registered cars in the EU December 1993 to check the function-
for scrap catalysts, a dual collection (as at 31. 12. 2002) and exhaust gas ing of catalysts and lambda probes.
system will be necessary in future, in legislation in force since 1993 in all Previously, the number of identi-
which the automobile industry focus- EU states, catalyst recycling will be fied malfunctioning systems was very
es on its authorized workshops and of greater importance in Europe in low (defects, as a rule, are generally
catalyst recycling companies together the future. attributable to improper use, mechan-
with PGM refiners cover other sourc- Here, Germany plays a pioneering ical damage, misfiring, overheating
es of old catalysts. role. With 45 million cars, Germany or contamination through lead or
has, on the one hand, the largest car sulphur in petrol). Similar tests have
PGM refining park; and from the end of the 1980s, been introduced in the meantime in
encouraged by tax incentives, for the most EU countries. Catalysts replaced
Input materials for PGM refining first time in Europe cars equipped during the life of a car (for instance,
are decanned catalyst ceramics and with catalysts were registered in large as a result of such tests) represent
the washcoat that has been stripped numbers. Other countries with early additional recycling potential besides
from metal catalysts. Processes for catalyst registrations, such as Swit- those from scrap cars.
homogenization and pre-concentra- zerland, Austria, Sweden and the Further factors influencing recy-
tion as well as for the separation and Netherlands, together have a total cling volume are vehicle life, effec-
refining of platinum metals require park of about 20 million cars; in tive recycling quota and exports of
special analytical, metallurgical and France, the UK and Italy (with a total catalyst-equipped cars, particular to
chemical process know-how, con- of 80 million cars), catalyst-equipped eastern European, the Middle East,
siderable capital investment and an cars have started to play an appreci- and African countries.
infrastructure adapted to high pre- able role only from 1993 onwards.
cious metal values. As a rule, the Germany therefore still occupies a Theory and practice – recyc-
treatment of automotive catalysts is key position in catalyst recycling. ling volume has remained
only profitable in combination with The quantity of production waste far behind expectations
other materials containing PGMs, from various stages of catalyst manu-
since otherwise the critical quan- facture will hardly increase in the The actual volume of catalyst recy-
tity, especially for purification (sepa- coming years, since the growing cling in Europe has been and con-
ration and refining of PGMs), is number of units will be compensated tinues to be greatly over-estimated.
not achieved. Umicore is the only by a decrease in the waste quota. Early forecasts spoke of 1,000 tonnes
company in Europe that is active Of much greater importance from of catalyst ceramics in 1995 and
throughout the recycling chain. In a quantitative point of view is the 8,000 tonnes in the year 2000. In
North America and Japan multi- recycling of old catalysts that turn reality, the situation is quite differ-
stage recycling paths exist. Some up at the end of the life of a catalyst- ent. There will be an increase in the
companies only carry out homog- equipped car. In Germany, some tens coming years, but, even in Germany,
enization and the pyrometallurgical of thousands of catalyst-equipped all scrapped cars will be equipped
pre-concentration of the material; cars were first registered in 1985, with a catalyst only around the year
the concentrates produced are then and the number increased continu- 2015, and the total volume of catalyst
handed over to third parties for the ously in subsequent years. Today, ceramics for recycling will then be
refining and purification of platinum every new car is equipped with a much lower than originally assumed.

28 · 61. Jahrgang · 1-2/2007

 Recycling

The research project on „PGM

Materials Flow“

There are a number of reasons for

this disappointing development,
which have already been dealt with
in previous publications [7]. In a
joint research project4 carried out
by Umicore and Öko-Institut between
2001 and 2004, the materials flow of
PGMs from automotive catalysts was
analysed in detail, shortcomings and
recycling potentials identified, propos-
als for optimization suggested as well
as realistic figures deduced for future
quantities of PGMs recovered from
automotive catalysts and the resulting
ecological consequences [4, 5]. Fig. 4: Method for calculating the materials flow of PGMs with auto-
Fig. 4 displays the method selected motive catalysts [5]
for the investigation. A fundamental
variable in the determination of PGM selected approach allows differentiat- total vehicle park, age-distribution
quantities from catalyst recycling is ed consideration of vehicle segments of deregistered vehicles as well as
the total number of old catalysts the- and takes into account, above all, deregistered vehicles. These data series
oretically available for recycling. This considerable shifts in PGM loading in (Fig. 5) describe not only previous
theoretical potential can be calculated absolute terms over a period of time but also expected developments and
with the help of statistical data. Fur- and the ratio of PGMs to each other are deduced from TREMOD [10] and
ther information was gained from an (for example, platinum to palladium). statistics of the Kraftfahrt-Bundesamt
empirical investigation of the recy- Compared to conventional calcula- [11].
cling market. The actual flow of mate- tions on the basis of average PGM The fundamental conclusions are:
rials from catalyst recycling can be loadings, the results are considerably Due to different PGM loadings
deduced from statistical and empirical more reliable. The methodology and the increasing share of diesel
data. Recycling quantities ascertained results are detailed in the final report vehicles will have an influence
in this way initially cover only quan- of the research project [4, 5]. on Pt/Pd/Rh ratios in recycling.
tities of catalysts. In a further step, Approximately 90 % of all vehi-
the calculation model was extended Theoretical recycling potential cles in 2002 had a catalyst. By
with specific data on PGM loading 2010, just about 100 % of the
according to engine type (spark-igni- The main statistical series are as park of vehicles will be cata-
tion, diesel), emission category (EU I, follows: park of vehicles, share of lyst-equipped. The development
EU II ...) and the cubic capacity of the catalyst-equipped vehicles in the in other EU countries lags 3-4
catalyst-equipped vehicle. Recourse
could be made in this respect to
the extensive Umicore database on
the PGM loading of specific vehicle
models, which was compared with
data from publications [8, 9] and the
figures of another catalyst manufac-
turer. As a result, PGM quantities in
absolute terms, and in particular the
share of platinum, palladium and
rhodium in total quantities, could
be expressed in concrete terms. The
4
In the project „Materials flow of platinum
group metals – System analysis and measures
for sustainable optimization of the materials
flow of platinum group metals“, besides
automotive catalysts, other areas of PGM
application were also examined in detail. The
project was supported by the Federal Mini- Fig. 5: Interpretation of registration statistics for Germany [5]
stry for Education and Research (BMBF).

· 61. Jahrgang · 1-2/2007 29

Metall-Forschung

years, because legislation was million old cars are scrapped recycling in Germany. A fur-
enacted later and average vehicle [12, 13]5. Comparison of this fig- ther 4 % were not removed from
life is often somewhat longer. ure with the 3.3 million vehicles scrapped cars but passed through
The average life of cars in Ger- deleted from statistics in 2002 the shredding process and were
many is about 12 years (until indicates that about 60 % of thus lost to recycling for good.
deletion from vehicle statistics; scrapped cars were not available As a result, of 1.7 million dereg-
when a car is exported, actual for recycling in Germany. This is istered catalyst-equipped cars,
life up to scrapping is much a substantial loss, not only for approximately 550,000 – or
longer). Approximately 30 % of catalyst recycling but also for 33 % – remained, which were
vehicles have a life of 15 years scrap-car recycling in general. fed into further PGM recycling
and longer. In order to accu- As can be seen in Fig. 7, the by collectors and decanners.
rately reflect the real situation, aforementioned phenomenon Added to this in Germany were
recourse was made in calculating applies, to a somewhat lesser around 0.3 million replaced
the numbers of catalyst-equipped extent, also to other EU coun- catalysts, so that real recycling
cars waiting for deregistration tries. The total number of vehi- volume in Germany in 2001/02
not to the average life but rather cles deregistered in the EU since amounted to around 750 tonnes
to the actual age-distribution of the year 2000 per annum is 11.6 of catalyst ceramics.
these vehicles. million; but in the same period In general, published recycling vol-
For the year 2001 the result only 7.7 million vehicles have umes have to be interpreted cau-
is a theoretical total of about been scrapped in the EU [12]. tiously. Problems often arise in the
1.9 million deregistered catalyst- The remaining 4 million vehicles adoption of theoretically established
equipped cars. This is equivalent represent „unidentified losses“ data without cross-checking, in dou-
to 63 % of the roughly 3 million in European countries. It can ble counting (taking into account data
deregistered cars in the same therefore be assumed that a large from alleged PGM refiners, who actu-
year. For the following years the proportion of deregistered but ally only collect and decan and then
number of deregistered catalyst- not recycled cars in Germany supply refiners) and in the tendency
equipped cars is calculated as fol- were also not recycled in other of certain market participants to over-
lows: 2003 = 2.5 million (73 %); EU countries. estimate their own volumes [4].
2006 = 3.0 million (85 %); 2012 Approximately 4 % of catalysts
= 3.5 million (95 %). were either sold by recyclers as Losses
spare parts or directly fitted into
Actual recycling volume used cars and, as a result, are at At present, a larger part of theoretical
least temporarily withheld from recycling potential cannot be realized.
These theoretical figures are much
higher than the quantity of recycling
catalysts actually available. A fore-
cast, which relies only on theoretical
recycling potential, will lead to con-
siderable over-estimation of quantities
actually available. For this reason,
theoretical and empirical figures were
compared in a field study, in which
data was obtained from all relevant
participants in the recycling chain. The
result is displayed in Fig. 6, where the
total number of all catalyst-equipped
cars is set at 100 % and subsequent
percentage data for catalysts relates to
this base figure of 100 %.
In practice, only about 50 %
of end-of-life vehicles had a
catalyst, which was much less
than the theoretically established
figure. Fig. 6: Flow of catalyst equipped end-of-life vehicles (ELV) in Germany
Even though no official statistics 2001/02 [5]
are available, various investiga- 5
The ELV directive now requires the monitoring of scrap cars per country. The 2004 results
tions come to the conclusion for Germany were even much worse than expected - only 538,765 cars have been scrapped,
that each year about 1.1 to 1.7 out of a total of over 3 million deregistrations.

30 · 61. Jahrgang · 1-2/2007

 Recycling

to be „unlimited“, little importance is

attached to the exhaust system or the
catalyst in particular, ,and the main
thing is that the car can be driven.
Up to now, only the materials flow of
catalyst-equipped vehicles has been
considered. The materials flow of old
vehicles is, however, not identical in
quantitative terms to the materials
flow of precious metals from automo-
tive catalysts. The following factors
apply:
As a rule, the greater the cubic
capacity of a vehicle, the greater
catalyst volume and precious
metal content.
Middle- and high-end vehicles
Fig. 7: Deregistered and recycled vehicles in Europe [14] frequently have greater specific
loadings of precious metals (that
is, PGM content per catalyst vol-
The greatest losses occur, not in, but (UK), exhaust emission test – only ume).
rather prior to the recycling chain. In very small losses occur during use. The first vehicles in Germany
this context, only those flows are con- With inadequate maintenance, bad to be equipped with catalysts
sidered that actually result in losses. road conditions as well as a lack belonged to the middle- and top-
The export of catalysts, for instance of awareness and control, however, grade segment. These are often
from Germany or Europe to another heavy losses of catalyst ceramics con- driven longer than low-grade
region, where efficient PGM refining taining PGMs can occur (due to mis- cars and are often exported.
is carried out, is not a loss. firing, damage through jolts or blows, The conclusion is that losses of pre-
defective exhaust pipe suspension cious metals are proportionally larger
Losses prior to the recycling chain
etc.). These conditions apply particu- than vehicle losses. High-end cars, in
The largest loss results from exports larly to Africa and eastern countries, particular, with their larger precious
to Africa, Eastern Europe and other where not only exhaust gas legislation metal content in catalysts, are system-
remoter regions. The number of Ger- but also an efficient recycling infra- atically withdrawn from recycling in
man car exports in 2004 was 2,5 structure is lacking. This means that in Europe [5].
million (of which, in 2001, around 1 these countries heavy operating losses
PGM losses within the recycling
million were equipped with catalysts), of PGMs will in fact occur, and that
chain
and at least 4 million from Western catalyst recycling at the end of a car‘s
Europe as a whole. In many neigh- life is unlikely. At the same time, in Possible losses of PGMs are listed in
bouring Eastern European countries, many of these countries car life tends Table 1. In Fig. 8 they are displayed
awareness of catalyst recycling has
grown strongly, not least due to the
attractive price for old catalysts, but
many old cars wander – in their „third
life“ – still further east to Asia. In
addition, for a number of years there
have been huge exports of old vehi-
cles to Africa. Since, in this case, it is
primarily middle- and top-grade cars
with relatively large PGM loadings
that are affected, one has to reckon on
the whole with a considerable influ-
ence on the PGM balance.
It can be assumed that a large pro-
portion of these old-car exports will
in fact lead later to PGM losses, due,
above all, to operating conditions. In
the case of modern cars with efficient
maintenance and official tests – MOT Fig. 8: Main steps and PGM losses in the catalyst recycling chain [5]

· 61. Jahrgang · 1-2/2007 31

Metall-Forschung

along the recycling chain. The largest so that dust is collected and can Materials flow of PGMs in the recy-
influence partly results from inexpert also be fed into PGM recycling. cling of automotive catalysts as well
handling during collection, logistics Since decanning is a dry process, as the resulting losses are summa-
and decanning. small losses of PGMs – for exam- rized in Fig. 9. Percentage data relates
The non-removal of catalysts ple, dust residues in the catalyst to 100 % PGMs in the automotive
from old vehicles is not in line housing (that is recycled as Fe catalyst.6 The result is sobering: only
with the new EU Directive on scrap) – cannot be avoided. In around 30 % of recycling potential in
End-of-Life Vehicles and should this process step, too, PGM losses Germany is currently realized. Fur-
occur less often in the future. of up to 5 % are assumed, which ther quantities of PGMs from exports
Certain catalysts that are fitted again depends on the profession- can, in principle, be recycled abroad
close to the engine, however, alism of decanning. or returned to Germany, but it is
might be overlooked (especially Homogenization and repre- unlikely, for the reasons already men-
when an underbody catalyst is sentative sampling of the mate- tioned, that significant quantities will
also present). rial takes place, mostly for the really enter the recycling chain [5].
PGM losses can occur with dam- first time, at the PGM refiner.
Verification of the plausibility of
aged catalysts, where ceramic Accounts are settled with the
losses
pieces or dust fall out of the supplier of catalyst ceramics on
catalyst housing. Such losses are the basis of the determined PGM A top-down approach was selected to
possible in common workshop content. Depending on the proc- verify the plausibility of results. For
handling of catalysts, where ess technology, the experience of this purpose, a simplified dynamic
catalysts are thrown into gitter- the refiner and also the quality approach was chosen to ascertain the
boxes, repeatedly reloaded and of catalyst ceramics, a yield of recycling quota. The base is provided
transported as well as some- 95–98 % in the case of platinum by statistical data on PGM demand
times exposed to wind and rain. and palladium and 80–85 % with and recycling volume for car cata-
Monolith dust generally has a rhodium – related to the whole lysts according to region [2, 3]. From
PGM content that is two- to refining process – is achieved. this, gross demand for PGMs for car
three-times higher than that of Since the refining process is catalysts in Europe between 1988 and
the solid monolith, because the tracked by analysis, reliable data 1990 was compared with quantities
precious-metal coating in the on PGM yields is available. The recovered from car catalyst recycling
„washcoat“ is on the surface of whole refining process has been in the period 2000 - 2002. Assuming
the support material and this sur- optimized over the years, and an average life of 12 years, a dynam-
face material is disproportionately further improvement in yields is ic recycling quota of only 32 %
present in dust. Correspondingly therefore very difficult to achieve emerges (38 % in the case of a 13-
high losses can therefore occur and, as far as total yield is con- year useful life), which is of the same
through the inexpert handling cerned, much less relevant than order as results previously deter-
of catalysts. On the basis of field optimization of the preliminary mined for Germany with a bottom-up
tests, a PGM loss of the order of steps. approach. It has to be borne in mind
5 % is assumed from removal of
the catalyst from the scrap car up
to delivery of the catalyst to the
decanner. The shorter and more
professional the recycling chain
the higher the chance of keeping
such losses to a minimum. Pres-
ently, however, too many parties
are involved in the recycling
chain. Furthermore, payment for
scrap catalysts is mostly on a
per piece basis, and so long as
no visible damage occurs the
incentive for cautious handling
of catalysts is negligible.
With the opening of the cata-
lyst at the decanner, the ceramic
monolith normally falls apart Fig. 9: Distribution of PGM flow and losses for catalysts from deregi-
and dust develops. Professional stered cars in Germany [5]
decanning units are equipped 6
For instance, in the refining process an average loss of 1% is shown (this is equivalent to
with adequate dust extractors, 3% of the input of 30% in the refining process).

32 · 61. Jahrgang · 1-2/2007

 Recycling

that published recycling quantities the recycling chain itself the same
also include PGMs from replaced losses are assumed as for catalysts
catalysts (whereas these were hardly from scrapped cars. The result is a
of importance for gross demand in dynamic recycling quota of 89 % for
1988-1990). This means that there platinum / palladium and 77 % for
would be an even lower dynamic rhodium.
recycling quota for PGMs solely from The substantial losses of PGMs prior to
scrap catalysts. At a global level the and within the recycling chain, which
picture is not much better, showing, were identified by the research project,
with the same assumptions concern- were previously hardly perceived on
ing useful life, recycling quotas of this scale. Different forecasts, also
between 45 % and 49 %. The global from experienced precious-metal ana-
figures are heavily dominated by lysts, predicted a large secondary Fig. 10: PGM recycling potential and
North America, where the recycling supply of PGMs from car catalyst actually expected quantities with
market for automotive catalysts has recycling in the future. A recovered a constant recycling quota (ELVs +
attained much higher maturity than quantity of around 100 tonnes of replaced catalysts) [5]
that in Europe. In North America just palladium and 35 tonnes of plati-
about every scrapped car is equipped num from car catalysts was already
with a catalyst, although the dynamic expected in 2008 [15, 16]. Based on
recycling quota, at around 50 %, an average catalyst life of 10 years,
remains unsatisfactory. of the 150 tonnes of palladium used
All in all, the recycling quota deter- worldwide in 1998 in car catalysts
mined for Germany by means of top- 65 % would be recovered - according
down comparison can be confirmed to these forecasts - as secondary pal-
[5]. ladium. In the light of insights gained
in the project, a recycling quota of
Forecast of recycling potential this order is absolutely unrealistic. In
and recovered PGMs the case of platinum, with an input
of 55 tonnes in 1998 the predicted 35 Fig. 11: Coverage of gross demand
Far-reaching consequences for the tonnes of secondary production from for PGM through recycling (excluding
future supply of secondary PGMs car catalysts would correspond to a replaced catalysts, with a constant
from automotive catalysts are the recycling quota of 60 %. The main recycling quota) [5]
result. In Fig. 10, PGM potential from errors in the study on which this fore-
vehicle deregistration is compared cast is based concern the average-life
with expected recycling quantities. If approach (used instead of a distribu-
the present poor dynamic recycling tion curve), the equalisation of vehicle
quota cannot be improved, the gap deregistration and scrapping (whereby
between the two curves will become assumed average life is too short), as
ever larger. From a potential of more well as underestimation of the influ-
than 20 tonnes of PGMs in the year ence of exports and losses within the
2020 in Germany, just less than 7 recycling chain. Great importance was
tonnes would actually be recovered attached to the EU ELV Directive with
from recycling. its prescribed high recycling quotas,
The chance of covering a large share although they have in praxis little Fig. 12: Coverage of gross demand for
of future PGM supply from recycling relevance for PGMs from catalysts PGMs through recycling of replaced
would then be lost. In Fig. 11, gross [5]. As a result of the highly detailed catalysts [5]
demand for PGMs, recycling quanti- analysis of statistics and data-bases in
ties of PGMs (from ELV- and replaced the research project, as well as close
catalysts) and resulting net require- links to recycling practice, a more tas can be attained also with long-
ments for the equipping of new vehi- realistic forecast could be made now life products. A typical example is
cles are displayed. for the first time. the heterogeneous process catalyst
The picture for replaced catalysts is used in oil refining or in the chemi-
much more favourable (Fig. 12), since Direct and indirect recycling cal industry (Fig. 13), where, over
in this case there are no exports and cycles the product life cycle as a whole,
industrial structures are established. PGM recovery rates of over 90 % are
The replaced catalysts are collected Comparison with other applications attained.
efficiently from workshops and chan- of platinum group metals shows that The decisive difference concerns the
nelled into the recycling chain. For much higher dynamic recycling quo- nature of the cycle process. With oil

· 61. Jahrgang · 1-2/2007 33

Metall-Forschung

catalysts, a „direct cycle“ exists (also

referred to as „closed loop“) between
the oil industry and other profession-
ally operating businesses. In the case
of car catalysts – as with electronics
applications – the industrial cycle is
interrupted by private users and – at
the beginning of the recycling chain
– non-industrial parties, and here the
term „indirect cycle“ or „open loop“
was introduced [4, 5]. The result is a
series of consequences, which lead as
a whole to unsatisfactory recycling
quotas. In Figs. 14 and 15 the most
important features of both types of
cycle are displayed.
A significant improvement in recy- Fig. 13: PGM flows and distribution of losses for catalysts in oil refining
cling quotas for car catalysts can ulti-
mately only be achieved if progress catalysts. Here, attention should hydrometallurgical processes are in
is made towards establishing more be paid from the very beginning practice of no importance.
direct cycles in this segment as well. to means of achieving the most With pyrometallurgical processes the
Important measures in this respect efficient cycle management pos- separation of precious metals takes
are [5]: sible, if rates of loss similar to place through the melting down of
Shortening, increased transpar- those in the case of car catalysts catalyst ceramics and washcoat. The
ency and professionalization of are to be avoided [17]. ceramic fraction is converted into a
the recycling chain – stricter slag phase and parted off; precious
certification and control of busi- Technical processes for PGM metals are then alloyed (concen-
nesses, elimination of „grey“ and recovery trated) in a collector metal, which is
„dark“ business practices. likewise tapped off and further proc-
Development of cooperation Basically, two types of processes essed. After various separation and
models between serious and pro- for catalyst refining can be distin- refining steps the precious metals are
fessionally operating businesses guished. In hydrometallurgical proc- eventually produced with a high level
along the process chain. esses the washcoat containing PGMs of purity. Copper, iron and nickel are
Better observation of materials is removed from the ceramic support suitable collector metals for PGMs.
flow, especially with respect to using strong acids or leaching agents. There are different pyrometallurgical
the final whereabouts and export Subsequently, platinum metals are processes and furnace types, which
flows of old vehicles. In the case separated from the solution, by pre- – depending on the composition and
of exports to countries without cipitation for instance. The disadvan- precious metal concentration of the
catalyst legislation and without tages of this process are considerable raw material – each offer advan-
functioning maintenance and precious metal losses, large quantities tages.
suitable operating conditions, it of wastewater and leaching residues For specialized processes, high-tem-
is – also ecologically – more as well as the problem of their dis- perature electric furnaces – in the form
sensible to remove and recycle posal. Due to these disadvantages, of a plasma, electric arc or submerged
catalysts prior to export.
„Deposit systems“, such as suc-
cessfully employed by a number
of car manufacturers with regard
to replaced catalysts from work-
shops, could also encourage bet-
ter recovery of catalysts from
old vehicles and put a stop to
dubious business practices.
Experiences with car catalysts
can also be of use in new appli-
cation segments. Fuel cells for
the mobile segment, for instance,
will contain even greater quanti- Fig. 14: Features of direct product cycles (e.g. chemical catalysts, oil
ties of PGMs per vehicle than catalysts and PGMs in the glass industry) [5]

34 · 61. Jahrgang · 1-2/2007

 Recycling

optimized with regard to precious

metals, so that throughput times and
precious metal yields (also of rho-
dium) are achieved that are compara-
ble to special processes. Through the
combined treatment of a wide range
of complex materials containing pre-
cious metals, enhanced throughput
volumes and thus moderate produc-
tion costs can be achieved as well as
greater flexibility and invulnerabil-
ity to contamination. An „IsaSmelt“
process was installed at Hoboken in
1997 as the main input unit. Besides
scrapped consumer goods, such as car
catalysts or electronic scrap, indus-
trial recycling materials (for example,
chemical and oil refining catalysts,
precious metal residues from the jew-
Fig. 15: Features of indirect product cycles (e.g. car catalysts and ellery, dental, glass and photo sectors)
electronics [5] are also processed, as are by-products
and residues of other non-ferrous
arc furnace – gained acceptance in etc. in the raw material can increase smelting plants and precious metal
the 1990s. Such a furnace was oper- the costs of subsequent processing of refiners (for example, anode slimes,
ated by Degussa in Hanau as a d. c. the PGM concentrate. slag / dross, flue dust, metal concen-
furnace with an electrode submerged Rhodium-free catalysts with a low trates).
in a bath. The operating temperature PGM loading are frequently treated The collector-metal copper, which is
is 1600-1800 °C, which, with the addi- together with other secondary metal contained in the annual input mix of
tion of lime as flux, is sufficient to concentrates in base-metal smelters around 300,000 tonnes, bonds pre-
process ceramics with a high melting (especially copper smelters). Due to cious metals; it is directly granulated
point. Electrical energy is fed through the very high throughput of these during tapping and fed to an „elec-
a floor electrode, which has contact base-metal smelters the specific costs trowinning“ process, which enables
to the charge and the melting bath, for pre-concentration are low; how- speedy access to precious metals in
and a vertically adjustable graphite ever, precious metal losses are higher the leaching residue. Primary slag
electrode situated in the roof of the and processing takes longer than with runs through a second blast furnace
furnace. The ceramic raw material is processes specializing in platinum process, with which lead and other
melted because of its great electrical metals. Through the processing of non-ferrous metals as well as remain-
resistance. Through the position of catalysts in melting furnaces together ing precious metals are recovered.
the graphite electrode as well as the with base-metal concentrates there Sidestreams can likewise be collected
set voltage and current, adjusted to is an initial dilution of PGM con- and retreated. Apart from the precious
the raw material, melting tempera- tents. Following various processing metals gold, silver, platinum, palladi-
ture, melting rate and the course of and concentration steps, the precious um, rhodium, ruthenium and iridium,
the whole process can be controlled. metals finally arrive in the anode the non-ferrous metals copper, nickel,
PGMs are concentrated in copper, the slime of (copper) electrolysis, which, lead, tin, arsenic, selenium, tellurium,
collector metal, and when a defined after isolation of the special metals bismuth, antimony and indium are
concentration has been attained they selenium, tellurium, arsenic etc. is also recovered. With regard to offgas,
are then parted off from the electric further treated in the cupellation fur- the process is equipped with modern
furnace as so-called copper bullion nace, followd by hydrometallurgical scrubbing and filter systems, so that
[18]. Different electric furnaces are processes for PGM concentrates as also in the case of materials such as
operated in the USA, where iron is described below. electronic scrap, which contain much
often used as a collector metal. Spe- Modern integrated smelters and refin- more hazardous substances than cata-
cialized processes are generally sus- ers, such as the new process installed lysts, emission levels well below the
ceptible to contamination. Particularly at the end of the 1990s by Umicore strict Belgian/Flamish limit values
critical from the safety point of view Precious Metals Refining at Hoboken can be met [19].
are moisture (possible development in Belgium, combine the advantages At the conclusion of pre-concentra-
of hydrogen at high temperatures) as of smelting processes with those of tion, and irrespective of how this was
well as volatile hydrocarbons and car- specialized precious metal refining carried out, there exists an impure
bon, and large presence of Ni, Cr, Pb (Fig. 16). Process control has been precious metal concentrate. This sub-

· 61. Jahrgang · 1-2/2007 35

Metall-Forschung

sequently passes through multi-stage of an appropriate slag phase. At

hydrometallurgical batch processes. temperatures of around 1500 °C
Initially, the concentrate is completely the SiC support and PGMs are
dissolved in HCl/Cl2 or aqua regia. not really free, but rather in a
PGM refining from the solution then kind of suspension, and this has
takes place in three main steps: isola- negative effects both on the iso-
tion of remaining non-precious-met- lation of PGMs in the collector
als, separation of precious metals metal and on PGM yields.
from each other as well as refining Used particle filters are contami-
and purification of individual plati- nated with soot and ash, which
num group metals. can likewise increase processing
In order to ensure high yields of pre- costs.
cious metals, all sidestreams have to In the recycling of PGM-coated DPFs,
be carefully post-treated. This way, for the reasons mentioned, process-
platinum and palladium yields of ing costs tend to be somewhat higher
up to 98 % (rhodium > 80 %) can and PGM yields somewhat lower.
be realized across the whole process More precise information can only
chain including the furnace process. be obtained on the basis of tests in
It is advantageous for pre-concentra- practice, for which data is not yet
tion and subsequent refining to be available in sufficient quantity. Due
carried out within the same company. to their higher throughput volumes Fig. 16: Flow sheet of Umicore‘s
Processes can then be adapted to (dilution effect) and their invulner- integrated smelter and refinery
each other to the best possible extent, ability to contamination, integrated (Hoboken/Antwerp) [19]
process flows are well documented, precious metal smelters have advan-
and costly sampling and analysis of tages in pyrometallurgical process- engine volume (catalyst volume),
intermediate products is avoided. ing compared to specialized electric car manufacturer and catalyst
furnace processes. production year or series.
Recycling of diesel particle filters
Scrap DPFs contain ash with zinc, Precious metal prices for plati-
Depending on their design, diesel cadmium, magnesium and other trac- num, palladium and rhodium:
particle filters (DPFs) can be coated er elements. These come from fuel, oil as shown in [1], considerable
with PGMs, preferably with platinum. or from engine abrasion. For health short-term fluctuations also
Recycling of these DPFs is basi- reasons, in the handling of DPFs this occur here.
cally possible and also economic, and ash must either be removed under Fill factor of catalyst ceramics:
existing infrastructure for catalyst supervision, or it must be guaranteed is the monolith still complete, or
recycling can be utilized. Coated die- that through the choice of appropriate were ceramics and thus precious
sel particle filters generally have a sil- containers emissions cannot occur. metals lost during operation or
icon-carbide (SiC) support, which has removal of the catalyst?
somewhat unfavourable properties Business processes in PGM Metal value of the steel housing
compared with the cordierite support refining (unalloyed, Fe/Cr, Fe/Cr/Ni).
of the catalyst, which makes precious Required logistics: Are only a
metal refining more complex: Varied business models have become few catalysts available at the
SiC is harder, which gives rise to established at different stages of point of collection or can a large
greater wear during milling. the recycling chain, and these are quantity be collected on one
The much higher melting point described below. trip?
requires special measures, espe- An “as-is” or “tel quel” purchase is at
cially for electric furnace proc- ”As-is” purchase of recycling a flat rate per piece or unit of weight,
esses. At temperatures above catalysts in contrast to purchasing on the basis
1500°C SiC disintegrates (with- of an individual precious-metal anal-
out melting) and has the effect Because of the value of precious ysis (see below). The tel quel purchase
of a strong reducing agent on metals contained in a catalyst, the is at present the standard transac-
the base metals contained in collecting point generally receives a tion for the acquisition of small and
the charge. This increases the price from the catalyst collector for medium quantities of catalytic con-
cost of subsequent processes and handing over the catalyst. The price verters from the end-of-life area or
greater wear on the furnace lin- itself depends on various factors: workshops. The purchase often occurs
ing has to be expected. Addi- Precious-metal loading of the on the basis of unit price lists, which
tional aggregates (lime, SiO2) catalyst: This fluctuates strongly, are often differentiated according to
are required to lower the melting as already mentioned, according car, make and provide sub-categories
point and for the development to engine type (Otto, Diesel), for different catalyst sizes. At the time

36 · 61. Jahrgang · 1-2/2007

 Recycling

of purchase it is generally checked value of a scrap catalyst can customer retains ownership of pre-
whether the catalyst monolith is still vary correspondingly. cious metals contained in his lot. The
wholly contained in the converter, PGM price risk: The time between PGM refiner thus sells the service
and where this is not the case the the purchase of a batch of cata- of PGM recovery and does not, as a
price is reduced. Purchase prices are lysts to the physical production rule, purchase material containing
regularly checked and adjusted in line of PGMs as fine metal by the PGMs. Payment for this service and
with the development in PGM prices. refiner is at least four months. compensation (quantity and due date)
In the case of large batches, where During this time the price of for PGMs is made on the basis of lot
counting and sorting according to PGMs - as just experienced dur- analysis and an agreed service charge
type would be too time-consuming, ing the last months - can change (refining contract).
after examination and spot checks a considerably. Before actual refining, the precise pre-
price per tonne (converter material Excessive prices are sometimes offered cious metal content of the catalyst has
or catalyst ceramics following decan- for scrap catalysts, which can be therefore to be established. In order
ning) is generally agreed. equivalent to or even exceed the to obtain a representative sample for
The purchase of catalytic converters precious-metal content value (which analysis, and after precise weighing,
is subject to considerable risks, which means that costs arising in the recy- the catalyst ceramics are ground to a
have to be taken into consideration cling chain can no longer be covered). grain size of about 1-2 mm, homog-
in tel quel transactions, preferably The reasons for this are, on the one enized and a raw sample is isolated,
through price reductions. These are: hand, lack of knowledge on the part prepared and analysed. The ascer-
Fill-quantity risk: What quan- of those involved or speculation on tained precious metal content forms
tity of catalyst ceramics or metal rising PGM prices. Many – also large the basis for settlement with the sup-
monoliths will be actually recov- – firms of catalyst collectors, not only plier. The quality of decanning, sam-
ered after dismantling a batch in Europe but also in North America, pling and analysis is therefore a deci-
of catalysts? Monolith material have for this reason disappeared from sive criterion for the economic value
(and thus PGMs) from catalysts the market after a certain time. On the of the supplied lot and thus also for
can be lost through damage dur- other hand, excessive prices can also the competitiveness of the refiner as
ing operation of the vehicle or in be an indication of dubious business well as for the net economical outturn
the removal, storage and trans- practices. to the supplier. Errors can greatly out-
port of the catalyst. As already As a result of the increasing band- weigh the supposedly “better” refining
mentioned, monolith weight also width of precious-metal loadings terms of another refiner, since then
varies widely. The purchase of of scrap catalysts, the large variety less precious metal is in fact remuner-
large batches at a price per tonne of types and the current significant ated. A respectable refiner sets great
is even more risky, as one has to price spread between platinum and value on the transparency of this
estimate how much PGM-free palladium, the tel quel purchase is process: the customer can be present
foreign material (pipes, mani- much more difficult than in the past during sampling or be represented by
folds, mufflers etc.) is contained. and involves considerable risks for a neutral sampler. As far as settlement
PGM-content risk: What plati- both seller and purchaser. It can be is concerned, the customer can choose
num-metal loading (PGM con- assumed that in the medium term, between having his weight account
tents) will a batch actually have with increasing quantities of scrap credited for the precious metals or
after decanning and homog- catalysts and professionalization of selling them to the refiner at the cur-
enization? Are diesel catalysts the recycling chain, tel quel purchases rent market price.
(only platinum) included on a will be replaced by analysis-based The refining contract comprises the
large scale, are old Pt/Rh load- transactions. treatment / refining charge (based
ings predominant or is there an on process costs), PGM compensa-
appreciable share of catalysts Toll refining on the basis of tion (based on technical yield) and
rich in palladium, and what is sampling and analysis PGM due date (based on techni-
the resulting average PGM load- cal and organizational throughput
ing (in Europe PGM loadings With toll refining the customer deliv- time).7 The decision as to which of
range according to catalyst type ers material containing precious metal a number of offers is in fact the best
from 20 to 200 g/ft³)? What are to the PGM refiner for further process- offer may not be made solely on the
the Pt:Pd:Rh ratios? In 2006, the ing. To begin with, the refiner decans basis of just one of these elements,
price of platinum was almost the material – provided this has not but must be based on an overall
four times higher than that of already taken place – and determines assessment. In a bottom-line calcu-
palladium; car manufacturers its precise analytical content. The lation, PGM compensation and due
partly employed both platinum- material is then treated and the cus- dates are assigned a monetary value,
and palladium-based catalysts tomer paid in either a monetary or which is added to the treatment
in their car models with internal a physical form (by credit of refined charge. A lower treatment charge
combustion engines. The content metal). During the whole process the does not in itself automatically result

· 61. Jahrgang · 1-2/2007 37

Metall-Forschung

in the best offer. Particularly when ties of copper and nickel as well as tions – that is, optimum co-opera-
PGM prices or lease rates are high, appreciable amounts of other met- tion between all participants in the
a low treatment charge can be off- als (chromium, iron, cobalt, bismuth, recycling chain. If this is successfully
set, for instance, by higher payment arsenic, selenium, tellurium etc.), applied, demand for platinum, pal-
for PGMs. Furthermore, transport, generally as sulphidic compounds, ladium and rhodium can be increas-
insurance and other costs as well as which have to be isolated. During the ingly covered from the recycling of
factors such as the dependability and process, about 400 tonnes of tailings car catalysts.
financial stability of the refiner, the and slag per kilogram of PGMs are A professional approach to catalyst
quality of sampling and analysis etc. produced, which have to be disposed recycling on the part of the automo-
have all to be considered. An error of. Apart from the adverse effects on bile industry should encompass the
in ascertaining real PGM content of nature as well as land use associated following elements [23]:
just 3 % (0.223 % instead of 0.23 % with mining, there is also a very high An integrated strategy, includ-
PGMs) can mean a loss of up to 3,000 energy demand. By contrast, precious ing not only the recycling chain
EUR per ton of catalyst. It is irrel- metal concentration in an old cata- for car catalysts, but also the
evant whether the error has occurred lyst is extremely high (about 1 kg of development and manufactur-
through faulty analysis or sampling, PGMs per 2 tonnes of catalysts or per ing chain for new catalysts: At
inaccurate determination of moisture 0.5 tonnes of catalyst ceramics), the some car manufacturers, cata-
or weight, inexpert decanning or material is „clean“ and processing lyst recycling and catalyst pur-
losses of dust [20]. less complex. All catalyst compo- chasing are located in different,
nents, including slag and wastewater often widely separated areas of
Ecological aspects from processing, are aftertreated and responsibility, so that synergy
recycled. Two comprehensive ecobal- effects are wasted.
Apart from the economic aspect, cat- ances on automotive catalysts came A comprehensive assessment
alyst recycling has distinct ecological independently to similar conclusions: and proper bottom-line con-
benefits. In order to produce 1 kg of energy demand and adverse effects sideration of the most suitable
platinum group metals – for example, on the environment are many times partner for PGM refining: Fre-
from a South African mine – 150 lower with catalyst recycling (includ- quently, too much importance is
tonnes of ore have to be mined at a ing collection logistics) compared to attached to refining costs, while
depth of 1,000 metres and brought primary production [6, 21, 22]. the influence of refiner‘s reli-
to the surface. There they are finely Nevertheless, customers such as the ability, decanning and sampling
ground, concentrated by froth flota- automobile industry should critically quality, PGM losses or internal
tion and finally undergo pyro- and examine the recycling chain, also processing costs is neglected.
hydrometallurgical treatment. Besides from the point of view of „respon- Professional PGM management:
PGMs, the ore contains large quanti- sible care“, and transparency should The focus must lie on securing
be achieved throughout the process. PGM supply in the long term
7
The treatment charge relates to the net In this connection, a number of recy- and avoiding speculative risks
weight of the lot and reflects a quantitative cling procedures must be called into with the simultaneous limitation
proportion of the work required (acceptance,
preparation, cost of melting). The refining question, most of which are carried of price peaks – for instance
charge relates to the quantity of precious out for merely superficial economic through PGM cycles.
metals remunerated; that is, the costs invol- advantages. When complete catalytic Tailor-made business models
ved from PGM concentrate to production
of individual PGMs as fine metal. Since converters are shipped, for example, adapted to specific needs and
this varies between PGMs, refining charges from Europe to North America to be conditions: There is not a single
for platinum, palladium and rhodium are, decanned, and then finally processed best solution for the automobile
as a rule, also different, whereby rhodium
refining is by far the most expensive. When somewhere else (under environmental industry, but rather an optimum
the magnitude of PGM contents of a lot is conditions that are less transparent), individual solution that can be
known in advance, the refining charge can be this makes little sense from an eco- developed for each car manufac-
included in the treatment charge. Two diffe-
rent items of cost are actually involved (in an logical point of view. turer.
extreme case: a PGM-free catalyst gives rise A reliable, experienced and
to the same costs for preparation as a highly- innovative partner, who covers
loaded catalyst ↔ a pure PGM concentrate The PGM cycle from car
has only a low weight and minimal melting catalysts – an opportunity as many steps in the recycling
costs but high refining costs). A further price chain as possible. Here, long-
component – „handling and analysis“ – is
for the automobile industry
term co-operation and the joint
frequently included in offers. This relates
to the lot, and is a measure – irrespective of A basic requirement for the achieve- development of organizational
quantity – of the cost of analysis and hand- ment of high recycling quotas for and technical procedures offer
ling costs („paper work“, accounting etc.). PGMs from car catalysts are efficient much greater potential for suc-
Because of the great value associated with
PGM recycling, very great care in analysis logistics systems, modern refining cess than a short-term solu-
and handling is indispensable, with corre- processes and procedures adapted as tion through supposedly „cheap“
sponding costs. far as possible to specific condi- spot transactions.

38 · 61. Jahrgang · 1-2/2007

 Recycling

[10] Umweltbundesamt: TREMOD Transport

Provided that a car manufacturer itself low recycling costs, which are Emission Estimation Model, Datensatz
collects catalysts, or makes use of also comparatively stable in the und Kalkulationsmodel für den motori-
existing logistics systems, the possi- long term. The car manufacturer sierten Verkehr, Berlin, 2002.
[11] Kraftfahrzeugbundesamt (KBA) Flens-
bility of a direct precious-metal cycle can directly use recycled PGMs burg: Statistische Daten über Fahrzeug-
is an important step. Platinum metals for new catalysts, but can also zulassungen und Bestand in Deutsch-
land, Information erhalten vom KBA
recovered by the PGM refiner remain „save“ them and thus offset PGM 17.12.2001.
the property of the supplier and can price peaks. [12] Arbeitsgemeinschaft Altauto (ARGE):
be used again for the coating of new The trading margin between pre- 1. Monitorbericht zur umweltgerechten
Entsorgung von Altfahrzeugen, Kap. 6.2
catalysts without any loss of quality, cious metal purchases and sales Altautoaufkommen (der Bundesregie-
with transaction proceeds, based on is avoided. rung vorgelegt am 31.3.2000).
[13] BDSV: Bundesvereinigung Deutscher
independent valuation, being credited Established closed-cycle systems, and
Stahlrecycling- und Entsorgungsunter-
to a precious-metal weight account. the experiences gained with them, nehmen, mündl. Information 19.2.2002.
This PGM cycle can be quite simply could also be used in a few years for [14] ACEA: ELV Country Report Charts,
30.7.2004 (www.acea.be).
realized and at negligible administra- PGM cycles from fuel cells. Market [15] Fairly, J., R. Norman: PGM Recycling
tive cost when the PGM refiner also structure as well as possible partici- - a supply time bomb?, in: Standard
manufactures new catalysts. pants and logistics paths are basically Bank London, Platinum Yearbook, 2003
edition, London Febr. 2003, 19-22.
Besides the enhanced image of a recy- similar, and because of the higher plat- [16] Black, C.: Scrap palladium seen flooding
cling loop that can be portrayed as inum loading of a fuel cell, compared market by 2008, Reuters 27.2.2003.
[17] Zuber, R. et. al.: Recycling of Precious
closed materials flow, this procedure to a car catalyst, efficient recycling Metals from Fuel Cell Components, 2004
offers the supplier further advantages, loops are here even more important. Fuel Cell Seminar Abstracts, San Anto-
when he is at the same time a pur- nio, Tx, Nov. 1-5, 2004
[18]Jung, V.: Automotive exhaust catalysts:
chaser of new catalysts: References PGM usage and recovery, EMC 1991,
Since recovered platinum group Non-ferrous Metallurgy, Elsevier, Lon-
metals remain in his posses- [1] Hagelüken, C.: Markets for the catalyst don 1991, 231-239
metals platinum, palladium and rhodium, [19] Beck, M.: Umicore focuses on precious
sion, supply security increases. Metall 60 (2006), 1-2, 31-42. metals, Recycling International, Oct
Irrespective of the current sup- [2] Johnson Matthey, Platinum 2006, London, 2002, 32-35.
Mai 2006 (and previous editions) [20] Hagelüken, C.: Platinum for nothing and
ply and demand situation on [3] GFMS, Platinum & Palladium Survey Gold for free? - about technological mi-
the PGM market, PGMs flow 2006, London, Mai 2006 (and previous racles and business obstacles, in: Procee-
back regularly from the cycle. editions) dings of the 28th International Precious
[4] Hagelüken, C., M. Buchert, H. Stahl: Metals Conference (IPMI), 2004.
The concentration of PGM sup- Stoffströme der Platingruppenmetalle, [21] Schuckert, M. et. al.: Opimization of
ply on a few primary producers GDMB Medienverlag, Clausthal-Zeller- Three-Way Catalyst Systems by Life-
feld, 2005 Cycle Engineering Approach, SAE paper
is decreased through recycling [5] Umicore, Öko-Institut, GFMS: Materials 980100, 1998.
loops and dependence on pri- flow of platinum group metals, London, [22] Hochfeld C.: Bilanzierung der Um-
mary producers thus reduced, 2005 weltauswirkungen bei der Gewinnung
[6] Hagelüken, C. (editor): Autoabgaskataly- von Platingruppen-Metallen für PKW-
provided that a secondary pro- satoren, Expert Verlag, Kontakt & Studi- Abgaskatalysatoren, Öko-Institut e.V.,
ducer is selected as PGM refiner. um, Vol. 612, Renningen 2005. Darmstadt 1997.
[7] Hagelüken, C.: Recycling von Autoabgas- [23] Hagelüken, C.: Securing the supply for
For closed-loop metals there is katalysatoren - Stand und Perspektive für tomorrow - Precious metals recycling
no price risk, since they are Europa: Metall 49 (1995) 486-490. from automotive catalysts, Metall 55
transferred to a so-called weight [8] Nurdin, M.: EU-Legislation on mobile (2001), H.3, 104-111.
source emission and their impact on PGM-
account, which is comparable to demand, in: Proceedings of 3rd European
a currency account. A proportion Precious Metals Conference, Florence, (1) Dr. Christian Hagelüken, Umicore
1997.
of PGMs required for catalysts [9] BOE Securities: PGMs and Eurocats, Oct.
Precious Metals Refining, Hanau,
can thus be „bought“ at very 2001. [email protected]

EAA launches Aluminium in Renovation European Award

The Aluminium in Renovation Award, dential or utility buildings, aluminium Residential: Private houses; collective
to run throughout 2007, will involve is the most sustainable solution. The housing/apartment buildings; social
13 European countries, a series of national competitions are sponsored housing: houses & apartments
national competitions and a European by the Aluminium For Future Gen- Non-Residential: Utility buildings:
final rewarding the most innovative erations Programme (AFFG), in coop- offices, commercial, industrial; public
and sustainable uses of aluminium in eration with the European National buildings: museums, train stations,
building renovation. Aluminium Trade Associations. The town halls etc.; historical buildings:
The winning entries will illustrate European contest is sponsored by churches, ancient houses etc.
that whether used to preserve a piece the Building Group of the European
of national heritage or to upgrade the Aluminium Association. Awards will Information:
environmental performance of resi- be given in various categories: www.aluminium-award.eu

· 61. Jahrgang · 1-2/2007 39

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