THEHI

STORI
CALANDPHI
LOSOPHI
CALDEVELOPMENTOFCRI
MINOLOGY

The hi
stor
icaldev
elopmentofcr
imi
nol
ogywi
l
lbe consi
der
ed undert
he f
oll
owi
ng

headi
ngs:Anci
enter
a,Mi
ddl
eAgeser
aandt
heEnl
i
ght
enmenter
a,Cl
assi
caler
a,Neo-

cl
assi
cal
era,
Posi
ti
vi
ster
aandPost
moder
ner
a.

Anci
entEr
aofCr
imeAD320-
550

Or
igi
nal
l
ycr
imeswer
enotdef
ined.Cr
imesdi
dnoti
nvol
veof
fi
cialact
ionbecauseal
l

act
s wer
e consi
der
ed pr
ivat
e mat
ter
s.I
ndi
vi
dualwho wer
e wr
onged t
ook act
ions

agai
nstt
hewr
ongdoerort
hewr
ongdoer
’sf
ami
l
y.Thesy
stem br
okedownwhent
he

f
ami
l
yst
ruct
urechanged,soci
eti
esbecamemor
ecompl
ex,andpeopl
ebecamemor
e

mobi
l
e.Lat
ert
heconceptofcr
imedev
elopedbutwasconf
inedt
oact
scommi
tt
ed

agai
nstt
heki
ng.Pr
ivat
erev
enger
emai
nedt
heonl
ypuni
shmentf
oract
sagai
nstt
he

pr
ivat
eci
ti
zens.Ev
ent
ual
l
ytheki
ng,r
epr
esent
ingt
hest
ate,r
eal
i
zedt
hatt
hepeaceof

t
hecommuni
tywasatst
akeanddecr
eedt
hatt
heactofwr
ongi
ngaper
sonshoul
dbe

r
epor
tedt
ohi
m.Any
onewhoi
njur
edoneoft
heki
ng’
ssubj
ect
swasconsi
der
edt
ohav
e

i
njur
edt
heki
ng,
andt
hephr
ase“
keepi
ngt
hepeaceoft
heki
ng”dev
eloped(
Sue,
2000)
.

Gr
adual
l
ythepay
mentofcompensat
iont
othev
ict
im byt
heof
fenderr
epl
acedf
ami
l
y

f
eudi
ngandot
herf
ormsofpr
ivat
erev
enge.Lat
ert
hef
inesy
stem dev
eloped,wi
tht
he

f
inebei
ngpai
dtot
heki
ng(
nowt
othest
ate)
.Putsi
mpl
y,i
nanci
entt
imes,
thecommon

r
esponset
ocr
imewasr
evenge,t
hati
sthev
ict
im orv
ict
im’
sfami
l
ywoul
dexactwhat

t
heyf
eltt
obei
nappr
opr
iat
eresponset
othecr
imecommi
tt
edagai
nstt
hem because

mostof
tent
heser
esponseswer
enotmeasur
edorappr
opr
iat
e(Sue,2000)
.Lawst
hat

cl
ear
lydef
inedpuni
shment
swer
eest
abl
i
shedt
obot
hquel
lcr
imeandt
oputanendt
o
t
hebl
oodf
eudst
hatr
esul
tedf
rom t
hev
ict
ims’r
evenge.Theseear
lyat
tempt
sst
il
l

al
l
owedv
ict
im ofcr
imet
oissuet
hepuni
shment
,butt
heysoughtt
ocl
ari
fyt
hata

r
esponset
oapar
ti
cul
arcr
imeshoul
dbeequal
tot
hesev
eri
tyoft
hecr
ime.

ThecodeofHammur
abi
isoneoft
heear
li
estcodeorl
awt
hatat
temptt
oest
abl
i
shaset

ofpuni
shmentscal
eforcr
imei
ntheanci
entBaby
lon.Hal
l&John,2005asser
tedt
hat

Hammur
abiwast
hesi
xthki
ngofBaby
lon,speci
fi
cal
l
y,t
hef
ir
stdy
nast
yofBaby
lonand

t
hef
ir
stki
ngt
ocodi
fyt
hel
awsi
nit
iat
edbyUr
-NammuofUr
.Thecodei
sbestdescr
ibed

ast
he“
law ofr
etal
i
ati
onandj
ust
ice.Bi
nder
,1985,howev
eri
dent
if
iedot
hercodes

r
elat
ingt
ocr
imesandpuni
shment
swhi
chwer
etheXI
ITabl
es(
450BC)whi
chi
sthe

Romanl
aws,VI
IITabl
es,Cor
pusJur
isofJust
ini
an,t
heMosai
cLaw,Angl
o-Saxoncode,

t
heAt
hel
stanl
awset
c.

Mor
eso,Muchofourmoder
nunder
standi
ngoft
her
elat
ionshi
pbet
weencr
imeand

puni
shmentcanbet
racedt
othewr
it
ingsoft
heGr
eekphi
l
osopher
sPl
atoandAr
ist
otl
e,

al
thoughi
ttookmor
ethanami
l
lenni
um f
ormanyoft
hei
rideast
otaker
oot
.Pl
ato(
429-

347BC)wasamongt
hef
ir
stt
otheor
izet
hatcr
imewasof
tent
her
esul
tofpoor

educat
ion.Hear
guedt
hatt
heessenceoft
hel
awwast
opr
eser
vesoci
almor
ali
ty,and

ev
eryact
ionagai
nstt
hatmor
ali
tyconst
it
utedacr
ime.I
nhi
sRepubl
i
candLaws,he

del
i
neat
edf
ourt
ypesofl
awcr
imes:
(1)cr
imeagai
nstper
sons;
(2)cr
imeagai
nstr
eli
gion;

(
3)cr
imeagai
nstt
hest
ate;
and(
4)cr
imeagai
nstpr
oper
ty.

Pl
atof
urt
herar
gued t
hatcr
ime t
he pr
oductoff
aul
tyeducat
ion,t
hatsev
eri
tyof

puni
shmentshoul
dbedet
ermi
nedbyt
hedegr
eeofcul
pabi
l
ity
,andt
hatcr
imear
esi
ck

i
ndi
vi
dual
swhomustbecur
edt
hroughpuni
shment(
Bar
nes,1972)
.Ar
ist
otl
e(384-
322
BC)ont
heot
herhandv
iewedt
hathumanasy
nthesi
sofbodyandsoul
,endowedwi
th

i
ntel
l
igence,emot
ionanddesi
re.I
nhi
sNi
comacheanEt
hics,Ar
ist
otl
edef
inedcr
imeas

t
heactoff
reewi
l
l,st
imul
atedbydesi
re.Thus,hear
guedt
hatchi
l
dren,i
diot
s,t
he

ment
all
yil
landi
ndi
vi
dual
sinast
ateofecst
asyshoul
dnotbehel
dresponsi
blef
or

cr
imi
nalact
ions.Hedev
elopedt
hei
deat
hatr
esponsest
ocr
imeshoul
dat
temptt
o

pr
eventf
utur
eact
s,bot
hbyt
hecr
imi
nalandbyot
her
swhomi
ghtbei
ncl
i
nedt
ocommi
t

cr
imes.

Mi
ddl
eAgesEr
a1200-
1600

Thei
ntr
oduct
ionandspr
eadofChr
ist
iani
tyt
hroughoutt
heWestbr
oughtar
etur
ntoa

r
eli
giousconnect
ionbet
weencr
imeandpuni
shmentf
rom aper
iodof1200-
1600.The

accept
anceofChr
ist
iani
tyi
nEur
opet
urnedt
het
hinki
ngaboutcr
imeandpuni
shmenti
n

aspi
ri
tualdi
rect
ion,awayf
rom t
henat
ural
i
sti
cappr
oachf
oundi
ntheRomanl
aws.

Cr
imi
nalact
swer
ethoughtt
obet
hewor
ksandi
nfl
uencesoft
hedev
ilorSat
anand

cr
imeswer
eequat
edt
osi
n.I
ncont
rastt
otheanci
entt
imeswhenpuni
shment
swer
e

of
tencar
ri
edoutt
oappeaset
hegods,puni
shmentwer
enowexact
edi
nthecont
extof

“
doi
ngGod’
swor
k”.Hence,har
shpuni
shment
swer
emeantt
opur
gecr
imi
nal
sofsi
n

andf
reet
hem oft
hei
nfl
uenceoft
hedev
il(
Einst
adst
er&St
uar
t,2006)
.Chr
ist
iani
ty

i
ntr
oducedt
hemer
it
soff
orgi
venessandcompassi
onatt
hesame,andv
iewst
owar
ds

cr
imeandpuni
shment
sint
hemi
ddl
eagesbegant
oev
olv
e.

Accor
ding Jones,(
1986)
,int
heMi
ddl
eAges,t
hespi
ri
tualand r
eli
giousbasi
sfor

puni
shmentwasj
oinedt
othepol
i
ticalandsoci
alor
gani
zat
ionoff
eudal
i
sm t
opr
oduce

t
hebegi
nni
ngoft
hecr
imi
nalj
ust
icesy
stem.I
nanat
temptt
ofur
therl
i
mitt
hebl
ood
f
euds,
thef
eudall
ordsi
nst
it
utedof
fi
cialmet
hodsbywhi
chGodcoul
dindi
cat
ewhowas

i
nnocentandwhowasgui
l
ty,Oneofsuchmet
hodwas“
tri
albyor
deal
”,i
nwhi
cht
he

accusedwassubj
ect
edt
odi
ff
icul
tandpai
nfult
est
.Thebel
i
efwast
hatani
nnocent

per
son,pr
otect
edbyGodwoul
demer
geunhar
medwhi
l
ethegui
l
tywoul
ddi
eapai
nful

deat
h.Forexampl
e,acommonmet
hodofdet
ermi
ningwhet
herawomanwasawi
tch

wast
oti
eherupandt
hrowi
ntot
hewat
er.I
fshef
loat
sisconsi
der
edt
obei
nnocentbut

i
fshesi
nks,shei
sawi
tch.Tr
ialbyor
dealwascondemnedbyt
hePopei
n1215and

r
epl
acedwi
tht
het
ri
albyj
ury
,wer
etheaccusedwi
l
lgat
hert
oget
heragr
oupoft
wel
ve

r
eput
abl
epeopl
ewhowoul
dsweart
hatt
heaccusedwasi
nnocent
.

Shor
tl
yaf
tert
hePopecondemnat
ionoft
ri
albyor
deal
,RomanCat
hol
i
ctheol
ogi
an,St

ThomasAqui
nas(
1225-
1274)beganwr
it
inghi
stheol
ogy
,whi
chi
ncl
udedani
mpor
tant

spi
ri
tualexpl
anat
ionofcr
imeandpuni
shment(
Newman,1978)
.Aqui
nasar
guedt
hat

t
her
ewasGodgi
vennat
urall
awst
hatwasr
eveal
edandobser
vedt
hrought
heey
eof

f
ait
h,peopl
ehasnat
uralt
endencyt
odogoodandev
il
,andt
hatpeopl
ewhov
iol
ate

cr
imi
nall
aw,v
iol
atet
henat
urall
awofGod.Aqui
nasf
urt
herar
guedt
hatcr
imewasnot

onl
yhar
mfult
othe v
ict
ims buti
tal
so har
ms t
he cr
imi
nal
.Whi
l
e cr
imi
nal
s wer
e

deser
ving ofpuni
shment
,they wer
e al
so t
o be pi
ti
ed because t
hey had pl
ace

t
hemsel
vesout
sideofGod’
sgr
ace.Ki
ngsandqueensofear
li
ert
imescl
aimedt
hei
r

t
otal
i
tar
ianaut
hor
it
yont
hewi
l
lofGod,
taki
ngt
heposi
ti
ont
hatt
heyhadbeenpl
acedi
n

t
hepowerofGodandwer
ether
efor
eact
inghi
swi
l
l.Cr
imesagai
nstper
son,pr
oper
ty,

andst
atewer
eal
lvi
ewedascr
imesagai
nstgodandassi
nandpuni
shmentwer
emeant

t
opur
gecr
imi
nal
sofsi
nandf
reet
hem f
rom t
hei
nfl
uenceoft
hedev
il(
Arr
igo&

Chr
ist
opher
,2006)
.
Cl
assi
calEr
a1700s-
1800s

Cl
assi
calt
hinki
ng emer
ged i
nresponse t
othe cr
uelf
orms ofpuni
shmentt
hat

domi
nat
edt
heanci
entandmi
ddl
eages(
Rouf
a,2011)
.Asar
esul
toft
heemer
genceof

cl
assi
calphi
l
osophyofcr
ime,t
hen,super
sti
ti
onandspi
ri
tual
i
tybasedor
ient
ati
ont
o

cr
imewer
eexchangef
ori
nnov
ati
veway
soft
hinki
ngt
hatemphasi
zedr
elat
ionshi
p

bet
weencr
imi
nalbehav
iorandpuni
shment(
Mil
l
er,Schr
eck&Tewkbur
y,2011)
.The

Enl
i
ght
enmentsweptt
hroughEur
opei
nthesecondhal
foft
heei
ght
eent
hcent
uryI
nit
s

di
stantbackgr
ound was t
he medi
evalwor
ld,wi
thi
ts aut
hor
it
ari
ani
sm,pol
i
tical

hi
erar
chi
es,andpr
efer
encesf
ort
heol
ogi
calandmet
aphy
sicalexpl
anat
ions;i
nit
smor
e

r
ecentbackgr
oundwast
heRenai
ssance,wi
thi
tsr
edi
scov
eryofanci
entsci
ent
if
ict
ext
s

and i
ts dr
amat
ic adv
ances i
n engi
neer
ing and t
he phy
sicalsci
ences;and i
nthe

backgr
ound di
rect
lypr
iort
othe Enl
i
ght
enmentwas t
he Age ofReason,wi
thi
ts

emphasi
son l
ogi
c,r
ati
onal
i
ty,and sy
stemat
izat
ion (
Raf
ter2004)
.Iti
swi
thi
nthi
s

cont
extt
hatt
hecl
assi
cal
school
ofcr
imi
nol
ogyemer
ged(
Gar
land2002)
.

Cl
assi
calcr
imi
nol
ogi
stswer
erespondi
ngt
othecor
rupt
ion,coer
cion,andper
cei
ved

i
njust
ices t
hatexi
sted i
n ei
ght
eent
h-cent
ury Eur
ope’
sjust
ice sy
stems.Cl
assi
cal

t
heor
ist
sar
guedt
hatt
her
ight
sofmanhadt
obepr
otect
edagai
nstt
hecor
rupt
ionand

excessesofexi
sti
ngi
nst
it
uti
onswhi
chwer
enowher
emor
eev
identt
hani
nthel
egal

sy
stemsofei
ght
eent
h-cent
uryEur
ope.Puni
shmentwasar
bit
rar
yandbar
bar
ous,due

pr
ocesses ofl
aw bei
ng absentori
gnor
ed and cr
ime i
tsel
fbei
ng i
l
l-def
ined and

ext
ensi
ve.Theywer
ether
efor
e,r
eact
ingst
rongl
yagai
nstar
bit
rar
ysy
stemsofj
ust
ice

whi
chpr
evai
l
eddur
ingt
heanci
entr
egi
me,
andt
heydev
elopedar
esponset
othehar
sh,
cor
rupt
,andof
tenar
bit
rar
ynat
ureoft
hel
egalsy
stemsi
nthe1700s.Cl
assi
calt
heor
ist
s

wer
emai
nlyi
nter
est
edi
ncr
it
ici
zi
ngt
hissy
stem andof
fer
ingpr
oposal
sfori
tsr
efor
m

(
Cul
l
enandAgnew2010)
.

Themai
ntheor
yinv
olv
edi
ntheCl
assi
calSchoolofCr
imi
nol
ogyi
sthat
,cr
imi
nal
smake

ar
ati
onalchoi
ceand chooset
o do cr
imi
nalact
sduet
o maxi
mum pl
easur
eand

mi
nimum pai
n.Theor
istf
urt
herexpl
aint
hatt
odet
erandr
educecr
ime,t
hesev
eri
tyof

t
hepenal
ti
esgi
venshoul
dbepr
opor
ti
onat
etot
hecr
imecommi
tt
edandnomor
ethan

whati
snecessar
yinor
dert
odet
ert
heof
fenderandot
her
sfr
om commi
tt
ingf
urt
her

cr
imes.I
not
herwor
ds,
theof
fenderwi
l
lthi
nkt
hecr
imebyconsi
der
ingt
heposi
ti
veand

negat
iveconsequencesoft
hecr
ime.Theypar
ti
cipat
eincr
imi
nalact
ivi
tyasaf
orm of

gr
ati
fi
cat
ionorf
oraspeci
fi
creason.Thi
scanbet
ogai
nmoney
,sex,
monet
aryobj
ect
s,

andot
heri
temsdesi
red.Ther
efor
e,i
fthei
mmedi
ategai
noft
hecr
imeexceedst
o

consequencesofpuni
shment
,thant
heof
fenderwi
l
lchooset
ocommi
tthecr
imeand

suf
fert
hepossi
bleconsequencesi
nor
dert
ogett
het
empor
arygai
nachi
evedf
rom t
he

cr
ime.

Puni
shmentcanbeusedt
odet
ercr
imeandt
hesev
eri
tyoft
hepuni
shmentmustbe

pr
opor
ti
onalt
othecr
imei
tsel
f”
,(Rouf
a,2011)
.Aswast n18thcent
hecasei uryEur
ope,

manypeopl
ewoul
drecei
veapuni
shmentt
hatout
wei
ghedt
hecr
ime.Fori
nst
ance,i
n

t
hepastsomecount
ri
eswoul
dcutof
fthef
ingerort
hehandoft
hecommont
hief
.Thi
s

puni
shmentf
orst
eal
i
ngout
wei
ghst
hecr
ime.Thi
scanbeespeci
all
yseeni
fthei
tem

st
olenwasmi
nimalcompar
edt
othepr
iceorusef
ulnessofal
ostl
i
mb.Thi
soccur
redi
n

an er
a wher
ewomen wer
ehanged orbeheaded f
oract
ssuch asadul
ter
y,when
cur
rent
lyadul
ter
yisnotl
aw br
eaki
ngorf
orbi
ddenandsomemayev
enar
guet
hat

adul
ter
yis a common pr
act
ice.Ei
therway
,the cl
assi
calschoolofcr
imi
nol
ogy

encour
agesf
air
nessandbet
teruseoft
hecr
imi
nalj
ust
icesy
stem i
nor
dert
oreduce

cr
imeanddet
ercr
imi
nal
act
ivi
ty.

Thecl
assi
calschoolofcr
imi
nol
ogyi
sbasedonf
ourbasi
cpr
inci
plesbr
ief
lyexpl
ained

abov
e.Thet
heor
ysuggest
sthat
:

1. I
ndi
vi
dual
shav
ethewi
l
landr
ati
onal
i
tyt
oactaccor
dingt
othei
rownwi
l
land

desi
res

2. I
ndi
vi
dual
swi
l
lcal
cul
atet
her
ati
onal
i
tyoft
hecr
imebasedont
hebenef
it
soft
he

cr
imev
ersust
heconsequencesoft
hecr
ime

3. Sev
eri
tyoft
hepuni
shmentshoul
dbedet
ermi
nedbyt
hesev
eri
tyoft
hecr
imet
o

det
erot
her
sandr
educecr
ime

4. Puni
shmentmustbeswi
ftandappr
opr
iat
etodet
erot
her
sandr
educecr
ime,

(
Rouf
a,2011)
.

Cesar
eBeccar
ia(
1738-
1794)
:Puni
shmentasDet
err
ence

Cesar
eBeccar
ia(
Cesar
eBonesana,
whohel
dthet
it
le“
Mar
chesediBeccar
ia”
)wasbor
n

i
nMi
l
an.I
tal
y.Hewast
heel
destoff
ourchi
l
dren,wast
rai
nedatt
heCat
hol
i
cschool
s,

andear
nedadoct
orofl
awsdegr
eeatt
heageof20(
Pel
ovangu,2010)
.In1764,

Beccar
iapubl
i
shedhi
sar
ti
cleoncr
imesandpuni
shment
s.Accor
dingt
oBeccar
ia,t
he

pur
poseoft
hear
ti
cl
ewasnott
opr
oposet
het
heor
yofcr
ime,butt
oputf
orwar
dhi
s

obser
vat
ionsont
hel
awsandj
ust
icesy
stem ofhi
sti
me(
Schmal
l
eger
,2014)
.

Beccar
iat
hrough hi
s publ
i
shed Ar
ti
cle DeiDel
i
tie Del
l
e Pene (
"On Cr
imes and
Puni
shment
s")ar
guedf
ort
heneedt
oref
ormt
hecr
imi
nal
just
icesy
stem byr
efer
ri
ngnot

t
othehar
m causedt
othev
ict
im,
butt
othehar
m causedt
osoci
ety(
Schmal
l
eger
,2014)
.

I
nthi
s,heposi
tedt
hatt
hegr
eat
estdet
err
entwast
hecer
tai
ntyofdet
ect
ion:t
hemor
e

swi
ftandcer
tai
nthepuni
shment
,themor
eef
fect
ivei
twoul
dbe.I
nhi
sbook"
OnCr
imes

and Puni
shment
s"Beccar
ia pr
esent
ed a coher
ent
,compr
ehensi
ve desi
gn f
oran

enl
i
ght
ened cr
imi
nalj
ust
icesy
stem t
hatwast
o ser
vet
hepeopl
erat
hert
han t
he

monar
chy
.Accor
dingt
oBeccar
ia,t
hecr
imepr
obl
em coul
dbet
racednott
obadpeopl
e

butt
obadl
aws.Amoder
ncr
imi
nalj
ust
icesy
stem shoul
dguar
ant
eeal
lpeopl
eequal

t
reat
mentbef
oret
hel
aw.Beccar
ia‘
sbooksuppl
i
edt
hebl
uepr
int
.Thatbl
uepr
intwas

basedont
heassumpt
iont
hatpeopl
efr
eel
ychoosewhatt
heydoandar
eresponsi
ble

f
ort
heconsequencesoft
hei
rbehav
ior(
Nir
mal
a,2009)
.

Beccar
iapr
oposedt
hef
oll
owi
ngpr
inci
ples:

1.LawsShoul
dBeUsedToMai
ntai
nSoci
alCont
ract
:“Lawsar
ethecondi
ti
ons

underwhi
chmen,nat
ural
l
yindependent
,uni
tedt
hemsel
vesi
nsoci
ety
.Wear
yof

l
i
vingi
nacont
inualst
ateofwar
,andofenj
oyi
ngal
i
ber
ty,whi
chbecameal
i
ttl
e

v
alue,f
rom t
heuncer
tai
ntyofi
tsdur
ati
on,t
heysacr
if
icedonepar
tofi
t,t
oenj
oy

t
her
esti
n peaceandsecur
it
y.

2.Onl
ylegi
slat
orsshoul
dcr
eat
elaws:“
Theaut
hor
it
yofmaki
ngpenall
awscan

onl
yresi
dewi
tht
hel
egi
slat
or,whor
epr
esent
sthewhol
esoci
etyuni
tedbyt
he

soci
alcompact
.

3.Judgesshoul
dimposepuni
shmentonl
yinaccor
dancewi
tht
hel
aw:Magi
str
ate

t
hen,can,wi
thj
ust
ice i
nfl
i
cton any ot
hermemberoft
he same soci
ety

puni
shmentt
hati
snotor
dai
nedbyt
hel
aws.
 4.Puni
shmentshoul
dbebasedont
hepl
easur
e/pai
npr
inci
ple:Pl
easur
eandpai
n

ar
etheonl
yspr
ingsofact
ionsi
nbei
ngsendowedwi
thsensi
bil
i
ty.I
fanequal

puni
shmentbeor
dai
nedf
ort
wocr
imest
hati
njur
esoci
etyi
ndi
ff
erentdegr
ees,

t
her
eisnot
hingt
odet
ermenf
rom commi
tt
ingt
hegr
eat
erasof
tenasi
tis

at
tendedwi
thgr
eat
eradv
ant
age.

5.Puni
shmentshoul
dbebasedont
heact
,notont
heact
or:Cr
imesar
eonl
ytobe

measur
edbyt
hei
njur
iesdonet
othesoci
ety
.

6.Puni
shmentshoul
dbedet
ermi
nedbyt
hecr
ime:I
fmat
hemat
icalcal
cul
ati
on

coul
dbeappl
i
edt
otheobscur
eandi
nfi
nit
ecombi
nat
ionsofhumanact
ions,

t
her
e mi
ghtbe a cor
respondi
ng scal
e ofpuni
shmentdescendi
ng f
rom t
he

gr
eat
estt
othel
east
.

7.Puni
shmentshoul
dbepr
omptandef
fect
ive:Themor
eimmedi
ateaf
tert
he

commi
ssi
onofacr
imeapuni
shmenti
sinf
li
ctedt
hemor
ejustandusef
uli
twi
l
l

be.Ani
mmedi
atepuni
shmenti
smor
eusef
ul;
becauset
hesmal
l
ert
hei
nter
valof

t
imebet
weent
hepuni
shmentandt
hecr
ime,t
hest
rongerandmor
elast
ingwi
l
l

bet
heassoci
ati
onoft
het
woi
deasofcr
imeandpuni
shment
.

Beccar
iacondemnedt
het
ort
ureofsuspect
s,apr
act
icest
il
lusedi
ntheei
ght
eent
h

cent
ury
,say
ingt
hati
twasadev
icet
hatensur
edt
hatweaksuspect
swoul
dincr
imi
nat
e

t
hemsel
ves,
whi
l
est
rongsuspect
swoul
dbef
oundi
nnocent
.Accor
dingt
ohi
m,t
ort
uri
ng

ofsuspect
sisanunj
ustpuni
shmentbef
oredet
ermi
ningt
hegui
l
tofsuspecti
nthecour
t.

Beccar
iabel
i
evedt
hatnomancanbegui
l
tyunt
ilt
hej
udgepassasent
enceonhi
m.

Beccar
iai
deaswer
epopul
arandadv
ancedbyhi
scont
empor
ari
es;hencehi
spr
inci
ples

wer
eincor
por
atedi
ntheFr
enchPenalCodei
n1791andgr
eat
lyi
nfl
uencedt
hej
ust
ice
sy
stemsi
namongEur
opeanl
eader
ssuchasCat
her
inet
heGr
eatofRussi
a,Fr
eder
ick

t
heGr
eatofPr
ussi
a,andEmper
orJosephI
IofAust
ri
a(Schmal
l
eger
,2014)
.Mor
eso,

Beccar
ia’
s essayi
nfl
uenced t
he f
ramer
s oft
he US const
it
uti
on,and t
he f
ir
stt
en

amendment
stot
heUSconst
it
uti
on,knownast
heBi
l
lofRi
ght
s.Beccar
iai
sknownf
or

t
hemoder
nbel
i
eft
hatcr
imi
nal
shav
econt
rol
overt
hei
rbehav
iorandt
hatt
heychooset
o

commi
tandcanbedet
erbyt
hecer
tai
ntyofpuni
shment
.

Neo-
Classi
calEr
a1800-
1850

I
ncr
imi
nol
ogy
,theNeo-
classi
calschoolcont
inuest
het
radi
ti
onsoft
heCl
assi
calSchool

wi
thi
nthef
ramewor
kofRi
ghtReal
i
sm.Hence,t
heut
il
it
ari
ani
sm ofJer
emyBent
ham

andCesar
eBeccar
iar
emai
nsar
elev
antsoci
alphi
l
osophyi
npol
i
cyt
ermf
orusi
ng

puni
shmentasadet
err
entt
hroughl
aw enf
orcement
,thecour
ts,andi
mpr
isonment

(
Nir
mal
a,2009)
.Thef
reewi
l
ltheor
yofcl
assi
calschooldi
dnotsur
viv
eforl
ong.I
twas

soonr
eal
i
zed t
hatt
heexponent
sofcl
assi
calschoolf
alt
ered i
nthei
rappr
oachi
n

i
gnor
ingt
hei
ndi
vi
dualdi
ff
erencesundercer
tai
nsi
tuat
ionsandt
reat
ingf
ir
stof
fender
s

andt
hehabi
tualal
i
keont
hebasi
sofsi
mil
ari
tyofactorcr
ime.Theneo-
classi
sts

asser
ted t
hatcer
tai
n cat
egor
ies ofof
fender
s such as mi
nor
s,i
diot
s,i
nsane or

i
ncompet
enthadt
obet
reat
edl
eni
ent
lyi
nmat
ter
sofpuni
shmenti
rr
espect
iveoft
he

si
mil
ari
tyoft
hei
rcr
imi
nal
actbecauset
heseper
sonswer
eincapabl
eofappr
eci
ati
ngt
he

di
ff
erencebet
ween r
ightand wr
ong.Thi
stendencyofneo-
classi
stst
o di
sti
ngui
sh

cr
imi
nal
saccor
dingt
othei
rment
aldepr
avi
tywasi
ndeedapr
ogr
essi
vest
epi
nasmuch

asi
temphasi
zedt
heneedf
ormodi
fyi
ngt
hecl
assi
cal
view.Thust
hecont
ri
but
ionofneo

-
classi
cal
thoughtt
othesci
enceofcr
imi
nol
ogyhasi
tsownmer
it
s.

Themai
ntenet
sofneo-
classi
cal
school
ofcr
imi
nol
ogycanbesummar
izedasf
oll
ows
1.Neo-
classi
stsappr
oachedt
hest
udyofcr
imi
nol
ogyonsci
ent
if
icl
i
nesbyr
ecogni
zi
ng

t
hatcer
tai
next
enuat
ingsi
tuat
ionsorment
aldi
sor
der
sdepr
iveaper
sonofhi
snor
mal

capaci
tyt
ocont
rolhi
sconduct
.Thust
heyj
ust
if
iedmi
ti
gat
ionofequalpuni
shmenti
n

casesofcer
tai
npsy
chopat
hicof
fender
s.

2.Neo-
classi
stswer
ethef
ir
sti
npoi
ntoft
imet
obr
ingoutadi
sti
nct
ionbet
weent
hef
ir
st

of
fender
sandt
her
eci
div
ist
s.Theysuppor
tedi
ndi
vi
dual
i
zat
ionofof
fenderat
reat
ment

met
hodswhi
chr
equi
redt
hepuni
shmentt
osui
tthepsy
chopat
hicci
rcumst
ancesoft
he

accused.Thusal
thought
heactort
hecr
ime‘st
il
lremai
nedt
hesol
edet
ermi
ningf
act
or

f
oradj
udgi
ngcr
imi
nal
i
tywi
thoutanyr
egar
dtot
hei
ntent
,yett
heneo-
classi
calschool

f
ocusedatl
eastsomeat
tent
iononment
alcausat
ioni
ndi
rect
ly.

3.Theadv
ocat
esoft
hisschoolst
art
edwi
tht
hebasi
cassumpt
iont
hatmanact
ingon

r
easonandi
ntel
l
igencei
sasel
f-
det
ermi
ningper
sonandt
her
efor
e,i
sresponsi
blef
orhi
s

conduct
.Butt
hosel
acki
ngnor
mali
ntel
l
igenceorhav
ingsomement
aldepr
avi
tyar
e

i
rr
esponsi
blet
othei
rconductast
heydonotpossesst
hecapaci
tyofdi
sti
ngui
shi
ng

bet
weengoodorbadandt
her
efor
eshoul
dbet
reat
eddi
ff
erent
lyf
rom t
her
esponsi
ble

of
fender
s.

4.Though t
he neo-
classi
stsr
ecommended l
eni
entt
reat
mentf
ori
rr
esponsi
ble or

ment
all
ydepr
avedcr
imi
nal
sonaccountoft
hei
rincapaci
tyt
oresi
stcr
imi
nalt
endency

butt
heycer
tai
nlybel
i
evedt
hatal
lcr
imi
nal
s,whet
herr
esponsi
bleori
rr
esponsi
ble,must

bekeptsegr
egat
edf
rom t
hesoci
ety
.

5.I
tissi
gni
fi
cantt
onot
ethatdi
sti
nct
ionbet
weenr
esponsi
bil
i
tyandi
rr
esponsi
bil
i
ty,
that

i
sthesani
tyandi
nsani
tyoft
hecr
imi
nal
sassuggest
edbyneo-
classi
calschoolof

cr
imi
nol
ogypav
edwayt
osubsequentf
ormul
ati
onofdi
ff
erentcor
rect
ionali
nst
it
uti
ons
suchaspar
ole,pr
obat
ion,r
efor
mat
ori
es,open-
aircampset
c.i
ntheadmi
nist
rat
ionof

cr
imi
nalj
ust
ice.Thi
sist
hrought
hisschoolt
hatat
tent
ionofcr
imi
nol
ogi
stswasdr
awn

f
ort
hef
ir
stt
imet
owar
dst
hef
actt
hatal
lcr
imesdohav
eacause.I
tmust
,howev
erbe

not
edt
hatt
hought
hiscausat
ionwasi
nit
ial
l
yconf
inedt
opsy
chopat
hyorpsy
chol
ogy

butwasl
aterexpandedf
urt
herandf
inal
l
ytheposi
ti
vi
stssucceededi
nest
abl
i
shi
ng

r
easonabl
erel
ati
onshi
pbet
weencr
imeandenv
ironmentoft
hecr
imi
nal
.

6.Neo-
classi
stsadopt
edsubj
ect
iveappr
oacht
ocr
imi
nol
ogyandconcent
rat
edt
hei
r

at
tent
ionont
hecondi
ti
onsunderwhi
chani
ndi
vi
dualcommi
tscr
ime.Thusi
twoul
dbe

seent
hatt
hemai
ncont
ri
but
ionofneo-
classi
calschoolofcr
imi
nol
ogyl
i
esi
nthef
act

t
hati
tcameoutwi
thcer
tai
nconcessi
onsi
nthef
reewi
l
l‘t
heor
yofcl
assi
calschooland

suggest
edt
hatani
ndi
vi
dualmi
ghtcommi
tcr
imi
nalact
sduet
ocer
tai
next
enuat
ing

ci
rcumst
anceswhi
chshoul
dbedul
ytakeni
ntoconsi
der
ati
onatt
het
imeofawar
ding

puni
shment
.Ther
efor
e,besi
dest
hecr
imi
nalactassuch,
theper
sonal
i
tyoft
hecr
imi
nal

asawhol
e,namel
y,hi
sant
ecedent
s,mot
ives,pr
evi
ousl
i
fe-
hist
ory
,gener
alchar
act
er,

et
c.,
shoul
dnotbel
ostsi
ghtofi
nassessi
nghi
sgui
l
t.I
tmaybenot
edt
hatt
heor
igi
nof

j
urysy
stem i
ncr
imi
nalj
uri
spr
udencei
sessent
ial
l
yanout
comeoft
her
eact
ionofneo-

cl
assi
cal
appr
oacht
owar
dst
het
reat
mentofof
fender
s.

Jer
emyBent
ham (
1748-
1832)
:ThePai
nver
susPl
easur
ePr
inci
ple

Jer
emyBent
ham,anot
herf
oundi
ngf
atheroft
heNeo-
classi
calSchool
,wr
otei
nhi
s

i
ntr
oduct
iont
othepr
inci
plesofmor
alsandLegi
slat
ion(
1789)t
hat“
nat
urehaspl
aced

manki
nd undert
he gov
ernance of t
wo sov
erei
gn mast
ers,pai
n and pl
easur
e”

(
Schmal
l
eger
,2014)
.Accor
dingt
oBent
ham,
tor
educecr
ime,
thepai
nat
tachedt
ocr
ime

commi
ssi
onmustout
wei
ght
hepl
easur
eofcr
ime.Bent
ham i
deasr
est
edont
hebel
i
ef
t
hathuman bei
ngs bynat
ure ar
erat
ionaland cr
imi
nalwei
ghs t
he pai
nin cr
ime

commi
ssi
onagai
nstt
hepl
easur
esi
nher
enti
ncr
imecommi
ssi
on.Bent
ham dev
otedhi
s

l
i
fet
o dev
elopi
ng asci
ent
if
icappr
oacht
othemaki
ng and br
eaki
ng ofl
aws.Li
ke

Beccar
iahewasconcer
nedwi
thachi
evi
ng―t
hegr
eat
esthappi
nessoft
hegr
eat
est

number
.Hi
swor
kwasgov
ernedbyut
il
it
ari
anpr
inci
ples.

Bent
ham pr
oposedapr
eci
sepseudo-
mat
hemat
icalf
ormul
afort
hispr
ocess,whi
chhe

cal
l
edf
eli
cif
iccal
cul
us.Accor
dingt
ohi
sreasoni
ngi
ndi
vi
dual
sar
e―humancal
cul
ator
s

whooutal
lthef
act
orsi
ntoanequat
ioni
nor
dert
odeci
dewhet
herornotapar
ti
cul
ar

cr
imei
swor
thcommi
tt
ing.Thi
snot
ionmayseem r
atherwhi
msi
calt
oday
,butatat
ime

whent
her
ewer
eov
er200capi
talof
fences,
itpr
ovi
dedar
ati
onal
eforr
efor
m oft
hel
egal

sy
stem (
Nir
mal
a,2009)
.Bent
ham r
easonedt
hati
fpr
event
ionwast
hepur
poseof

puni
shment
,andi
fpuni
shmentbecamet
oocost
lybycr
eat
ingmor
ehar
mthangood,

t
henpenal
ti
esneedt
obesetj
ustabi
tanexcessoft
hepl
easur
eonemi
ghtder
ivef
rom

commi
tt
ingacr
ime,andnohi
gher
.Thel
awexi
stsi
nor
dert
ocr
eat
ehappi
nessf
ort
he

communi
ty.Si
ncepuni
shmentcr
eat
esunhappi
ness,
itcanbej
ust
if
iedonl
yifi
tpr
event
s

agr
eat
erev
ilt
hani
tpr
oduces.

Bent
ham posi
tedt
hatmani
sacal
cul
ati
ngani
mal
whowi
l
lwei
ghpot
ent
ial
gai
nsagai
nst

t
hepai
nli
kel
ytobei
mposed.I
fthepai
nout
wei
ghst
hegai
ns,hewi
l
lbedet
err
edand

t
hispr
oducesmaxi
malsoci
alut
il
it
y.Ther
efor
e,i
nar
ati
onalsy
stem,t
hepuni
shment

sy
stem mustbegr
aduat
edsot
hatt
hepuni
shmentmor
ecl
osel
ymat
chest
hecr
ime.

Bent
ham r
ecommendedt
hecr
eat
ionofacent
ral
i
zedpol
i
cef
orcef
ocusedoncr
ime

pr
event
ionandcont
rol
,ar
ecommendat
iont
hatenact
edt
heEngl
i
shMet
ropol
i
tanPol
i
ce
Actof1829,whi
chl
aterest
abl
i
shedLondon’
snew Pol
i
ceundert
hesuper
visi
onofSi
r

Rober
tPeel
(Schmal
l
eger
,2014)
.

Bent
ham’
s Maj
orcont
ri
but
ion t
o cr
imi
nol
ogy was hi
s suggest
ion t
hatpr
ison be

desi
gnedal
ongt
hel
i
nesofwhathecal
l
eda“
Panopt
iconHouse”
.Thepanopt
icon,

accor
ding t
o Bent
ham wast
o bea ci
rcul
arbui
l
ding wi
th sev
eralcel
l
swi
thi
nthe

ci
rcumf
erence,
eachcl
ear
lyv
isi
blef
rom acent
rall
ocat
ionst
aff
edbyguar
ds.Hef
urt
her

adv
ocat
edt
hatpanopt
iconsbebui
l
tnearandwi
thi
nmaj
orci
ti
est
oser
veasanexampl
e

t
o woul
dbecr
imi
nalofwhatwoul
dhappent
othem shoul
dtheycommi
tcr
imes.

Al
though,panopt
iconwasnev
erbui
l
tinEngl
and,Bent
ham’
scount
rybutamodi
fi
ed

v
ersi
onofsuchpr
isonwasbui
l
tinLy
ons,Fr
anchandsubsequent
ly,t
hreepr
isons

model
edaf
tert
hepanopt
iconwer
elat
erbui
l
tint
heUni
tedSt
atesofAmer
ica(
Posi
ck,

Kubr
in,
2018)
.

Posi
ti
vi
stEr
a1890-
1960

Thecl
assi
cal
andneocl
assi
cal
school
ofcr
imi
nol
ogyr
etai
nedav
irt
ual
monopol
yont
he

st
udyofcr
imeunt
ilt
hel
att
erpar
toft
heni
net
eent
hcent
ury
.Byt
he1870s,
thecl
assi
cal

and neo cl
assi
cali
deas,whi
ch uphel
dthe bel
i
eft
hatper
sonsr
ati
onal
l
ycal
cul
ate

pl
easur
eandpai
ndur
ingt
heexer
ciseoff
reewi
l
ltocommi
tornott
ocommi
tcr
ime,

begant
ogi
vewayt
obi
ologi
cal
“posi
ti
vi
sm”
.Thei
snewschool
oft
houghtpr
oposedt
hat

cr
imei
snotar
ati
onal
l
yreasonedbehav
iourwhi
chwi
l
loccurunl
esspr
event
edby

puni
shment
,butr
atheri
sther
esul
tofi
nbor
nabnor
mal
i
ties(
Aker
s,2000)
.

Accor
dingt
oSchmal
l
eger
,2014,t
heposi
ti
vi
stschoolofcr
imi
nol
ogywasbui
l
tont
wo

pr
inci
ples:(
1)t
heaccept
anceofsoci
aldet
ermi
nism,ort
hebel
i
eft
hathumanbehav
ior
i
sdet
ermi
nednotbyt
heexer
ciseoff
reechoi
ce,butbycausat
ivef
act
orsbey
ondt
he

cont
roloft
hei
ndi
vi
dual
,and(
2)t
heappl
i
cat
ionofsci
ent
if
icpr
ocedur
est
ost
udycr
ime

andcr
imi
nol
ogy
.Hef
urt
herasser
tedt
hatposi
ti
vi
sm hadi
tsf
oundat
ionsi
nthewr
it
ingof

August
eComt
e(1798-
1857)
,whowasamongt
hef
ir
stt
ousesci
ent
if
icmet
hodi
nthe

st
udyofhumansoci
etyi
n1851ar
ti
cleonSy
stem ofPosi
ti
vePol
i
ty.Posi
ti
vi
sm hol
ds

t
hatsoci
alphenomenaar
eobser
vabl
e,expl
ainabl
e,andmeasur
abl
einquant
it
ati
ve

t
erms.

ToMi
l
ler
,Schr
eck,&Tewkbur
y,(
2011)
,Posi
ti
vi
stt
hinki
ngi
ncr
imi
nol
ogyi
sbasedon

t
hreecor
eassumpt
ionsabouti
ndi
vi
dual
sandhowt
hei
rbodi
esr
elat
etot
hei
rbehav
ior
.

Fi
rst
,iti
sassumedt
hatal
li
ndi
vi
dual
sar
ebi
ologi
cal
l
yuni
queanddi
ff
erentf
rom al
lot
her

peopl
e.Second,
thesedi
ff
erencesonouri
ndi
vi
dual
makeupsar
ebel
i
evedt
oaccountf
or

ourdi
ff
erencei
nbehav
iour
.Thi
rd,cr
imi
nalbehav
iori
sassumedt
o bear
esul
tof

speci
fi
cdi
ff
erencei
nphy
sicalconst
ruct
ionsandchar
act
eri
sti
cst
hatcanbei
dent
if
ied

t
hroughobser
vat
ionorot
hersci
ent
if
icmeans.

Oneoft
hemosti
mpor
tantchangesi
nthi
nki
ngaboutbehav
iorf
rom t
heposi
ti
vi
stschool

wast
her
eject
ionoft
hei
deaoff
reewi
l
l.Nol
ongerwasi
tassumedt
hatpeopl
echose

t
hei
rbehav
ior
.Rat
her
,behav
iorwasapar
toft
hei
ndi
vi
dualov
erwhi
chheorshehad

l
i
ttl
econt
rol
.Ourbehav
ior
,incl
udi
ngwhet
herwecommi
tt
edcr
imes,
wassi
mpl
yanot
her

r
esul
tofourphy
sicaldev
elopment
,muchl
i
ket
hecol
ourofourhai
r,howt
allwear
e,or

whet
herwear
emal
eorf
emal
e.Justl
i
kephy
sicalchar
act
eri
sti
cs,ear
lyposi
ti
vi
st

t
hinker
sbel
i
evedt
hatourbahav
iourwasdet
ermi
ned.Ear
lyposi
ti
vi
stbi
ologi
calt
heor
ies

f
ocusedoni
dent
if
yingdi
sti
nctt
rai
tsofcr
imi
nal
s’f
aces,si
zes,shapes,bumpsont
hei
r
heads,
andov
eral
lphy
sical
sizeandshape(
Mil
l
er,
Schr
eck,
&Tewkbur
y,2011)
.

Cesar
eLombr
oso(
1836-
1909)

Thef
ir
stat
temptt
ounder
standt
heper
sonal
i
tyofof
fender
sinphy
sicalt
ermswas

madebyLombr
osooft
heI
tal
i
anSchoolofcr
imi
nol
ogi
calt
hought
,whoi
sregar
dedas

t
heor
igi
nat
orofmoder
ncr
imi
nol
ogy
.Hewasadoct
orandaspeci
ali
sti
npsy
chi
atr
y.He

wor
kedi
nmi
l
itar
yforsomet
imehandl
i
ngt
hement
all
yaf
fl
ict
edsol
dier
sbutl
aterhe

wasassoci
atedwi
tht
heUni
ver
sit
yofTur
in.Hewast
hef
ir
stt
oempl
oysci
ent
if
ic

met
hodsi
n expl
aini
ng cr
imi
nalbehav
iorand shi
ft
ed t
he emphasi
sfr
om cr
ime t
o

cr
imi
nal(
Nir
mal
a,2009)
.He f
ir
mly bel
i
eved t
hatbi
ologi
caland ant
hropol
ogi
cal

r
esear
cheshemadewer
eenought
oaccountf
orcr
imi
nal
i
ty.

Accor
dingAdl
er(
2001)
,Lombr
osoadopt
edanobj
ect
iveandempi
ri
calappr
oacht
othe

st
udyofcr
imi
nal
sthr
oughhi
sant
hropol
ogi
calexper
iment
s,af
terani
ntensi
vest
udyof

phy
sicalchar
act
eri
sti
csofhi
spat
ient
sandl
ateronofcr
imi
nal
s,hecamet
oadef
ini
te

concl
usi
ont
hatcr
imi
nal
swer
ephy
sical
l
yinf
eri
or(
loweri
nrank,st
atus,qual
i
ty)i
nthe

st
andar
dofgr
owt
handt
her
efor
e,dev
elopedat
endencyf
ori
nfer
ioract
s.Hef
urt
her

gener
ali
zedt
hatcr
imi
nal
sar
elesssensi
ti
vet
opai
nandt
her
efor
etheyhav
eli
tt
ler
egar
d

f
ort
hesuf
fer
ingsofot
her
s.Thust
hroughhi
sbi
ologi
calandant
hropol
ogi
calr
esear
ches

on cr
imi
nal
s Lombr
oso j
ust
if
ied t
he i
nvol
vementofDar
win’
stheor
yofbi
ologi
cal

det
ermi
nism i
ncr
imi
nal
behav
ior
.Hecl
assi
fi
edcr
imi
nal
sint
othr
eemai
ncat
egor
ies:
-

(
1)At
avi
sts,her
edi
tar
y(i
nher
it
ed)cr
imi
nal
s,orbor
n-cr
imi
nal
s.I
nhi
sopi
nionbor
n-

cr
imi
nal
swer
eofadi
sti
nctt
ypewhocoul
dnotr
efr
ainf
rom i
ndul
ging(
all
owonesel
f

t
oenj
oyt
hepl
easur
e)i
ncr
imi
nal
i
tyandenv
ironmenthadnor
elev
ancewhat
soev
ert
o
t
hecr
imescommi
tt
edbyt
heAt
avi
sts.He,t
her
efor
e,consi
der
edt
hesecr
imi
nal
sas

i
ncor
ri
gibl
es(
notabl
etobecor
rect
edorr
efor
med)
.Inhi
svi
ew,
thecr
imi
nal
ref
lect
ed

ar
ever
sion t
o an ear
lyand mor
e pr
imi
ti
ve bei
ng t
hatwasbot
h ment
all
yand

phy
sical
l
yinf
eri
or.Her
esembl
edt
hoseofapesandhadape-
li
kechar
act
eri
sti
cs

(
Aker
s,2000)
.Lombr
oso’
stheor
yusedphy
sicalchar
act
eri
sti
csasi
ndi
cat
orsof

cr
imi
nal
i
ty.Heenumer
atedasmanyassi
xteenphy
sicalabnor
mal
i
tiesofacr
imi
nal

someoft
hem wer
easf
oll
ows:
-

(
a)Theyhadadev
iat
ioni
nheadsi
zeandshape;

(
a)Thei
rfaceswer
enotsy
mmet
ri
cal
;

(
b)Theywoul
dhav
eexcessi
vedi
mensi
onsoft
hej
awandcheekbones;

(
c)Theywoul
dhav
eey
edef
ect
sandpecul
i
ari
ty;

(
d)Theyhadear
sofunusual
size–v
erysmal
lorst
andi
ngoutf
rom t
heheadasdo

t
hoseofchi
mpanzees;

(
e)Thenosewoul
dbet
wist
edandupt
urned.Fort
hiev
es,
thenosewoul
dbef
lat
,

beak-
li
kef
ormur
der
ersorwi
tht
het
ipr
isi
ngl
i
keapeak;

(
f)Thel
i
pswoul
dbef
leshyandswol
l
en;

(
g)Thedent
it
ionwoul
dbeabnor
mal
;

(
h)Thechi
nwoul
dber
ecedi
ngorexcessi
vel
ylongorexcessi
vel
yfl
atasi
napes;

(
i)Abundanceandv
ari
etyofwr
inkl
es;

(
j)Anomal
i
esoft
hehai
rmar
kedbychar
act
eri
sti
csoft
hehai
roft
heopposi
tesex;

(
k)Def
ect
soft
het
hor
ax–t
oomanyort
oof
ewr
ibs

(
l)I
nver
sionofsexchar
act
eri
sti
csi
nthepel
vi
cregi
on;

(
m) Excessi
vel
engt
hoft
hear
m;
 (
n)Toomanyort
oof
ewf
inger
sort
oes.

(
2)I
nsanecr
imi
nal
s– Thi
sisment
aldi
sor
der
,asaccor
dingt
oLombr
osot
her
ear
e

somecr
imi
nal
shav
ement
aldepr
avi
tyordi
sor
der
.

(
3)Cr
imi
nal
oids–Accor
dingt
oLombr
osot
hesear
ephy
sicalt
ypecr
imi
nal
sandhad

t
endencyt
ocommi
tcr
imesi
nor
dert
omeett
heneedofsur
viv
al.

Lombr
oso'
stheor
ywast
hatcr
imi
nal
swer
ephy
sical
l
ydi
ff
erentf
rom nor
malper
sons

andpossessedf
ewphy
sicalchar
act
eri
sti
csofi
nfer
iorani
malwor
ld.Thecont
ri
but
ionof

Lombr
osot
othedev
elopmentoft
hesci
enceofcr
imi
nol
ogymaybr
ief
lybesummedup

i
nthef
oll
owi
ngpoi
nts:

1.Heemphasi
zedov
ert
hei
ndi
vi
dualper
sonal
i
tyoft
hecr
imi
nali
nthei
nci
denceof

cr
ime.Thi
svi
ew gai
nedf
avouri
nsubsequenty
ear
sandmoder
ncr
imi
nol
ogi
cal

measur
esar
edev
isedt
oat
tai
ntheai
m ofi
ndi
vi
dual
i
zat
ioni
nthet
reat
mentof

cr
imi
nal
s.I
thasbeenr
ight
lycomment
edt
hatt
hesoci
ologi
sts’emphasi
sont
he

ext
ernalf
act
ors,psy
chol
ogi
stsont
hei
nter
nalf
act
ors,whi
l
eLombr
osohel
dthat

bot
hhadacommondenomi
nat
ort
he“
indi
vi
dual
”.

2.Heemphasi
zedont
hebi
ologi
calnat
ureofhumanbehav
ior
.Whi
l
eanal
yzi
ng

causesofcr
ime,Lombr
osol
aidgr
eat
eremphasi
sont
hebi
ologi
calnat
ureof

human behav
iorand t
husi
ndi
rect
lydr
ew at
tent
ion ofcr
imi
nol
ogi
stst
othe

i
mpactofenv
ironmentoncr
imecausat
ion.

3.He emphasi
zed on hi
stheor
yofAt
avi
sm (
bor
n cr
imi
nal
).Ata l
aterst
age

Lombr
osohi
msel
fwasconv
incedaboutt
hef
uti
l
ityofhi
stheor
yofat
avi
sm and

t
her
efor
eext
endedhi
stheor
yofdet
ermi
nism t
osoci
alaswel
laseconomi
c
 si
tuat
ions ofcr
imi
nal
s.Thus he was posi
ti
vei
n met
hod and obj
ect
ivei
n

appr
oachwhi
chsubsequent
lypav
edwayt
ofor
mul
ati
onofmul
ti
ple-
causat
ion

t
heor
yofcr
ime.

Enr
icoFer
ri1856-
1928,oneofLombr
oso’
smostnot
abl
eacol
ytes,bui
l
tonLombr
oso’
s

i
deasandaddedi
nasi
zabl
ecomponentofsoci
al,economi
candpol
i
ticalf
act
orsas

cont
ri
but
ort
ocr
ime.Fer
ripr
oposedacl
assi
fi
cat
ionofcr
imi
nalt
ypes,suggest
ingt
hat

of
fender
scoul
dbei
dent
if
iedasei
therbor
n,i
nsane,occasi
onal
,orcr
imi
nalbypassi
on

(
Mil
l
er,Schr
eck,& Tewkbur
y,2011)
.Thebor
nandi
nsanecr
imi
nal
sar
eessent
ial
l
y

Lombr
oso’
sideas.Occassi
onalcr
imi
nal
sandcr
imi
nalbypassi
onwer
ecr
imi
nalt
ypes

t
hatr
efi
nedLombr
oso’
scr
imi
nal
oidcat
egor
y(Vol
d,Ber
nar
d&Sni
pes,
1998)
.

Themaj
orcont
ri
but
ionofFer
rit
othef
iel
dofcr
imi
nol
ogywasespoused i
nhi
s“Lawof

Cr
imi
nalSat
urat
ion”wer
ehepr
ovedt
hatmer
ebi
ologi
calr
easonswer
enotenought
o

accountf
orcr
imi
nal
i
tyandhepr
esupposest
hatcr
imei
sthesy
nthet
icpr
oductoft
hree

mai
nfact
ors:(
1)t
hephy
sicalchar
act
eri
sti
csoft
hepeopl
eandenv
ironment
,(2)t
he

ant
hropol
ogi
cali
ssues,i
ncl
udi
ngt
hei
ndi
vi
dual
’
sageandphy
sicalcondi
ti
onsand(
3)

soci
alenv
ironmentwher
ecr
imi
nal
sli
ved(
Nir
mal
a,2009,Mi
l
ler
,Schr
eck,&Tewkbur
y,

2011)
.

Anot
hernot
abl
eposi
ti
vi
stwasRaf
fael
eGar
ofol
o,1852-
1934,amagi
str
atei
nIt
ali
an

cour
ts.Heagr
eedwi
thLombr
osoandFer
rii
nemphasi
zi
ngt
heposi
ti
veappr
oacht
o

cr
ime,i
.e.t
hatcr
imecanonl
ybeunder
stoodbysci
ent
if
icr
esear
chandi
nvest
igat
ions.

I
nsodoi
ngher
eject
edt
hepr
e-cl
assi
calt
heor
yandt
hecl
assi
calt
heor
yoff
reewi
l
l.

Gar
ofol
ofor
mul
atedasoci
ologi
caldef
ini
ti
onofcr
imewher
ecr
imemeantanyi
mmor
al
andhar
mfulactt
hati
sregar
dedascr
imi
nalbyt
hepubl
i
c.Thecr
imi
nalwhocommi
ts

t
hecr
imehasnopi
ty(
sympat
hy)orpr
obi
ty(
honest
y). Lackofpi
tycausescr
ime

agai
nstper
sonswhi
l
elackofpr
obi
tyl
eadst
ocr
imeagai
nstpr
oper
ty.

Hecat
egor
izedcr
imi
nal
sassuch:

1.Endemi
ccr
imi
nal
s–e.
g.mur
der
ers,t
heycommi
tcr
imei
nthei
rownl
ocal
i
tyand

ar
emai
nlyi
nfl
uencedbypassi
on.

2.Cr
imi
nal
def
ici
enti
npr
obi
tyi
.e.honest
ye.
g.t
hiev
es

3.Cr
imi
nal
sinf
luencedbyl
ust–l
asci
vi
ouscr
imi
nal
s

4.Vi
olentcr
imi
nal
s–af
fect
edbyenv
ironment
ali
nfl
uencessuchaspr
ejudi
cesof

honor
,pol
i
ticsandr
eli
gion

Gar
ofol
o’s mai
n cont
ri
but
ion was hi
s concent
rat
ion on t
he i
dea ofmot
ive as an

i
mpor
tantcausat
ion ofcr
ime. An under
standi
ng ofmot
ivewast
hef
ir
stst
ep t
o

changi
ngt
hecr
imi
nalandal
l
evi
ati
ngcr
imi
nalbehav
iori
nsoci
ety
.Hesuggest
edt
hree

meansofel
i
minat
ingcr
ime:

1.Deat
hfort
hosewhoseact
sgr
owoutofper
manentpsy
chol
ogi
cal
anomal
ywhi
ch

r
ender
sthesubj
ectf
orev
eri
ncapabl
eofasoci
all
i
fe.

2.Par
ti
alel
i
minat
ioni
ncl
udi
ngl
engt
hyorl
i
fet
imei
mpr
isonmentandt
ranspor
tat
ion

f
ort
hosef
itonl
yfort
hel
i
feofnomadi
chor
desorpr
imi
ti
vet
ri
bes. Heal
so

suggest
edmi
l
disol
ati
onf
ory
oungandmor
ehopef
ulof
fender
s.

3.Repat
ri
ati
onf
ort
hosewhocommi
tthei
runderexcept
ionalci
rcumst
ancesnot

l
i
kel
ytooccuragai
n