05-Mar-19

Course Contents
Learning Objectives:
To introduce the students with basic concepts of statistical theory, translating data into statistical
information, further analysis and ultimately drawing inferences from the data.
Theory:
STAT-302/STAT-102 Role of statistics in research, Measurement and measurement scales, Type of data; primary and
secondary, continuous and discrete. Presentation of data using graphs and tables, stem-leaf and box
2(2-0)/3(3-0) plots. Measures of central tendency and dispersion. Chebyshev theorem and empirical rule, concept of
outlier and its detection through Box-whisker plot. Sampling and sampling distribution of single mean.
Introductory Statistics Statistical Inference for single population mean, difference between two means, paired
observations. Chi-square goodness of fit test and chi-square test of independence. One way and two
way analysis of variance (ANOVA).
Suggested Readings:
1. Choudhry, M., 2000. Introduction to statistical theory. Ilmi Kitab Khana Urdu Bazar, Lahore.

Provided
2. Muhammad, F., 2015. Statistical methods and data analysis. Kitab Markaz, Bhawana bazaar,
Faisalabad.
3. Walpole, R.E., R.H. Myers and S.L. Myers, 2007. Probability and Statistics for Engineers and
scientist. 7th edition. Prentice Hall, N.Y.
By 4. Zar, J. H., 2010. Biostatistical Analysis, 5th Edition Prentice Hall.

Dr. Muhammad Imran Khan Preferably Suggested Book: “Statistical Methods & Data Analysis” 6th Edition by Faqir
Muhammad & Hassan Dawood
Kitab Markaz Amin Pur Bazar Faisalabad 041-2642707
1 2

Research Process Tasks of Statistics

 Community Problem  Collection of Data:
 Primary and Secondary
 Research Question(s)
 Presentation of Data:
 Factors and/or Variables  Tabular Farm & Graphical Farm
 Experiment and/or Survey  Summarization of Data:
 Data Collection  Measures of Location & Measures of
 Analysis (Lab and/or Statistical) Dispersion
 Inference about Parameter using Statistic:
 Results and Recommendations  Estimation (Point and Interval) & Testing of
 New Research Question(s) Hypothesis (Using and Using b
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Statistics presents a rigorous scientific method for

INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS gaining insight into data. For example, suppose we
 Statistics:-
measure the weight of 100 patients in a study. With
so many measurements, simply looking at the data
May e defined as a science of collection, representation,
analysis and interpretation of numerical data under fails to provide an informative account. However
uncertainty conditions. statistics can give an instant overall picture of data
 Descriptive Statistics: based on graphical presentation or numerical
Deals with the collection, Classification, Summarization summarization irrespective to the number of data
and presentation of data points. Besides data summarization, another
 Inferential Statistics: important task of statistics is to make inference and
Deals with the conclusion drawn a out the population predict relations of variables.
using the data of a sample taken from the same
population.

5 6

An Overview of Statistical Softwares Big Picture

Menu Driven Command
Based
Licensed/ MS Excel
Copy SPSS SAS (Statistical
Rights (Statistical Package Analysis Software)
for Social Sciences) GenStat (General
Minitab Statistics)

Open PSPP ("PSPP" has no R

Source corresponding meaning)

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INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS

 Population
A population is the totality of the o servations made on all the o jects  Sampling
(under investigation) possessing some common specific characteristics, The process of drawing a sample from population is called
which are of particular interest to researchers. It is the entire group whose sampling.
characteristics are to e estimated. Why take a sample
• The heights of all the students enrolled at IBMS in MBA degree 1. Reduced Cost: The study of a sample is less costly.
program.
2. Greater Speed: A sample study take less time.
• The wages of all employees of a mill in a given year, etc.
3. Greater Accuracy:
A population may e finite or infinite.
The num er of o servations in a finite population is called the size of the
4. Greater Scope: In sample study , the volume of
population and is denoted y the letter N. work is reduced and hence higher quality of labor
with better supervision can be employed.
 Sample
A sample is a representative part of the population which is selected to
o tain information concerning the characteristics of the population. The
9
num er of o servations in a sample is called the size of the sample which 10
is denoted y n.

Variables
INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS Any characteristic, which may varies with respect to individual,
time, and (or) place. For example
 Parameter  No of products produced by a machine during a specified
period of time.
A parameter is a numerical characteristic of a population, such  Number of workers
as its mean or standard deviation, etc. Parameters are fixed  Weight of a any individual
constants that characterize a population. They are denoted y  Price, Sale, Adv. expenditures
Greek letters. Parameter is a fixed quantity.  Quality, Design, Performance
 Statistic
A statistic is a numerical characteristic of a sample such as its Varia les are usually represented y last alpha ets as X, Y, Z etc.
mean or standard deviation, etc. The statistics are used to draw  Dimension of Variable
valid inferences a out the population. They are denoted y Latin  Univariate
letters. Statistic is a varia le quantity.  Bivariate
 Multivariate

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Types of variables
Quantitative : Types of variables
Continuous  Qualitative variable
Characteristic which varies in quality (not numerically) from one
Discrete individual to another, also called attri ute, e.g. eye color, education
level, Behavior, quality, Design, Performance.
Qualitative :  Quantitative variable
Varia le is called a quantitative varia le when it varies in quantity (or
Categorical numerically) from one individual to another, e.g. age, income,
temperature, Price , Sale, Advertising Expenditures
Latent
Fixed varia les:- Random Variables:- Types of Quantitative variable
1. Design 1.Sales  Discrete variable
2. Adv. Expenditures 2.Growth Varia le take only specified values or take values y jumps or reaks,
3. Diet 3.Recovery Time e.g. num er of rooms in a house, num er of deaths in an accident etc.
 Continuous variable
4. Dose of a medicine 4. Yield If it can assume any value (fractional or integral) within two specified
5. Amount of Fertilizer 5. Marks values ‘a’ and ‘ ’, e.g. height of a plant, speed of a car, Sale, Price
13
6. Study Hours 14

Measurement Scale of Measurement

 The process of assigning num ers or la els to o jects, persons,  Nominal Scale
states or, events in accordance with specific logically accepted These scales are comprised of num ers used to categorize
rules for representing quantities or qualities of attri utes or o jects or events. Nominal num ers serve as a la el for a
category. Eye color, religion, Gender, Product Name, Reg. # etc.
characteristics. Data can e classified according to levels of
 Ordinal Scale
measurement. The level of measurement of the data often
The scales are represent num ers used to rank items. Ordinal
dictates the calculations that can e done to summarize and data indicate the relative positions of two or more items on some
present the data. It will also determine the statistical tests that characteristic ut not the magnitude of difference etween the
should e performed. There are actually four levels of items. These num ers can e arranged ut arithmetical
measurement: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio [Stevens operations are meaningless. (e.g. high/medium/low income). For
example, cricket teams standings in ICC ranking, students’
1951]. grades, etc.
 The lowest, or the most primitive, measurement is the nominal The Branch of statistics that deals the data related to the a ove
level. The highest, or the level that gives the most information two scales is called non parametric statistics.
a out the o servation, is the ratio level of measurement.

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Scale of Measurement INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS

 Interval Scale  Observation
The numerically recording of information is called o servation
The data has equal intervals etween data points. For example, or datum.
 Observations can be simply divided into three types:
temperature, shoe size and IQ scores, etc.
categorical where the observations can be in a limited
number of categories which have no obvious scale (e.g.
 Ratio Scale ‘Pass’, ‘Fail’, ‘Yes or No’);
 Discrete where there is a real scale but not all values are
The data has equal intervals etween data points and a true zero. possible (e.g. ‘number of Products’ or ‘number of students )
For example, ank alance, weight, height, Age, etc.  Continuous where any value is theoretically possible, only
restricted by the measuring device (e.g. lengths,
concentrations, Weight ).

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INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS
INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS  Collection of primary data

 Data
(1) Direct personal investigation
(2) Personal interview
The Collection of some related o servations is called data.
(3) Collection through questionnaires.
 Classification of data (4) Collection through enumerators.
Data that may have een originally collected and have not (5) Collection through local sources
undergone any sort of statistical treatment are called  Collection of Secondary data:
Primary data, while the data that have undergone any sort 1. Official Pu lications
of statistical treatment at least once are called Secondary  Federal Bureau of Statistics
data.  Population Census of Organization
Data may e availa le from existing sources e.g. records  Ministries of Health, Food, Agriculture, Finance etc.
and pu lications or the same may have to e collected  Provincial Bureaus of Statistics
afresh. (2) Semi-official

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Types of Statistical Analyses Used in Research

INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS
 Collection of Secondary data:
2. Semi-official Sources
 Statistical Analysis:
 Pu lication of State Bank of Pakistan
 NBP
 District Councils
 WAPDA
3. Private Sources
 Cham er of Commerce & Industry
 Co-Operative Societies
4. Research Organizations
 PARC, NARC, Universities

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Types of Statistical Analyses Used in Research PRESENTATION OF DATA

 Five Types of Statistical Analysis:
1. Descriptive analysis: used to describe the data set by
When the suita le statistical data have een collected, the
Tabular form or Graphically, in term of single value etc. next step is the reduction or presentation of the data so that
2. Inferential analysis: used to generate conclusions about the valid inferences can e drawn.
population’s characteristics based on the sample data Methods for the presentation of data
3. Differences analysis: used to compare the mean of the  Ta ular Form
responses of one group to that of another group  Frequency Distri ution
 Stem-and-Leaf Display
4. Associative analysis: determines the strength and direction
 Graphical Form
of relationships between two or more variables  Histogram
5. Predictive analysis: allows one to make forecasts for future  Polygon and Ogive
events  Charts

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Tabular and Graphical Procedures Quantitative Data

Data

Qualitative Data Quantitative Data

Quantitative
Data
Tabular Graphical Tabular Graphical
Methods Methods Methods Methods

•Frequency •Frequency •Dot Plot Discrete Continuous

•Bar Graph
Distribution Distribution •Histogram Data Data
1. Simple
•Rel. Freq. Dist. •Rel. Freq. Dist. •Ogive
2. Multiple
•% Freq. Dist. •Cum. Freq. Dist. •Scatter
3. Subdivided
•Crosstabulation •Cum. Rel. Freq. Diagram • Frequency Distribution
•Pie Chart • Frequency Distribution
Distribution • Histogram
•Stem-and-Leaf • Line Chart • Frequency Polygon
Display • Ogive (cumulative
•Cross Tabulation Freq. Polygon

25 26

Representation of Data in a Discrete

Example
The following data related to the number of infected Frequency Distribution
plants per plot from 45 plots. X Tally Frequency
3,5,7,,7,7,7,7,7,7,5,4,5,4,5,5,5,9,9,9,9,9,9,5,5,5,8, 3 | 1
8,8,7,7,7,4,6,6,6,6,6,6,6,6,6,6,6,6,6 4 ||| 3
Construct the frequency distribution. 5 |||| |||| 9
6 |||| |||| ||| 13
7 |||| |||| 10
8 ||| 3
9 |||| | 6
Total 45
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Graphical Representation of Discrete Quantitative Data. Continuous Data

Data Frequency Distribution
14
 Definition
12
A frequency distri ution is a ta ular arrangement of the data, which
10 shows the distri ution of o servations among different classes.
 The num er of o servations falling in a particular class is referred
8
to as class frequency or simply frequency and is denoted y "f".
No. of Plots

6  In frequency distri ution all the values falling in a class are

assumed to e equal to the midpoint of that class.
4
 Data presented in the form of a frequency distri ution is also called
2 grouped data. Data which have not een arranged in a systematic
0 X
order are called raw data or ungrouped data.
3 4 5 6 7 8 9

No. of Infected plants

29 30

Frequency Distribution Steps for Constructing a Frequency

 CLASS LIMITS: The class limits are defined as the num er or the values of the Distribution
varia les which are used to separate two classes. The smaller num er is called lower
class limit and larger num er is called upper class limit. For discrete varia les, class  Decide the number of classes: The num er of classes is
oundaries are the same as the class limits. Sometimes classes are taken as 20--25, 25-- determine y the formula i.e. K=1+3.3 log(n)
30 etc In such a case, these class limits means " 20 ut less than 25", "25 ut less than Where K denotes the num er of classes and n denotes the total
30" etc
num er of o servations.
 CLASS MARKS OR MIDPOINTS: The class mark or the midpoint is that value
 Determine the range of variation of the data: The difference
which divides a class into two equal parts. It is o tained y dividing the sum of lower
and upper class limits or class oundaries of a class y 2.
etween the largest and smallest values in the data is called the
range of the data. i.e. R = largest o servation - smallest
 CLASS INTERVAL: Class interval is the length of a class. It is o tained y
o servation
(i)The difference etween the upper class oundary and the lower class oundary.(Not
the difference etween class limits) OR
Where R denote the range of the data.
(ii)The difference etween either two successive lower class limits or two successive
 Determine the approximate size of class interval: The size of
upper class limits. OR the class interval is determine y dividing the range of the data
y the num er of classes i.e. h= R/K
(iii) The difference etween two successive midpoints.
 A uniform class interval is usually denoted y "h".
Where h denotes the size of the class interval. In case of
fractional results the next higher whole num er is usually taken
as the size of the class interval.
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Steps for Constructing a Frequency

Distribution Case.1 Continuous Data.
 Decide where to locate the class limits: The lower class Example.
limit of the first class is started just elow the smallest  The following data is the Sale ($1000) of thirty Stores of
value in the data and then add class interval to get lower Faisalabad City. Construct a frequency distribution by
class limit of the next class, repeat this process until the considering all the steps involved.
lower class limit of the last class is achieved. 87 91 89 88 89 91 87 92 96
 Distribute the data into appropriate classes: Take an 98 99 98 100 102 99 101 90 98
o servation and marked a vertical ar "I"(Tally) against 95 97 96 100 101 105 103 107 105
the class it elongs. 106 107 112
 Count the tally ars for each class and make a column for
frequency
33 34

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
Solution Class limits Class
boundaries
Tally Frequency Midpoint c.f r.f % Cumulative
Marks f X F frequency % fre
 Step-1 : Number values in the data set=n
n = 30 86----90 85.5----90.5 |||| | 6 88 6 0.2000 20.00 20.00

 Step-2 : Find maximum & minimum values 91----95 90.5----95.5 |||| 4 93 10 0.1333 13.33 33.33
Max value = Xm =112 Min value= X0= 87
96----100 95.5----100.5 |||| |||| 10 98 20 0.3333 33.33 66.66
Range: R = X m-  X 0 = 112-87 =25
 Step-3 101----105 100.5----105.5 |||| | 6 103 26 0.2000 20.00 86.66

Num er of classes: K = 1+3.3 log(n)

106----110 105.5----110.5 ||| 3 108 29 0.1000 10.00 96.66
= 1+3.3 log(30)=5.87 6
 Step-4 111----115 110.5----115.5 | 1 113 30 0.0333 3.33 99.99
Size of class interval: h = R/K
= 25/6=4.5 5 30 1.0000 100
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BIVARIATE FREQUENCY Example

DISTRIBUTION (Not for the Exam) Construct a bivariate frequency distribution y taking class
A frequency distribution constructed by taking interval of size 0.5 feet for heights and a class interval of size 5
kilograms for weights.
two variables at a time is called bivariate
Height:
frequency distribution.
5.5 5.0 4.3 5.3 4.9 5.9 5.4 4.8
5.3 5.8 5.3 5.7 5.8 5.9 4.8 5.3
5.1 5.7 4.7 4.5 5.3 4.6 5.4 5.2
4.7
Weight:
60 55 46 67 48 69 67 55
57 67 57 65 63 65 49 55
60 65 50 50 60 53 62 59
55
37 38

Types of Graphs for Quantitative Varia le

BIVARIATE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
 Graph of time series or Historigram

Weight Height
4.0 — 4.4 4.5 — 4.9 5.0 — 5.4 5.0 — 4.9  Histogram
45 — 49 | (1) || (2)
50 — 54 ||| (3)  Frequency polygon & Frequency curve
55 — 59 || (2) |||| (5)
60 — 64 ||| (3) || (2)
 Cumulative Frequency polygon or Ogive
65 — 69 || (2) |||| (5)

 Percentage cumulative frequency polygon

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Historigram
Historigram
Historigram is constructed y taking
 Time along X-axis and
 Value of the varia le along Y-axis 3500

 Plot the points 3000

 Connect the points y straight line segments to get the

2500

Saving(Rs)
Historigram.
2000
Example:
The data represent the records of a company’s savings
1500

over the years. Construct a time series plot to represent it. 1000

Index 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Year 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957

Saving(Rs) 1010 2050 3458 1980 2300 1295 1520 1070

41 42

HISTOGRAM
Histogram A histogram consists of a set of adjacent
rectangles whose bases are marked off by class
A Histogram consists of a set of adjacent rectangles whose boundaries along the X-axis, and whose heights
ases are marked off y are proportional to the frequencies associated
with the respective classes.
 Class oundaries along the X-axis
Class Class
Frequency
 Frequency along Y-axis Limit Boundaries
30.0 – 32.9 29.95 – 32.95 2
 Draw rectangles whose height are proportional to the 33.0 – 35.9 32.95 – 35.95 4
frequencies with respective classes 36.0 – 38.9 35.95 – 38.95 14
39.0 – 41.9 38.95 – 41.95 8
42.0 – 44.9 41.95 – 44.95 2
Total 30
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The frequency of the second

Y Y
class is 4. Hence we draw a rectangle of
14
14
12 height equal to 4 units against the
12

Number of Cars
second class, and thus obtain the
Number of Cars

10
10
following situation:
8
8
6
6
4
4
2
2
0 X
0 X

5
29.95 32.95 35.95 38.95 41.95 44.95

.9

.9

.9

.9

.9

.9
29

32

35

38

41

44
Miles per gallon Miles per gallon
45 46

The frequency of the third class is 14. Hence

Y
Y we draw a rectangle of height equal to 14 14
14 units against the third class, and thus obtain 12

Number of Cars
12
the following picture: 10
Number of Cars

10
8
8
6
6
4
4
2
2
0 X
0 X

5
.9

.9

.9

.9

.9

.9
5

29

32

35

38

41

44
.9

.9

.9

.9

.9

.9
29

32

35

38

41

44

Miles per gallon

47 Miles per gallon 48

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Frequency Distribution
Y
16 For Hudson Auto Repair, if we choose six classes:
14 Approximate Class Width = (109 - 52)/6 = 9.5   10
Number of Cars

12 Class Interval C. Boundaries Frequency

10
50-59 49.5-59.5 2
8
60-69 59.5-69.5 13
6
70-79 69.5-79.5 16
4
80-89 79.5-89.5 7
2
90-99 89.5-99.5 7
0 X
100-109 99.5-109.5 5
5

5
Total 50
.9

.9

.9

.9

.9

.9
29

32

35

38

41

44
49
M iles per gallon 50

This diagram is known as the histogram,

Histogram
Tune-up Parts Cost and it gives an indication of the overall pattern of
18
our frequency distribution.
16
14
12 Next, we consider another graph which is
Frequency

10 called frequency polygon.

8
6
4
2

49.5-59.5 -69 .-79 .5 -89.5 -99 .5 -109.5

Parts
Cost ($)
51 52

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FREQUENCY POLYGON

A frequency polygon is obtained by plotting the class Y

frequencies against the mid-points of the classes, and
16
connecting the points so obtained by straight line segments.
In our example of the EPA mileage ratings, the 14

Number of Cars
classes were: 12
10
Class Mid-Point Frequency
8
Boundaries (X) (f)
6
26.95 – 29.95 28.45 4
29.95 – 32.95 31.45 2
2
32.95 – 35.95 34.45 4
0 X
35.95 – 38.95 37.45 14
38.95 – 41.95 40.45 8

5
.4

.4

.4

.4

.4

.4

.4
28

31

34

37

40

43

46
41.95 – 44.95 43.45 2
53 44.95 – 47.95 46.45 54
Miles per gallon

Cumulative Distributions
TYPES OF FREQUENCY
Distribution  Hudson Auto Repair

Cumulative Cumulative
 Symmetrical distribution Cumulative Relative Percent
A frequency distri ution or curve is symmetrical if values Cost ($) Frequency Frequency Frequency
equidistant from a central maximum have the same < 49.5 0 0 0
frequencies.
< 59.5 2 .04 4
 Skewed distribution < 69 .5 15 .30 30
2 +13
A frequency distri ution or curve is skewed when it < 79.5 31 .62 15/50 62 .30(100)
departs from symmetry. < 89.5 38 .76 76
< 99.5 45 .90 90
< 109.5 50 1.00 100
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Ogive Ogive with

Cumulative Percent Frequencies
 An ogive is a graph of a cumulative distribution.
Tune-up Parts Cost
 The data values are shown on the horizontal axis.
100

Cumulative Percent Frequency

 Shown on the vertical axis are the:
• cumulative frequencies, or 80
• cumulative relative frequencies, or
60 (89.5, 76)
• cumulative percent frequencies
 The frequency (one of the above) of each class is 40
plotted as a point.
20
 The plotted points are connected by straight lines. Parts
Cost ($)
50 <59.5 <69.5 <79.5 <89.5 <99.5 <109.5

57 58

Scatter Diagram Representation of Qualitative Data

Scatter diagram is used to see the relationship etween Tabular Presentation of Data
varia les.
 A frequency distribution is a tabular summary of data
Example: showing the frequency (or number) of items in each of
X Y several non overlapping classes.
35

8 18  The objective is to provide insights about the data that cannot

be quickly obtained by looking only at the original data.
10 17
Y

25

11 23
13 27
15

15 30 10
X
15 20

20 35
59 60

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we will be dealing with various techniques for Example: PC Hotel

summarizing and describing qualitative data.
Guests staying at PC Lahore were asked to rate the quality of their
Qualitative
accommodations as being excellent, above average, average,
below average, or poor. The ratings provided by a sample of 20
Univariate Bivariate
quests are shown below.
Frequency Frequency
Table Table Below Average Average Above Average
Percentages
Above Average Above Average Above Average
Component Multiple
Bar Chart Bar Chart
Above Average Below Average Below Average
Pie Chart
Average Poor Poor
Bar Chart Above Average Excellent Above Average
Average Above Average Average
We will begin with the univariate situation, and will
Above Average Average
proceed to the bivariate situation.
61 62

Example: PC Hotel GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION

 Frequency Distribution
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION
Visual representation of statistical data in the form of points, lines,
Rating Frequency
areas, is known as graphical representation.
Poor 2 Such visual representation can e divided in to two groups.
Below Average 3 (i) Graph
Average 5 (ii) Diagram
Above Average 9 The asic difference etween a graph and a diagram is that a graph is
Excellent 1 a representation of data y a continuous curve, while a diagram is
Total 20 any other one, two or three dimensional form of visual
representation.

63 64
64

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Bar Graph GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION

 A bar graph is a graphical device for depicting
qualitative data.
 On the horizontal axis we specify the labels that
TYPES OF DIAGRAM
are used for each of the classes. (i) Simple ar chart
 A frequency, relative frequency, or percent (ii) Pie Chart
frequency scale can be used for the vertical axis. (iii)Multiple ar chart
 Using a bar of fixed width drawn above each (iv)Component ar chart
class label, we extend the height appropriately.
 The bars are separated to emphasize the fact
that each class is a separate category.

65 66

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION Example: PC Hotel

SIMPLE BAR CHART
 Frequency Distribution
A Simple ar chart consists of horizontal or vertical
ars of equal widths and lengths proportional to the Rating Frequency
magnitudes of the o servations. The space separating Poor 2
the ars should not exceed the width of the ar and Below Average 3
should not e less than half of its width. The data when Average 5
do not relate to time should e arranged in ascending Above Average 9
or descending order efore charting. Excellent 1
Total 20

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GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION
MULTIPLE BAR CHART
Example: PC Hotel
 Bar Graph A multiple ar chart consists of horizontal or vertical
9 more than one ars of equal widths and respective
8
lengths proportional to the magnitudes of the
7
respective o servations. The space separating the ars
Frequency

6
5 should not exceed the width of the ar and should not
4 e less than half of its width. The data when do not
3 relate to time should e arranged in ascending or
2
1
descending order efore charting.
Rating
Poor Below Average Above Excellent
Average Average
69 70

Example: PC Hotel at two cities

Example: PC Hotel
 Bar Graph
 Frequency Distribution
9
Rating Frequency 8
Poor 2 3 7

Frequency
Below Average 3 2 6

Average 5 4 5
4
Above Average 9 7
3
Excellent 1 4
2
Total 20 20 1
Rating
Poor Below Average Above Excellent
Average Average
71 72

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GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION BAR DIAGRAM SHOWING THE

TURNOVER OF A COMPANY FOR 5
YEARS
Simple Bar Chart:
A Simple ar diagram to represent the turnover of a company for 5 years 60000
50000

TURNOVER
40000
Years 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969
30000
20000
10000
Turnover 35000 42000 435000 48000 485000
0
(Rupees) 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969
YEARS

73 74

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION

Multiple Bar Chart:
MULTIPLE BAR CHART
A multiple ar diagram to represent the production of wheat in different localities of the
A Multiple ar chart shows two or more characteristics Punja for year 1987-1989.
corresponding to the values of a common varia le in the form of
grouped ars whose lengths are proportional to the values of the Production in Kg.(thousand)

characteristics and each of which is shaded differently for 1987 1988 1989
identification.
Locality-I 500 600 800
COMPONENT BAR CHART
In Component ar chart each ar is divided into two or more Locality-II 600 700 700
sections. The length of the ar represents the total and various
sections represent the components of total. Locality-III 200 400 500

75 76

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 05-Mar-19

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION
Multiple bar diagram of different
localities Component Bar Chart:
A component ar diagram to represent the population of different
1000 divisions of the Pakistan.
800 Population in Lakhs
Production

L-I
600 Division Male Female Total
L-II
400
L-III Peshawar 33 31 64
200
0
Rawalpindi 21 19 40
1987 1988 1989 Sargodha 32 28 60
Years Lahore 35 30 65

77 78

Pie Chart
COMPONENT BAR CHART
SHOWING POPULATION OF 4
 The pie chart is a commonly used graphical
DIVISIONS
device for presenting relative frequency
distributions for qualitative data.
POPULATION (IN LAKH)

70
60  First draw a circle; then use the relative
50 frequencies to subdivide the circle into sectors
40 Female
that correspond to the relative frequency for each
30 Male
20
class.
10  Since there are 360 degrees in a circle, a class
0
with a relative frequency of .25 would consume
.25(360) = 90 degrees of the circle.

DIVISIONS
79 80

20
 05-Mar-19

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION
Pie Chart for production of urea
Pie Chart:
A Pie Chart to represent the total production of urea fertilizer and its use on different
fertilizer
crops.

Crops Fertilizer Angle of sector Cum. Angle of Sec

Lentils, 15
Wheat 75 x360=135 135 Wheat
Maize, 30 Wheat, 75
Sugarcane 80 279 Sugarcane
x360=144
Maize
Maize 30 x360=54 333 Lentils
Sugarcan
Lentils 15 x360=27 360 e, 80

Total 200 360

81 82

Choose the Type of Chart that Best

Describes a Variable Characteristic

 Bar chart is used for Nominal or Ordinal data Stem and Leaf
 Pie chart is an alternative to the ar chart

 Histogram is appropriate for interval and ratio scale data.

 Polygon is equivalent to histogram ut appear

smoother

83 84

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Uses actual data values to create a Stem and Leaf graph (Marks of
39 Students) 52, 56, 60, 60, 60, 60, 60, 60, 64, 64, 64, 64,64, 64, 64,
68, 68, 68, 68, 72, 72, 72, 72, 72, 72, 72, 72, 74, 76, 76, 76, 76, 80, 80,
STEM AND LEAF PLOTS 84, 88, 88, 88, 92

STEPS: Min value=52 Max. value= 92

Stem-and-Leaf Plots: A convenient method 1. Select a minimum and Maximum data
values. Leading Digits Trailing Digits
to display every piece of data by showing the 2. Divide this number into leading and 5 2

digits of each number. trailing digits. Leading digit is called

Stem and Trailing digit is called Leaf Stem Leaf
9 2

Uses place value to organize data 5

6
3. Write down all possible sets of leading
Shows data in an organized way so it can be digits in order from the lowest to
highest as a column. These are stems.
7
8
analyzed easily 4. For each data value write down the first
trailing digit on the line labeled by its
9
Stem Leaf
Organizes data so it is easier to find the leading digits. These are the leaves.
One leaf for each data value. 5 26

median, mode, and range 6

7
00000044444448888
2222222246666
8 004888
9 2
85 86

Here are one student’s math test scores.

Make a stem-and-leaf plot for this data.

Let’s
try one First, draw
the dividing
together… lines.

87 88

22
 05-Mar-19

Here are one student’s math test scores. Here are one student’s math test scores.
Make a stem-and-leaf plot for this data. Make a stem-and-leaf plot for this data.

Stems Leaves Stems Leaves

7 5
Find the
smallest
Next, label piece of data
the stem side and plot it on
and the leaf the grid.
side.
89 90

Here are one student’s math test scores. Continue with this process until
Make a stem-and-leaf plot for this data. you have entered all the data.

Stems Leaves Stems Leaves

7 5 9 7 5 9
Find the next The 7 for the tens
8 3 4 6 6 8
smallest place is already 9 1 4 9
piece of data there. We just
and plot it on
add the 9.
the grid.
91 92

23
 05-Mar-19

Remember to add a title. Don’t forget the key!

Test Scores Test Scores

Stems Leaves Stems Leaves
7 5 9 7 5 9
8 3 4 6 6 8 8 3 4 6 6 8
9 1 4 9 9 1 4 9

Key: 7 5 means 75
93 94

Use this data to make a stem-and-leaf plot.

This table shows the times in seconds and 2002 Winter Olympics 500-Meter Speed-
hundredths of seconds for the women’s 500- Skating Times in Seconds
meter speed-skating competition in the 2002
Winter Olympics.

Min value= 74.75

Max value=79.45

95 96

24
 05-Mar-19

Check your work…

2002 Winter Olympics 500-Meter Speed-
Skating Times in Seconds

97

25