Theories in

Mathematics Teaching
& Learning
EED SPEC 316
 Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this lesson, the students are able to:
• Discuss the different theories in mathematics teaching and
learning;
• Cite mathematics learning situations where each theory is
applicable;
• Relate the different learning theories in intermediate grades
mathematics class situation; and
• Prepare a lesson plan following different learning theories
Naturalistic Theory
Naturalistic Theory
➢ Emphasizes learning through interaction with
the environment and real-world experiences,
rather than through traditional instruction or
memorization.
➢ In the context of teaching mathematics in
intermediate grades, the naturalistic approach
focuses on making math meaningful by
connecting it to students' everyday lives and
natural environments.
Naturalistic Theory
How will you incorporate naturalistic theory to
achieve the learning outcome:

“The students are able to calculate the

area of a parallelogram”
 Naturalistic Theory
Here’s how it can be used:
i. Contextual Learning
•What it is: Learning math concepts by relating them to real-life
situations that students can observe and experience.
•How it is applied: Design activities that allow students to see how
mathematical principles work in the world around them.
• Example: To enable students to calculate the area of the
parallelogram, design an activity where they measure various
parallelogram-shaped objects. This hands-on experience will
allow them to apply their measurements in calculating the area,
reinforcing their understanding of the concept.
Naturalistic Theory
Here’s how it can be used:
ii. Hands-on Exploration
•What it is: Allowing students to use physical objects to explore
mathematical concepts.
•How it is applied: Students manipulate real objects (e.g.,
blocks, measuring tools, money) to understand abstract ideas.
• Example: When teaching geometry, students can use
rulers to measure the dimensions of objects around the
classroom or in nature.
Naturalistic Theory
Here’s how it can be used:
iii. Problem-Solving in Real-World Contexts
•What it is: Using real-world problems that students may
encounter in their lives.
•How it is applied: Students solve problems that are connected
to their own experiences, making math relevant.
• Example: For teaching percentages, students could
calculate discounts during a “shopping” activity where they
simulate buying and budgeting.
Naturalistic Theory
Here’s how it can be used:
iv. Integration with Other Subjects
•What it is: Connecting math to other subjects like science,
geography, and art, helping students see its relevance across
disciplines.
•How it is applied: Math lessons are integrated with other
topics, such as measuring plant growth in a science lesson to
explore data collection and graphing.
• Example: When learning about data, students might track
the weather and use their data to create graphs.
Naturalistic Theory
Here’s how it can be used:
v. Outdoor Learning and Nature-Based Math
•What it is: Taking math learning outside the classroom and into
natural settings.
•How it is applied: Students engage in activities like measuring
the height of trees, calculating the area of a garden, or counting
patterns in nature.
• Example: Students can calculate the number of trees in a
park or estimate distances between objects in nature,
applying geometry and estimation skills.
Naturalistic Theory
Benefits of Naturalistic Theory in Math Instruction:

•Increases engagement: students are more likely to

see its relevance and value.
•Encourages deeper understanding: Hands-on
exploration helps students understand abstract
concepts in a concrete way.
•Fosters critical thinking: Problem-solving in real
contexts challenges students to apply their knowledge,
leading to better retention and comprehension.
 Naturalistic Theory
The Naturalistic Theory aligns with constructivist learning
theories where students build their understanding actively
rather than passively absorbing information.

In intermediate grades, the focus is often on making math

practical and relatable, which is exactly what naturalistic
teaching fosters.
Informal Theory

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Informal Theory
Informal theory refers to using non-rigorous, intuitive
ideas and methods to help students grasp mathematical
concepts before they are ready for more formal definitions
and proofs. This approach emphasizes understanding
through exploration, experimentation, and reasoning
rather than through strict formalization..
 Informal Theory
How will you incorporate informal theory to achieve
the learning outcome:

“The students are able to illustrate

equivalent fractions”
 Informal Theory
i. Conceptual Understanding through Intuition

•What it is: Informal Theory allows students to form mental models

of mathematical concepts by using everyday experiences and
reasoning. Instead of introducing formal definitions right away,
teachers encourage students to explore and "discover" mathematical
principles by playing with numbers, patterns, and objects.

•How it works: Teachers use examples, visuals, or manipulatives

(like blocks, shapes, or counters). For example, fractions might be
introduced by dividing a pizza into slices rather than starting with
abstract notation.
Informal Theory
ii. Problem-Solving through Estimation and Approximation
•What it is: Estimation and approximation are key components of
Informal Theory. Students are encouraged to make educated guesses
or rough calculations

•How it works: Teachers might ask students to estimate the product of

two numbers before formally teaching multiplication, or they might use
number lines to encourage rough placement of fractions or decimals.
These activities help students develop a sense of scale and
proportionality without requiring exact answers.
 Informal Theory
iii. Use of Everyday Language and Contexts
•What it is: Teachers often use everyday language and relatable
scenarios to explain complex ideas in a simpler, more digestible
way.

•How it works: In teaching concepts like ratio or proportion,

teachers might relate the lesson to cooking recipes or comparing
prices while shopping. This helps students see the relevance of
math in real life and build a more intuitive understanding before
introducing symbols or technical terms.
 Informal Theory
iv. Visual Representations and Diagrams
•What it is: Visual representations like graphs, charts, and
diagrams are part of Informal Theory, helping students visualize
relationships between numbers and shapes without relying on
abstract equations.

•How it works: For example, students might visualize fractions on a

number line to help them grasp the concept before they learn formal
operations with fractions.
 Informal Theory
Benefits of Informal Theory in Math Instruction:
•Promotes deep understanding: students learn the "why"
behind mathematical concepts.
•Encourages creativity: Students are free to explore multiple
ways to approach a problem
•Builds confidence: By making mistakes part of the learning
process, students gain confidence and become more resilient
learners.
•Prepares for formal theory: Informal approaches provide a
solid foundation for understanding more abstract and formal
mathematics
 Informal Theory
Examples of Activities Using Informal Theory:
•Fractions and pizza slices: Dividing a pizza into different
numbers of slices to introduce the concept of fractions.
•Geometry with paper folding: Exploring shapes by folding
paper to show symmetry, properties of triangles, or fractions of
shapes.
•Number lines for decimals and fractions: Placing decimals
and fractions on a number line to visualize their relative values.
 Informal Theory
➢ Informal Theory in teaching mathematics is about
providing students with an intuitive grasp of mathematical
concepts using relatable, hands-on, and exploratory
methods.

➢ It prepares them for more formal mathematical reasoning

and provides a deeper understanding of the subject
through visual aids, everyday contexts, and discovery
learning.
Structural Learning
Theory

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 Structural Learning Theory (Joseph
Scandura)

Structural Learning Theory, primarily

developed by Joseph Scandura in the 1970s,
focuses on how learners acquire and apply
rules and procedures in problem-solving.
This theory emphasizes understanding the
underlying structures of concepts, which can
be very effective in teaching mathematics,
 Structural Learning Theory
Key Concepts of Structural Learning Theory in Mathematics:
1. Rule-based Learning: Structural Learning Theory posits that
learners acquire knowledge through rules and procedures. In
mathematics, these rules are foundational, such as arithmetic
operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication) or algebraic rules.
The focus is on teaching students the underlying principles that
govern these rules, helping them apply these principles to various
situations.
 Structural Learning Theory
Key Concepts of Structural Learning Theory in Mathematics:

2. Hierarchy of Concepts: Structural Learning Theory

emphasizes a hierarchical approach to learning, where complex
skills are built on simpler, foundational concepts. In math, this
could mean ensuring that students master basic operations
before introducing more advanced topics like fractions or
algebra.
 Structural Learning Theory
Key Concepts of Structural Learning Theory in Mathematics:

3. Transfer of Learning: A key aspect of the theory is ensuring

that students can transfer learned skills to new, unfamiliar
problems. This means students are taught not just to memorize
formulas or algorithms, but to understand the underlying
principles that can be applied in a variety of contexts.
 Structural Learning Theory
Example in Practice:
• If a teacher is introducing fractions, they might begin by
revisiting prior knowledge, such as division and multiplication,
and then build on that by introducing the concept of parts of a
whole.
• By using visual aids like pie charts or fraction bars, the
teacher helps students grasp the structural relationships
between fractions and whole numbers.
• Then, the teacher might gradually introduce more complex
problems, such as adding or subtracting fractions, ensuring
that each concept is understood before progressing.
 Structural Learning Theory
➢ In summary, Structural Learning Theory is used in
mathematics education by focusing on teaching
the rules and structures that underpin
mathematical concepts, using task analysis and
scaffolding to help students internalize and apply
these rules in various contexts.
Behaviorism
Theory

The teacher ：×××

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 \Behaviorism Theory

Behaviorism is a learning theory that focuses

on observable behaviors and how they're
shaped by external stimuli.
• In teaching mathematics to intermediate
grades, behaviorism can be employed
effectively to reinforce desired behaviors, like
problem-solving skills and computation
fluency, through structured practice and
immediate feedback.
 Behaviorism Theory
Here’s how behaviorism can be applied to mathematics
instruction in intermediate grades:
i. Reinforcement and Feedback
•Positive Reinforcement: Teachers can use praise, stickers, or
other rewards to encourage students when they solve problems
correctly.
• Negative Reinforcement: This involves removing an undesirable
stimulus when the desired behavior occurs.
•Immediate Feedback: Immediate feedback helps students
associate correct or incorrect answers with a specific outcome.
 Behaviorism Theory
Here’s how behaviorism can be applied to mathematics
instruction in intermediate grades:
ii. Drill and Practice
•Behaviorism emphasizes repetition and practice to develop
skills. In math, students often need to master foundational
concepts (e.g., addition, subtraction, multiplication) through drills.
For example, students might engage in timed drills where they
practice their multiplication tables repeatedly. These structured,
repetitive exercises reinforce automaticity in basic operations..
 Behaviorism Theory
Here’s how behaviorism can be applied to mathematics
instruction in intermediate grades:
ii. Drill and Practice
•Behaviorism emphasizes repetition and practice to develop
skills. In math, students often need to master foundational
concepts (e.g., addition, subtraction, multiplication) through drills.
For example, students might engage in timed drills where they
practice their multiplication tables repeatedly. These structured,
repetitive exercises reinforce automaticity in basic operations..
 Behaviorism Theory
Here’s how behaviorism can be applied to mathematics
instruction in intermediate grades:
iii. Modeling and Imitation
•Teachers model problem-solving strategies or mathematical
operations in front of the class, showing step-by-step processes.
Students then imitate the teacher’s behavior by solving similar
problems on their own
•The correct behavior (e.g., solving problems accurately) is
rewarded, reinforcing the learning process.
 Behaviorism Theory
Here’s how behaviorism can be applied to mathematics
instruction in intermediate grades:
iv. Use of Objectives and Mastery Learning
•Clear objectives are important in behaviorist teaching. Each
math lesson might begin with a specific goal. Lessons are
designed so that students can achieve the objective through
practice and feedback.
•Mastery learning is a behaviorist approach where students
must achieve a high level of competence in one area before
moving to the next.
 Behaviorism Theory
Examples of Behaviorism in Action in Mathematics:
•Math Drill Software: Programs that allow students to practice
math facts and give immediate feedback on whether the answer
is correct.
•Flashcard Games: Students use flashcards to practice math
facts, receiving praise or rewards for correct responses.
•Timed Tests: Teachers might use timed multiplication or division
tests to reinforce quick recall of facts,
 Behaviorism Theory
Behaviorism in teaching
mathematics focuses on structured
practice, reinforcement, and the
repetition of correct behaviors to
achieve mastery, which can help
students develop proficiency in math
skills.
Constructivism
Theory
 Constructivism Theory
Constructivism's central idea is
that human learning is constructed,
that learners build new knowledge
upon the foundation of previous
learning.

This prior knowledge influences

what new or modified knowledge an
individual will construct from new
learning experiences (Phillips,
1995).
 Constructivism Theory
Here’s how constructivism can be applied to
mathematics instruction in intermediate grades:

i. Active Learning
•What: Students are encouraged to actively engage in problem-
solving, hands-on activities, and collaborative work rather than
passively receiving information from the teacher.
•How: Teachers might introduce real-world math problems and
let students explore different methods to solve them, encouraging
discussion and collaboration.
 Constructivism Theory
Here’s how constructivism can be applied to
mathematics instruction in intermediate grades:
ii. Prior Knowledge as a Foundation
•What: Constructivism emphasizes the importance of connecting
new knowledge to what students already know.

•How: Before introducing new mathematical concepts, teachers

assess students’ prior understanding. For example, if students
are learning about multiplication, teachers might connect this to
their prior knowledge of addition, showing how multiplication is a
form of repeated addition.
 Constructivism Theory
Here’s how constructivism can be applied to
mathematics instruction in intermediate grades:
iii. Collaborative Learning
•What: Constructivist classrooms often encourage group work
and discussions, where students explain their reasoning and
learn from each other.
•How: Students might work in groups to solve complex problems,
discuss their thought processes, and learn alternative problem-
solving strategies from their peers. For instance, they could work
together to solve geometry problems by drawing shapes and
discussing their properties.
 Constructivism Theory
Here’s how constructivism can be applied to
mathematics instruction in intermediate grades:
iv. Problem-Based Learning (PBL)
•What: Learning is often organized around problems or real-life
scenarios that require mathematical reasoning.

•How: Instead of teaching abstract math concepts first, a teacher

might introduce a real-world scenario—like budgeting for a class
party or building a simple structure—where students must use
arithmetic, measurement, or algebraic thinking.
 Constructivism Theory
Here’s how constructivism can be applied to
mathematics instruction in intermediate grades:
v. Scaffolding
•What: Teachers provide support as students build their own
understanding, gradually reducing assistance as students
become more proficient.
•How: Teachers might initially offer visual aids, step-by-step
examples, or guiding questions. As students gain confidence, the
teacher reduces direct support and encourages students to
tackle more complex problems independently.
 Constructivism Theory
Here’s how constructivism can be applied to
mathematics instruction in intermediate grades:
vi. Reflection and Metacognition
•What: Constructivism encourages students to reflect on their
learning process and understand their own thinking.

•How: After solving math problems, teachers might ask students

to explain their reasoning, both in writing and orally, prompting
them to think about the strategies they used and why they
worked (or didn’t work).
 Constructivism Theory
Example of a Constructivist Math Lesson:
Let’s say the lesson is about fractions. Instead of simply teaching the
algorithm for adding fractions, a teacher might:
1.Present a Real-Life Problem: Ask students how they would divide a pizza
for 5 friends using fractions.
2.Group Exploration: Let students work in small groups with fraction tiles or
drawings to figure out different ways to represent and combine fractions.
3.Discussion and Sharing: Students share their findings and explain how
they came up with their answers, allowing the teacher to guide them toward
the correct mathematical principles.
4.Reflection: The teacher asks students to reflect on the different methods
they used and how they arrived at their conclusions, reinforcing their
understanding of how fractions work.
 Constructivism Theory
Teacher's Role:
•Facilitator: The teacher guides students through the process
of discovery, asking probing questions and offering support
when needed, rather than directly teaching the solution.

•Scaffolding Provider: As students progress, the teacher

gradually removes support, allowing them to work more
independently.
 Constructivism Theory

Constructivism in teaching intermediate-grade mathematics

emphasizes a student-centered, active learning approach
where students build their mathematical knowledge through
exploration, collaboration, and reflection, with the teacher
acting as a guide and facilitator
Jerome Burner and
Discovery Learning
 What is Discovery Learning?
Discovery Learning was introduced
by Jerome Bruner, and is a method of
Inquiry-Based Instruction.

•The discovery learning educational

sessions should be well-designed,
highly experiential and interactive.
 Discovery Learning
• This popular theory encourages learners to build on past
experiences and knowledge, use their intuition, imagination,
and creativity, and search for new information to discover facts,
correlations, and new truths.

• Learning does not equal absorbing what was said or read, but
actively seeking for answers and solutions.
It emphasizes active learning where students explore and find
solutions on their own, guided by the teacher.
Discovery Learning
Enactive Representation
(Action-based Learning)

Students learn through direct manipulation of

objects or engaging in hands-on activities.
For intermediate mathematics, this involves
physically interacting with tools and concrete
materials to explore concepts.
 Discovery Learning
Iconic Representation
(Image-based Learning)

Students rely on images or visual

representations to understand
mathematical concepts. They move
beyond physical manipulation and
start to visualize problems and
solutions in their minds, often using
diagrams, pictures, or graphs.
 Discovery Learning
Symbolic Representation
(Abstract Learning)
At the symbolic stage, learners use
abstract symbols such as mathematical
notations and formulas to represent
mathematical concepts. They no longer
need concrete objects or images; instead,
they manipulate mathematical symbols,
such as numbers and operations, to solve
problems
 Integrating the Three Modes in a Single Lesson:
Topic: Understanding & Solving Word Problems with Proportions
1.Enactive: Start by giving students a real-world problem. For
instance, use measuring cups in a baking recipe to introduce
proportions. Students physically measure ingredients and compare
amounts.
2.Iconic: Move to a visual representation. Students can draw diagrams
of different quantities of ingredients (e.g., one cup of sugar to two cups
of flour). They may use bar models or number lines to represent the
proportional relationship.
3.Symbolic: Finally, translate the proportional relationship into a
1 𝑥
symbolic equation = ​, and have students solve for x using cross-
2 4
multiplication.
Robert Gagne and
Learning Hierarchy
 Robert Gagne
In 1956, the American
educational psychologist Robert M.
Gagne proposed a system of
classifying different types of
learning in terms of the degree of
complexity of the mental processes
involved.

He identified eight basic types, and

arranged these in the hierarchy.
Robert Gagne and Learning Hierarchy
The higher orders of
learning in this hierarchy build
upon the lower levels,
requiring progressively
greater amounts of previous
learning for their success.
The lowest four orders tend
to focus on the more
behavioural aspects of
learning, while the highest
four focus on the more
cognitive aspects.
 Robert Gagne and Learning Hierarchy
Eight categories of learning :

1.) Signal Learning.

This is the simplest form of learning, and
consists essentially of the classical
conditioning.
This is done by first exposing the subject to
the chosen stimulus (known as the
conditioned stimulus) along with another
stimulus (known as the unconditioned
stimulus) which produces the desired
response naturally.
Robert Gagne and Learning Hierarchy

2.) Stimulus-response
learning

It involves developing desired

stimulus-response bonds in the
subject through a carefully-
planned reinforcement schedule
based on the use of 'rewards'
and 'punishments.
Robert Gagne and Learning Hierarchy

3.) Process or Procedure

The subject develops the ability to

connect two or more previously-
learned stimulus-response bonds
into a linked sequence.

It is the process whereby most

complex psychomotor skills (eg
riding a bicycle or playing the piano)
are learned.
 Robert Gagne and Learning Hierarchy
4.) Verbal association.
This is a form of chaining in which the
links between the items being connected
are verbal in nature Verbal association is
one of the key processes in the
development of language skills.

5.) Differentiation learning.

This involves developing the ability to
make appropriate (different) responses to a
series of similar stimuli that differ in a
systematic way.
Robert Gagne and Learning Hierarchy

6.) Concept learning.

This involves developing the ability

to make a consistent response to
different stimuli that form a common
class or category of some sort. It
forms the basis of the ability to
generalise, classify etc.
Robert Gagne and Learning Hierarchy
7.) Rule learning.

This is a very-high-level cognitive

process that involves being able to
learn relationships between
concepts and apply these
relationships in different situations,
including situations not previously
encountered.
Robert Gagne and Learning Hierarchy

8.) Problem solving.

This is the highest level of

cognitive process according to
Gagne.
It involves developing the ability
to invent a complex rule, algorithm
or procedure for the purpose of
solving one particular problem,
and then using the method to solve
other problems of a similar
nature7.
Robert Gagne and Learning Hierarchy

• Robert Gagné’s theory, especially his Learning

Hierarchy concept, can be applied to the teaching of
intermediate mathematics by breaking down complex
mathematical tasks into a structured series of sub-
skills that build on each other.
• Gagné emphasized that learning is a cumulative
process, where mastering lower-level skills is essential
before advancing to more complex tasks.
Robert Gagne and Learning Hierarchy
Here’s how this can work in intermediate mathematics:

1.Identification of Prerequisite Skills

Gagné’s Learning Hierarchy theory suggests that students must

master foundational skills before they can progress to more
advanced concepts. In intermediate mathematics, this could
involve ensuring that students are proficient in basic arithmetic,
fractions, and operations with integers before moving on to
algebraic expressions, geometry, or statistics.
Robert Gagne and Learning Hierarchy
2. Task Analysis and Sequencing
According to Gagné, complex learning tasks can be broken down into
simpler, more manageable steps. In mathematics, this involves carefully
sequencing lessons so that each topic builds on the previous one.
Example:
•Step 1: Teach basic probability and calculating single-event probabilities.
•Step 2: Introduce complementary events and the addition rule.
•Step 3: Cover independent/dependent events and joint probabilities using
the multiplication rule.
•Step 4: Gradually introduce conditional probability and Bayes' Theorem,
applying them to real-world problems.
Robert Gagne and Learning Hierarchy

3. Progressive Mastery and Reinforcement

Gagné advocated for reinforcement at each stage of the learning

hierarchy. In mathematics teaching, this can be achieved by
providing opportunities for practice, feedback, and assessment at
each level of skill development.
For example, once students learn to solve simple linear
equations, teachers can provide problems that gradually increase
in difficulty to ensure deeper mastery before moving on.
Robert Gagne and Learning Hierarchy

5. Tailoring Instruction to Individual Progress

Gagné’s theory emphasizes the importance of diagnosing where

a learner is in the hierarchy and tailoring instruction accordingly.
In an intermediate math classroom, this could involve
differentiating instruction: offering remedial exercises for students
who have not mastered foundational skills, while advancing other
students who are ready for more challenging work.
Robert Gagne and Learning Hierarchy

By using Gagné’s Learning Hierarchy and instructional

principles, math educators can create a structured, step-
by-step learning experience that ensures students build a
strong foundation before moving on to more complex
topics. This method promotes both confidence and
competence in intermediate mathematics.
Jean Piaget and Cognitive
Learning
Jean Piaget and Cognitive Learning
Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive
development suggests that
intelligence changes as children
grow.

At each stage of development, the

child’s thinking is qualitatively
different from the other stages, that
is, each stage involves a different
type of intelligence.
 Piaget's Stages of Cognitive
Development
The Sensorimotor Stage
Ages: Birth to 2 Years

During this stage the infant lives

in the present. It does not yet
have a mental picture of the
world stored in its memory
therefore it does not have a
sense of object permanence.
 Piaget's Stages of Cognitive
Development
The Preoperational Stage
Ages: 2 - 7 Years

During this stage, children

begin to engage in symbolic
play and learn to manipulate
symbols. However, Piaget
noted that they do not yet
understand concrete logic.
 Piaget's Stages of Cognitive
Development
The Concrete Operational Stage
Ages: 7 to 11 Years
During this stage, children also
become less egocentric and begin to
think about how other people might
think and feel.
Kids in the concrete operational
stage also begin to understand that
their thoughts are unique to them and
that not everyone else necessarily
shares their thoughts, feelings, and
opinions.
 Piaget's Stages of Cognitive
Developments
The Formal Operational Stage
Ages: 12 and Up
The final stage of Piaget's theory
involves an increase in logic, the
ability to use deductive reasoning
and an understanding of abstract
ideas.
Teens begin to think more about
moral, philosophical, ethical, social,
and political issues that require
theoretical and abstract reasoning.
In the context of teaching intermediate
mathematics (typically during the ages 7–12,
which correspond to the concrete operational
and early formal operational stages), Piaget’s
theory influences the following aspects of
instruction:
1. Concrete Operational Stage (Ages 7–11)
Students begin to develop logical thinking but are still closely tied
to concrete, tangible experiences. For teaching intermediate
mathematics, this suggests:

•Use of Concrete Materials: These materials bridge the gap

between abstract mathematical symbols and students' need for
hands-on experiences.

•Focus on Reversibility: Children at this stage start

understanding reversible operations, which is essential for
learning concepts like addition and subtraction, as well as
multiplication and division.
•Classification and Seriation: Piaget noted that children at
this stage can classify objects and arrange them in logical
sequences. This is useful for teaching number sequences,
place value, and comparing quantities.

•Conservation: The concept of conservation (e.g.,

understanding that quantities remain the same despite
changes in shape or appearance) helps students grasp
core mathematical ideas such as equivalency and fractions.
Transition to Formal Operational Stage (Ages 11 and Up)
Students start to develop abstract thinking skills and the ability
to reason hypothetically. For intermediate math instruction, this
means:
•Introduction of Abstract Concepts: As students begin to
move into abstract thinking, teachers can introduce algebraic
thinking and more complex problem-solving activities. This is
the stage where variables, algebraic expressions, and more
sophisticated geometry become central.
•Use of Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning: Problem-solving
can be designed to encourage students to think through
hypothetical situations and deduce outcomes based on
principles they’ve learned. For example, teachers might pose
"what if" scenarios or encourage students to work through multi-
step problems.

•Encouragement of Metacognitive Skills: Teachers can start

encouraging students to reflect on their own thought processes.
They might ask students to explain how they arrived at a
solution, promoting a deeper understanding of the strategies
used in solving problems.
3. Scaffolding Learning
• Piaget's theory also informs differentiated instruction and
scaffolding in the classroom. Teachers provide support
tailored to each student’s developmental stage. In
intermediate mathematics:
• Some students may still need concrete examples, while
others are ready for more abstract concepts.
•Teachers might scaffold learning by slowly moving from
hands-on activities to symbolic or abstract representations
of mathematical ideas.
 Practical Application in Intermediate Mathematics
•Fractions and Decimals: Using manipulatives (e.g., fraction
circles, rods) to visually represent parts of a whole can help
students in the concrete operational stage grasp the concept of
fractions.
•Algebraic Thinking: Introducing variables and simple equations
in later stages allows students to start reasoning about unknowns
and abstract relationships.
•Geometry: Teachers can use concrete tools like protractors or
3D models before transitioning students to abstract concepts like
geometric proofs or formula-based problem-solving.
 Piaget’s cognitive development theory impacts
how teachers structure lessons, choose
instructional materials, and design activities
in intermediate mathematics. Teachers adapt
their strategies based on students’
developmental readiness to handle abstract
ideas, starting from concrete representations and
moving toward abstract reasoning.
 Activity:

➢ Prepare a semi-detailed lesson plan that

incorporates various teaching and learning
theories discussed in class.
➢ Then, write a 250-300 word reflection
explaining the different theories you integrated
into the lesson and the reasoning behind your
choices.
 ~END

time ：××× The teacher ：×××