COMPUTER NETWORKS

PREREQUISTE
QUESTIONS

Name: Lohith Jalla

NAME:
Year: 3rdB. Yasaswini Sri Pavani
rd
YEAR: 3H
Section:
Reg.No:221FA0463
REG.NO: 221FA04126
7 SECTION: D

V Nandini KANDAN
SUBMITTED TO:Dr.K.B.MANI
Mam
1. Introduction to Networks
a) What is a computer network?
b) Can you explain the difference between a LAN (Local Area Network) and
a WAN (Wide Area Network)?
c) What are the primary goals of networking?

a) A computer network is a system that connects many independent computers

to share information (data) and resources. The integration of computers and
other different devices allows users to communicate more easily. A computer
network is a collection of two or more computer systems that are linked
together. A network connection can be established using
either cable or wireless media.

b) difference between a LAN and WAN

S.NO LAN WAN
1 LAN’s ownership is private. But WAN’s ownership can be
private or public.
2 The speed of LAN is high(more While the speed of WAN is slower
than WAN). than LAN.
3 There is less congestion in While there is more congestion in
LAN(local area network). WAN(Wide Area Network).
4 LAN covers small area i.e. within While WAN covers large
the building. geographical area.
5 LAN has a higher data transfer rate WAN has a lower data transfer rate
as compared to LAN.
6 LANs is cheaply compared to WAN is costly compared to LAN.
WAN

7 Due to short distance short circuit In this network, short circuit errors,
error or other noise error are noise errors are higher than any
minimum. other network.
8 For e.g.: A computer lab in a For e.g.: pager
college.
c) Primary goals of networking: The primary goals of networking can be
summarized as follows:

 Resource Sharing: Networks enable sharing of hardware resources (like

printers, scanners) and software resources (like applications and databases)
among multiple users and devices.
 Reliability: Networks aim to provide reliable access to resources and services,
minimizing downtime and ensuring consistent availability.
 Communication: Facilitating efficient and effective communication between
users and devices is a fundamental goal of networking, supporting activities
such as email, video conferencing, and instant messaging.
 Cost Efficiency: Networks often reduce costs by allowing shared access to
resources and enabling centralized management and administration of IT
infrastructure.
 Scalability: Networks should be designed to accommodate growth, allowing
easy expansion and integration of new devices and services as needed.
 Security: Ensuring the security of data and resources is critical in
networking, protecting against unauthorized access, data breaches, and other
threats.

2. Network Topologies
a) What are network topologies?
b) Name and describe at least three different types of network topologies.
c) What are the advantages and disadvantages of a star topology?

a) What are network topologies?

Network topologies refer to the layout or structure of a computer network. They

define how devices such as computers, servers, printers, and other nodes are
connected and communicate with each other.

b) Types of network topologies:

1. Bus Topology:

In a bus topology, all devices are connected to a single central cable,

known as the bus or backbone.
 Devices communicate by transmitting data onto the bus, and all other
devices receive the data simultaneously.

o Advantages:
 Simple and inexpensive to implement.
 Well-suited for small networks with a limited number of devices.
o Disadvantages:
 Can suffer from collisions (when two devices
transmit simultaneously) leading to data loss.
 This network topology is very slow as compared to other
topologies.
 A failure in the main cable can disable the entire network.
2. Star Topology:

In a star topology, each device connects directly to a central hub or switch. All
communication between devices goes through the central hub.

o Advantages:
o It is high-performing as no data collisions can occur.
o No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing devices.
o Disadvantages:
o Requires more cable than a linear bus.
o If the connecting network device (network switch) fails, the nodes
attached are disabled and can’t participate in network communication.
3. Ring Topology:
o In a ring topology, devices are connected in a circular manner, where
each device is connected to exactly two other devices, forming a closed
loop.
o Data travels in one direction around the ring.
o Advantages:
 Simple and easy to install.
 Equal access to the network resources since each device has the
same opportunity to transmit data.
o Disadvantages:
 Failure of one device or cable segment can disrupt the entire
network.
 Expansion or reconfiguration of the network can be difficult.
  Typically, slower than other topologies like star and bus due to
the sequential passing of data.

c) Advantages and disadvantages of a star topology:

Advantages:

 Centralized management: The central hub or switch makes it easy to

manage and troubleshoot the network.
 Fault tolerance: If one device or cable segment fails, only that
particular connection is affected, not the entire network.
 Scalability: It's relatively easy to add or remove devices without affecting the
rest of the network.
 Performance: Performance remains stable even as more devices are added,
as long as the central hub can handle the increased traffic.

Disadvantages:

 Dependency on central hub: If the central hub fails, the entire network becomes
inoperable.
 Cost: Setting up a star topology can be more expensive initially due to the
need for a central device.
 Limited by hub capacity: The performance of the network can be limited by
the capacity of the central hub, especially under heavy traffic conditions.

3. Network Models
a) What is the OSI model, and why is it important in networking?
b) List and describe the seven layers of the OSI model.
c) What is the difference between the OSI model and the TCP/IP model?

a) What is the OSI model, and why is it important in networking?

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a conceptual framework used to

understand and describe how networks operate. It standardizes the functions of a
communication system into distinct layers, each responsible for specific tasks. The
OSI model is crucial in networking because it provides a systematic approach to
network design, troubleshooting, and communication between different systems and
devices, ensuring interoperability and compatibility across various network
technologies.

b) List and describe the seven layers of the OSI model:

1. Physical Layer:
o The lowest layer of the OSI model.
o Concerned with transmitting raw data bits over a physical medium
(e.g., cables, wireless signals).
o Defines electrical, mechanical, and procedural standards for transmitting
data.
2. Data Link Layer:
o Responsible for node-to-node communication within the same network
segment.
o Translates data from the physical layer into frames.
o Manages access to the physical medium, error detection, and correction.
3. Network Layer:
o Handles routing of data packets across different networks.
o Determines the optimal path for data transfer from source to destination.
o Provides logical addressing (IP addresses) and manages traffic
congestion.
4. Transport Layer:
o Ensures reliable data transfer between end devices.
o Provides error-checking, flow control, and data segmentation.
o Examples include TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP
(User Datagram Protocol).
5. Session Layer:
o Manages sessions (connections) between applications on different
devices.
o Establishes, maintains, and terminates communication sessions.
o Handles synchronization, check pointing, and recovery of data exchange.
6. Presentation Layer:
o Translates data from the application layer into a format suitable
for transmission over the network.
o Handles data encryption, compression, and formatting (e.g., ASCII,
JPEG).
 7. Application Layer:
o Provides network services directly to end-user applications.
o Supports communication and data exchange for specific applications
(e.g., email, web browsing).
o Implements protocols like HTTP, FTP, SMTP.

c) Difference between the OSI model and the TCP/IP model:

The TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) model is another

widely used networking model. Here are the key differences between the OSI model
and the TCP/IP model:

 Number of Layers:
o OSI model: Consists of seven layers, each with a specific function and
purpose.
o TCP/IP model: Combines some functions of the OSI model's layers,
resulting in a four-layer model.
 Layer Names and Functions:
o OSI model: Each layer has a distinct name and clear separation
of functions (e.g., physical, data link, network).
o TCP/IP model: Layers are named differently and sometimes combine
functions of multiple OSI layers (e.g., Network Interface Layer
combines aspects of OSI's physical and data link layers).
 Development and Use:
o OSI model: Developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) as a theoretical model for standardizing network
communication.
o TCP/IP model: Developed by the U.S. Department of Defense and
widely used in the design and implementation of the Internet.
 Focus:
o OSI model: Emphasizes defining and standardizing the functions
and interactions of each layer in a communication system.
o TCP/IP model: Focuses on the practical implementation of networking
protocols used in the Internet and related systems.

4. Networking Hardware
a) What is a router, and how does it function in a network?
b) Can you explain the role of a switch in a network?
c) What is the difference between a hub and a switch?

a) What is a router, and how does it function in a network?

A router is a networking device that connects different networks together. Its primary
function is to forward data packets between computer networks. Routers operate at the
network layer (Layer 3) of the OSI model and use routing tables to determine the best
path for forwarding data packets. Here’s how a router functions:

 Packet Forwarding: Routers examine the destination IP address of incoming

packets and decide where to send them based on the most efficient path in the
network.
 Network Interconnection: Routers facilitate communication between devices
on different networks, such as connecting a home network to the Internet or
linking multiple office networks together.
 Routing and Switching: Apart from forwarding packets between networks,
routers can also include switch functionality to direct traffic within a local
network (LAN).

b) Role of a switch in a network:

A switch is a networking device that operates at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the
OSI model. Its primary function is to connect multiple devices within a local area
network (LAN) and forward data frames between them. Here’s how a switch
functions:

 Frame Forwarding: Switches use MAC addresses to forward data frames

between devices within the same network segment.
 Address Learning: Switches learn the MAC addresses of devices connected to
their ports by examining source addresses in incoming frames.
 Collision Domain Isolation: Unlike hubs (see next question), switches create
separate collision domains for each connected device, improving network
efficiency.
 Enhanced Performance: Switches provide full-duplex communication,
allowing simultaneous data transmission and reception, which increases
network throughput.
c) Difference between a hub and a switch:

S.NO HUB SWITCH

1 Hub is operated on Physical layer While switch is operated
of OSI model on Data link layer of OSI
Model.

2 Hub is a broadcast type While switch is a Unicast,

transmission multicast and broadcast type
transmission
3 Hub have 4/12 ports. In hub, there While switch can have 24 to 48
is only one collision domain. ports. While in switch, different
ports have own collision
domain.
4 Hub is not an intelligent device While switch is an intelligent
that sends message to all ports device that sends message to
hence it is comparatively selected destination so it is
inexpensive expensive
5 Hub is simply old type of device While switch is very
and is not generally used. sophisticated device and widely
used
6 Hacking of systems attached to Hacking of systems attached to
hub is complex. switch is little easy.
5. Networking Protocols
a) What is a protocol in the context of computer networks?
b) Explain the function of the TCP/IP protocol.
c) What is the purpose of the HTTP protocol?

a) What is a protocol in the context of computer networks?

In the context of computer networks, a protocol refers to a set of rules and

conventions that govern how devices communicate and exchange data over a
network. Protocols define standards for data formatting, transmission, error checking,
and security measures, ensuring that devices from different manufacturers can
communicate effectively. They provide a common language that enables seamless
communication between computers, servers, routers, and other network devices.

b) Explain the function of the TCP/IP protocol.

The TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is a suite of protocols
that forms the basis for communication on the Internet and many private networks. It
provides reliable, end-to-end communication by defining how data should be
formatted, addressed, transmitted, routed, and received at the destination. Here are the
main functions of TCP/IP:

 Packet Routing: Determines the best path for data packets to travel from
the source to the destination across interconnected networks.
 Error Handling: Detects errors in data transmission and ensures reliable
delivery through mechanisms like acknowledgment and retransmission.
 Addressing: Uses IP addresses to uniquely identify devices on a network
and allows devices to communicate with each other.
 Protocols: Includes various protocols such as TCP (Transmission Control
Protocol) for reliable data delivery and UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
for faster but unreliable data transmission.
 Interoperability: Facilitates interoperability across different types of
networks, enabling devices running on different hardware and software
platforms to
b)What is the purpose of the HTTP protocol?

The HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) protocol is used for transmitting and
receiving web pages, files, images, videos, and other resources on the World
Wide Web. Its primary purpose is to define how web browsers and web servers
communicate with each other. Here’s what HTTP enables:

 Client-Server Communication: Allows web browsers (clients) to request

resources from web servers and receive responses.
 Request-Response Model: Follows a request-response model where clients
send HTTP requests (e.g., GET, POST) to servers, and servers respond with
HTTP responses containing requested data.
 Stateless Protocol: Each HTTP request is independent, meaning the server
does not retain information about previous requests from the same client. This
simplicity aids scalability and performance.
 Hyperlinks: Supports hyperlinks embedded in web pages, allowing users to
navigate between different web resources by clicking links.

HTTP is fundamental to the functionality of the World Wide Web, enabling users to
access websites, interact with web applications, and retrieve information from servers
worldwide. It is often supplemented by HTTPS (HTTP Secure), which adds
encryption and authentication layers to enhance security during data transmission.

6. IP Addressing
a) What is an IP address, and why is it important?
b) Explain the difference between IPv4 and IPv6.
c) How does subnetting work?

a) What is an IP address, and why is it important?

An IP (Internet Protocol) address is a numerical label assigned to each device

connected to a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication.
It serves two primary purposes:

 Identification: An IP address uniquely identifies a device on a network. It

allows devices to communicate with each other by specifying the source
and destination of data packets.
 Location addressing: IP addresses help route data across networks. They
enable devices to find and connect to each other regardless of their physical
location on a global scale.

IP addresses are essential for accessing websites, sending emails, streaming videos,
and virtually every activity that involves network communication on the Internet.
Without IP addresses, devices would not be able to identify each other or
communicate effectively.

b) Difference between IPv4 and IPv6:

IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4) IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6):

IPv4 has a 32-bit address length IPv6 has a 128-bit address length
It Supports Manual and DHCP address It supports Auto and renumbering
configuration address configuration
In IPv4 end to end, connection integrity In IPv6 end-to-end, connection integrity
is Unachievable is Achievable
 It can generate 4.29×109 address space The address space of IPv6 is quite large
it can produce 3.4×1038 address space
Address representation of IPv4 is in Address representation of IPv6 is in
decimal hexadecimal

c) How does sub netting work?

Sub netting is the process of dividing a large network into smaller sub-networks,
called subnets. It allows efficient use of IP addresses and improves network
performance and security. Here’s how sub netting works:

 Subnet Mask: A subnet mask is a 32-bit number that separates the network
portion of an IP address from the host portion. It helps devices determine
whether an IP address is on the local subnet or a remote network.
 Network Address: The network address is obtained by applying the subnet
mask to the IP address. It defines the beginning of the subnet range.
 Host Address: The host address represents individual devices within the
subnet and is used to differentiate between devices on the same subnet.
 Benefits of sub netting:
o Efficient Use of IP Addresses: sub netting allows organizations to
divide a large pool of IP addresses into smaller, manageable segments.
o Improved Performance: Smaller subnets reduce broadcast traffic and
improve network performance by limiting the scope of broadcasts.
o Enhanced Security: Subnets provide a level of isolation between
different parts of a network, which can enhance security by
controlling access and containing network issues.

7. Network Configuration
a) What is DHCP, and how does it help in network management?
b) Explain the purpose of DNS in a network.
c) How would you configure a basic home network?

a) What is DHCP, and how does it help in network management?

DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) is a network protocol used to

automatically assign IP addresses and other network configuration information to
devices on a network. Here’s how DHCP helps in network management:
  Automatic IP Address Assignment: DHCP dynamically assigns IP addresses
to devices when they connect to the network, eliminating the need for manual
configuration.
 Centralized Management: DHCP servers centrally manage IP address
allocation and lease periods, making it easier to track and manage network
resources.
 IP Address Reuse: DHCP allows IP addresses to be reused as devices join
and leave the network, optimizing address utilization.
 Configuration Parameters: DHCP can also provide additional network
configuration parameters such as subnet mask, default gateway, DNS
servers, and other settings required for proper network operation.

DHCP simplifies network administration by reducing the administrative overhead of

manually assigning and managing IP addresses, especially in large networks with
numerous devices.

b) Explain the purpose of DNS in a network.

DNS (Domain Name System) is a hierarchical decentralized naming system for

computers, services, or any resource connected to the Internet or a private network.
Its primary purpose is to translate human-friendly domain names (like
www.example.com) into IP addresses (like 192.0.2.1) that computers use to identify
each other on the network. Here’s why DNS is essential:

 Name Resolution: DNS resolves domain names to IP addresses, enabling users

to access websites, send emails, and use other Internet services using easy-to-
remember domain names.
 Hierarchical Structure: DNS uses a distributed database and a hierarchical
naming structure, allowing efficient and scalable resolution of domain names
across the Internet.
 Caching: DNS servers cache resolved queries, improving performance by
reducing the need to query authoritative DNS servers repeatedly for the same
domain name.
 Redundancy and Load Distribution: DNS supports redundancy and load
distribution by allowing multiple IP addresses (DNS records) to be associated
with a single domain name, providing fault tolerance and distributing traffic
across multiple servers.
Without DNS, users would need to memorize and manually enter IP addresses for
every website and service they want to access, which would be impractical and
cumbersome.

c) How would you configure a basic home network?

Setting up a basic home network involves several key steps:

1. Internet Connection:
o Subscribe to an Internet Service Provider (ISP) and obtain a broadband
connection (e.g., DSL, cable, fiber).
2. Network Devices:
o Acquire necessary networking hardware such as a modem (provided by
ISP), router, and possibly a switch (if needed for additional wired
connections).
3. Router Configuration:
o Connect the modem to the router's WAN (Wide Area Network)
port using an Ethernet cable.
o Access the router's web-based configuration interface (usually through a
web browser) using the default IP address (often 192.168.1.1 or
192.168.0.1) and configure basic settings:
 Set up a secure admin password.
 Configure wireless network settings (SSID, encryption type,
passphrase).
 Optionally, configure LAN IP settings (DHCP settings, subnet
mask).
4. Wi-Fi Configuration:
o Enable Wi-Fi on the router.
o Set up a Wi-Fi network name (SSID) and a strong password to
secure your wireless network.
5. Connect Devices:
o Connect devices (computers, smartphones, tablets, smart TVs) to the Wi-
Fi network using the SSID and password configured on the router.
o For devices requiring wired connections, connect them to the
router's LAN ports or use a switch for additional wired connections.
6. Optional Settings:
 o Configure additional network features such as port forwarding (if
hosting servers or using specific applications that require external
access), parental controls, and guest networks.
7. Test Connectivity:
o Verify that all connected devices can access the Internet and
communicate with each other on the local network.

8. Network Troubleshooting Tools

a) What is the purpose of the ‘ping’ command?
b) How do you use the ‘tracert’ (or ‘traceroute’) command to diagnose network
issues?
c) What is ‘netstat’, and what information can it provide?

a) What is the purpose of the ‘ping’ command?

The ping command is used to check the connectivity between two networked devices
by sending ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) echo request packets to a
specific IP address or hostname. The primary purposes of the ping command are:

 Network Connectivity Testing: ping verifies if a destination host (such as a

server or another computer) is reachable over the network.
 Packet Loss Detection: It measures the round-trip time (RTT) for packets to
travel to the destination and back. High latency or packet loss can indicate
network congestion or connectivity issues.
 DNS Resolution Verification: ping can also verify DNS resolution by
accepting hostnames and resolving them to IP addresses.

For example, to use ping, you would open a command prompt or terminal and type
ping <hostname or IP address>. It continuously sends ICMP echo requests until
stopped manually, providing feedback on the status and responsiveness of the remote
host.

b) How do you use the ‘tracert’ (or ‘traceroute’) command to diagnose network
issues?

The tracert command on Windows (or traceroute on Linux/macOS) is used to trace

the route that packets take from your computer to a destination host or IP address.
Here’s how tracert/traceroute helps diagnose network issues:
  Hop-by-Hop Analysis: tracert/traceroute shows each router (or hop) that a
packet travels through to reach the destination. It displays the IP addresses
of intermediate routers and their response times.
 Identifying Network Bottlenecks: By analyzing tracert/traceroute output, you
can identify where packets are being delayed or dropped. This helps pinpoint
network congestion or router issues.
 DNS Resolution Verification: Similar to ping, tracert/traceroute accepts
hostnames and resolves them to IP addresses, confirming DNS
resolution.

To use tracert/traceroute, open a command prompt or terminal and type tracert

<hostname or IP address> (on Windows) or traceroute <hostname or IP address> (on
Linux/macOS). The output provides valuable information about the path packets
take through the network, including response times for each hop.

c) What is ‘netstat’, and what information can it provide?

netstat (network statistics) is a command-line tool available on most operating

systems (Windows, Linux, macOS) used to display network connections, routing
tables, interface statistics, masquerade connections, and multicast memberships.
Here’s what netstat can provide:

 Active Connections: Lists all current network connections (both incoming and
outgoing) including TCP, UDP, and RAW protocols.
 Listening Ports: Displays all open ports on your system and the
associated listening services.
 Routing Table: Shows the routing table entries, indicating how data
packets are forwarded to their destinations.
 Interface Statistics: Provides statistics for network interfaces such as packets
transmitted and received, errors, collisions, etc.
 Network Protocol Statistics: Includes statistics for various network protocols
like TCP, UDP, ICMP, and others.

To use netstat, open a command prompt or terminal and type netstat. Depending on
the operating system and specific options used (netstat -a for all connections and
listening ports, netstat -r for routing table, etc.), it provides valuable information for
diagnosing network issues, monitoring network activity, and managing network
configurations.

These tools—ping, tracert/traceroute, and netstat—are essential for network

administrators and users alike to diagnose connectivity problems, analyze network
performance, and troubleshoot various network-related issues effectively.
9. Basic Security Concepts
a) What is network security, and why is it important?
b) Explain the difference between a firewall and an antivirus program.
c) What are some common network security threats?

a) What is network security, and why is it important?

Network security refers to the policies, practices, and technologies designed to protect
the integrity, confidentiality, and availability of computer networks and the data they
transmit and store. It is crucial for several reasons:

Data Protection: Network security safeguards sensitive data from unauthorized

access, modification, or theft.

 Business Continuity: Protecting networks ensures continuity of operations by

preventing disruptions from security incidents.
 Compliance: Many industries have regulatory requirements (e.g.,
GDPR, HIPAA) mandating robust network security measures.
 Customer Trust: Effective network security builds trust with customers and
stakeholders by demonstrating commitment to protecting their information.
 b) Explain the difference between a firewall and an antivirus program.

 Firewall:
o A firewall is a network security device or software that monitors and
controls incoming and outgoing network traffic based on predetermined
security rules.
o Function: It acts as a barrier between a trusted internal network and
untrusted external networks (like the Internet), filtering traffic to
block malicious packets and unauthorized access attempts.
o Types: Firewalls can be hardware-based (physical devices) or software-
based (installed on servers or endpoints).
 Antivirus Program:
o An antivirus program is a software application designed to detect,
prevent, and remove malicious software (malware) such as viruses,
worms, trojans, and spyware from computer systems.
 o Function: It scans files and programs for known patterns of
malicious code (virus signatures) and suspicious behavior to protect
against infections and data breaches.
o Types: Antivirus software is typically installed on individual
devices (endpoints) and operates at the operating system level.

Key Difference:

 Firewalls focus on monitoring and controlling network traffic to prevent

unauthorized access and attacks.
 Antivirus programs focus on identifying and removing malicious software that
has already infected a device or preventing infections from spreading.

c) What are some common network security threats?

Malware: Malicious software such as viruses, worms, trojans, ransomware,

and spyware that can infect and disrupt systems.

 Phishing: Emails, websites, or messages designed to trick users into

divulging sensitive information (like passwords or financial data).
 Denial-of-Service (DoS) Attacks: Attempts to make a network or website
unavailable to users by overwhelming it with excessive traffic or requests.
 Man-in-the-Middle (MitM) Attacks: Interception of communication between
two parties to eavesdrop or alter data without their knowledge.
 Data Breaches: Unauthorized access to sensitive data, resulting in theft,
exposure, or manipulation of confidential information.
 Insider Threats: Malicious actions or negligence by authorized users, such as
employees, contractors, or partners, compromising network security.

10. Introduction to Encryption

a) What is encryption, and how does it help secure data?
b) Explain the difference between symmetric and asymmetric encryption.
c) What is SSL/TLS, and how is it used in securing network communications?

a) What is encryption, and how does it help secure data?

Encryption is the process of converting plaintext (normal, readable data) into

ciphertext (encoded, unreadable data) using algorithms and keys. The primary goal of
encryption is to protect the confidentiality and integrity of data during transmission or
storage. Here’s how encryption helps secure data:

 Confidentiality: Encrypted data is unreadable without the correct

decryption key, ensuring that unauthorized users cannot access sensitive
information.
 Integrity: Encryption can also ensure data integrity by detecting any
unauthorized changes to encrypted data. If encrypted data is altered,
decryption will fail or produce incorrect results.
 Authentication: Encryption can be used in conjunction with digital signatures
and certificates to verify the authenticity of data and the identity of parties
involved in communication.

b) Explain the difference between symmetric and asymmetric encryption.

 Symmetric Encryption:
o Uses a single key (symmetric key) for both encryption and decryption.
o Process: The sender encrypts plaintext using the symmetric key before
transmission. The recipient uses the same symmetric key to decrypt
the ciphertext and retrieve the original plaintext.
o Advantages: Faster processing speed compared to asymmetric
encryption.
o Example Algorithms: AES (Advanced Encryption Standard), DES
(Data Encryption Standard).
 Asymmetric Encryption:
o Uses a pair of keys (public key and private key) for encryption
and decryption.
o Process: Each user has a public key (known to everyone) and a private
key (kept secret). The sender encrypts plaintext using the recipient's
public key. The recipient decrypts the ciphertext using their private
key.
o Advantages: Provides enhanced security due to the separation of keys;
private keys never leave the recipient's possession.
o Example Algorithms: RSA (Rivest-Shamir-Adleman), ECC (Elliptic
Curve Cryptography).

c) What is SSL/TLS, and how is it used in securing network communications?

  SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) and TLS (Transport Layer Security) are
cryptographic protocols designed to secure communication over a computer
network, commonly used on the Internet.
 Purpose: SSL/TLS protocols encrypt data transmitted between clients (e.g.,
web browsers) and servers (e.g., websites), ensuring privacy and data
integrity.
 Key Features:
o Encryption: SSL/TLS encrypts data to prevent eavesdropping and
tampering during transmission.
o Authentication: SSL/TLS protocols use digital certificates issued by
Certificate Authorities (CAs) to verify the authenticity of servers and
sometimes clients.
o Protocol Versions: SSL has been largely deprecated in favor of
TLS. The latest versions of TLS (TLS 1.2 and TLS 1.3) offer
improved security and performance.
 Usage: SSL/TLS is commonly used to secure various Internet protocols,
including HTTPS (HTTP over SSL/TLS), SMTPS (SMTP over SSL/TLS), and
FTPS (FTP over SSL/TLS).

SSL/TLS plays a critical role in securing sensitive information exchanged over the
Internet, such as login credentials, financial transactions, and personal data. It ensures
that data remains confidential and tamper-proof, protecting both users and
organizations from potential cyber threats.